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104-571: In 2008, a merger between Applied Biosystems and Invitrogen was finalized, creating Life Technologies. The latter was acquired by Thermo Fisher Scientific in 2014. Prior to 2008, the Applied Biosystems brand was owned by various entities in a corporate group parented by PerkinElmer . The roots of Applied Biosystems trace back to GeneCo (Genetic Systems Company), a pioneer biotechnology company founded in 1981 in Foster City, California . Through

208-465: A PhD from Caltech in 1968, where he worked with William J. Dreyer on antibody diversity. Dreyer is credited with giving Hood two important pieces of advice: “If you want to practice biology, do it on the leading edge, and if you want to be on the leading edge, invent new tools for deciphering biological information.” In 1967, Hood joined the National Institutes of Health (NIH), to work in

312-529: A Westinghouse Science Talent Search . In addition, Hood played several high school sports and debate, the latter of which he would credit for his success in science communication later in his career. Hood received his undergraduate education from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), where his professors included notables such as Richard Feynman and Linus Pauling . Hood received an MD from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine in 1964 and

416-519: A chemiluminescence company, for its life sciences division. In September 1995, Tony L. White from Baxter International Inc. became president and Chief Executive Officer of Perkin-Elmer. In 1996 the company was reorganized into two separate operating divisions, Analytical Instruments and PE Applied Biosystems . The PE Applied Biosystems division accounted for half of Perkin-Elmer's total revenue, with net revenues up by 26%. In 1997, revenues reached almost US$ 1.3 billion, of which PE Applied Biosystems

520-571: A tracking stock of its parent, along with its sister tracking stock company, Celera Genomics. In 2000 the parent became Applera Corporation. The Applied Biosystems name also returned that year, in the name change of the tracking stock from PE Biosystems Group to Applera Corporation-Applied Biosystems Group, an S&P 500 company, which remains as a publicly traded operating group within Applera Corp., along with its sibling operating group, Applera Corporation-Celera Group. Applera derives its name from

624-576: A Senior Vice President of Perkin-Elmer, and President of the Applied Biosystems Division. That year the company was the world's leading manufacturer of instruments and reagents for polymerase chain reaction (PCR). It marketed PCR reagents kits in alliance with Hoffman-La Roche Inc. In 1994, Perkin-Elmer reported net revenues of over $ 1 billion, of which Life Sciences accounted for 42% of the business. The company has 5,954 employees. A brand-new highly competitive genomics industry had formed for

728-597: A charter fellow of the National Academy of Inventors (2012). He has received 17 honorary degrees from institutions including Johns Hopkins and Yale University . In 1987 Hood shared the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research with Philip Leder and Susumu Tonegawa for studies of the mechanism of immune diversity. He subsequently was awarded the Dickson Prize in 1988. In 1987, Hood also received

832-548: A collaboration with Marvin H. Caruthers of the University of Colorado Boulder , and was based on Caruthers' work elucidating the chemistry of phosphoramidite oligonucleotide synthesis . Caltech staff scientist Suzanna J. Horvath worked with Hood and Hunkapiller to learn Caruthers' techniques in order to design a prototype that automated the repetitive steps involved in Caruthers' method for DNA synthesis. The resulting prototype

936-560: A combination of big data and systems biology has the potential to revolutionize healthcare and create a proactive medical approach focused on maximizing the wellness of the individual. He coined the term "P4 medicine" in 2003. In 2010 ISB partnered with the Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center in Columbus, Ohio , to establish the nonprofit P4 Medicine Institute (P4MI). Its goal was stated as being "to lead

1040-533: A computer. The first DNA fragment to be sequenced was a common cloning vector , M13 . The DNA sequencer was a critical technology for the Human Genome Project . Hood was involved with the Human Genome Project from its first meeting, held at the University of California, Santa Cruz , in 1985. Hood became an enthusiastic advocate for The Human Genome Project and its potential. Hood directed

1144-526: A contract from the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) , the company developed a prototype hand-held pathogen detection system for the detection of multiple toxins such as ricin , staphylococcal enterotoxin , and botulinum toxin , as well as bacteria that cause anthrax , plague , and other diseases, in a single sample. Invitrogen was also awarded a contract to provide kits for detecting possible E. coli O157 contamination in food at

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1248-604: A given protein; a DNA synthesizer (1983), to synthesize short sections of DNA; a peptide synthesizer (1984), to combine amino acids into longer peptides and short proteins; the first automated DNA sequencer (1986), to identify the order of nucleotides in DNA; ink-jet oligonucleotide technology for synthesizing DNA and nanostring technology for analyzing single molecules of DNA and RNA. The protein sequencer, DNA synthesizer, peptide synthesizer, and DNA sequencer were commercialized through Applied Biosystems, Inc. and

1352-591: A kit for making cDNA libraries, and the FastTrack Kit for mRNA isolation from biological samples. William McConnell left the company in 1989. In 1999, the company, which had reached sales of $ 33 million the prior year, went public, with a plan of consolidating biotechnology research boutique suppliers. The company had become quite successful at licensing technologies into its niche market, of cloning and expression, but determined that many niche leaders were not interested in licensing, and M&A needed to be added to

1456-713: A large number of products: Dynabeads magnetic separation technology, GIBCO cell culture media and reagents, SuperScript reverse transcriptase , Platinum Taq polymerase , TOPO cloning and expression products, Novex protein electrophoresis products, and numerous fluorescent reagents such as Qdot nanocrystals , Alexa Fluor , DyLight , RiboGreen and SYBR dyes. Invitrogen currently offers more than 25,000 products and services to support research in cellular analysis, genomics , proteomics , and drug discovery , and seeks to address research problems in developing fields, including biodefense and environmental diagnostics, bioinformatics , epigenetics , and stem cell research. Under

1560-663: A leader and a proponent of cross-disciplinary research in chemistry and biology. In 1989 he stepped down as chairman of the Division of Biology to create and become director of a newly funded NSF Science and Technology Center at Caltech. The NSF Center for the Development of an Integrated Protein and Nucleic Acid Biotechnology became one of the founding research centers of the Beckman Institute at Caltech in 1989. By this time, Hood's laboratory included more than 100 researchers,

1664-505: A major impact on the emerging fields of proteomics and genomics. The gas-liquid phase protein sequencer was developed with Michael W. Hunkapiller, then a research fellow at Caltech. The instrument makes use of the chemical process known as the Edman degradation , devised by Pehr Edman . Edman and Begg's 1967 design involves placing a protein or peptide sample into a spinning cup in a temperature controlled chamber. Reagents are added to cleave

1768-520: A much larger group than was usual at Caltech. A relatively small school, Caltech was not well-suited to the creation of the type of large interdisciplinary research organization that Hood sought. In October 1991, Hood announced that he would move to the University of Washington at Seattle, to found and direct the first cross-disciplinary biology department, the Department of Molecular Biotechnology (MBT) at

1872-502: A new tool which measured antibody / antigen binding in real-time kinetic analysis of up to 400 binding interactions simultaneously. In 2004, Mike Hunkapiller retired and Cathy Burzik replaced him as President of Applied Biosystems. Applera collaborated with General Electric , Abbott Laboratories , Seattle Genetics , and Merck in diagnostics development. Applied Biosystmes also teamed with Northrop Grumman and Cepheid of Sunnyvale, California , to detect Bacillus anthracis during

1976-405: A popular book on the sequencing of the human genome. He has been instrumental in founding 15 biotechnology companies, including Amgen , Applied Biosystems, Systemix, Darwin, Rosetta Inpharmatics, Integrated Diagnostics, and Accelerator Corporation. In 2015, he co-founded a startup called Arivale offering a subscription-based 'scientific wellness' service which shut down in 2019. While praising

2080-485: A price above $ 100 per share in the market, before ultimately crashing back down. On November 30, 2000, PE Corporation changed its name to Applera , combining the two partial names Applied and Celera into one, with 5,000 employees. PE Biosystems Group was renamed once again to Applied Biosystems Group , and changed its ticker symbol from PEB to ABI. Its net revenues rose to almost US$ 1.4 billion. Celera that year made milestone headlines when it announced that it had completed

2184-431: A reaction with one of the bases, are covalently attached to the oligonucleotide primer for the enzymatic DNA sequence analysis. During the analysis, fragments are passed downwards through a gel tube, the smallest and lightest fragments passing through the gel tube first. A laser light passed through a filter wheel causes the bases to fluoresce. The resulting fluorescent colors are detected by a photomultiplier and recorded by

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2288-697: A reagent company called Bethesda Research Laboratories. The company continued to add technologies through a series of mergers and acquisitions, which broadened its customer base and strengthened its intellectual property portfolio. Among these, established companies such as Ethrog Biotechnology, Molecular Probes ( fluorescence -based detection), Dynal (magnetic bead–based separation), Panvera (proteins and assays for drug screening ), InforMax (software for computational biology and bioinformatics), BioSource (cellular pathway analysis), CellzDirect (cell products and services for research) and Zymed and Caltag Laboratories (primary and secondary antibodies ) have been brought under

2392-443: A standard technique for molecular biologists who wish to monitor gene expression. DNA ink-jet printer technology has had a significant impact on genomics, biology, and medicine. Hood also made generative discoveries in the field of molecular immunology . His studies of the amino acid sequences of immunoglobulins (also known as antibodies) helped to fuel the 1970s’ debate regarding the generation of immune diversity and supported

2496-410: A systems approach to prion diseases in 2009 was one of the first to thoroughly explore the use of systems biology to interrogate the dynamic network changes in disease models. These studies are the first to explain the dynamics of diseased-perturbed networks and have expanded to include frontal temporal dementia and Huntington's disease . Hood is also studying glioblastoma in mice and humans from

2600-592: A year. The public consortium also bought one of the PE Biosystems 3700 sequencers, and had plans to buy 200 more. The machine proved to be so fast that by late March 1999 the consortium announced that it had revised its timeline, and would release by the Spring of 2000 a "first draft sequence" for 80% of the human genome. At year end 1998, the PE Biosystems Group's sales reached US$ 940 million. In 1999, to focus on

2704-582: Is a not-for-profit Catholic health care system, operating in a variety of communities in Alaska, Washington and Oregon. In 2016, ISB affiliated with Providence Health & Services , and Hood became the senior vice president of Providence St. Joseph Health and its chief science officer. Hood has published more than 700 peer-reviewed papers, received 36 patents, and co-authored textbooks in biochemistry, immunology, molecular biology, and genetics. In addition, he co-authored, with Daniel J. Kevles, The Code of Codes ,

2808-408: Is an American biologist who has served on the faculties at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) and the University of Washington . Hood has developed ground-breaking scientific instruments which made possible major advances in the biological sciences and the medical sciences. These include the first gas phase protein sequencer (1982), for determining the sequence of amino acids in

2912-428: Is exemplified by the movement known as the quantified self , which uses digital devices to monitor self-parameters such as weight, activity, sleep, diet, etc. His view is that P4 Medicine will transform the practice of medicine over the next decade, moving it from a largely reactive, disease-care approach to a proactive P4 approach that is predictive, preventive, personalized and participatory. In 2010, Hood co-founded

3016-460: Is the mechanism for generating the membrane bound and the secreted forms of antibodies. In neurobiology, Hood and his colleagues were the first to clone and study the myelin basic protein (MBP) gene. The MBP is a central component in the sheath that wraps and protects neurons. Hood demonstrated that the condition called "shiverer mouse" arose from a defect in the MBP gene. Hood's research group corrected

3120-698: The 2008 Summer Olympcics in Beijing , China . The monitoring program, based on World Health Organization food standards, is conducted by the Beijing Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Olympic Food Safety program. Similarly, the company's PathAlert technology was selected to monitor Yersinia pestis , the causative agent of the plague, at the Torino Winter Games in 2006 . Their Qubit platform for RNA, DNA, and protein quantitation

3224-600: The NASDAQ exchange under the symbol ABIO, with revenues of US$ 5.9 million. A new product was a fluorescent molecular tag for immunodiagnostic assays. The company released its second commercial instrument, the Model 380A DNA Synthesizer, which made oligonucleotides , short DNA strands , for polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA sequencing, and gene identification. The two sequencer and synthesizer products allowed molecular biologists to clone genes by building oligonucleotides with

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3328-644: The National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine, 2003), and the National Academy of Inventors (2012). He is one of only 15 scientists ever elected to all three national academies. He is also a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1982), a member of the American Philosophical Society (2000), a fellow of the American Society for Microbiology , and

3432-593: The New York Stock Exchange , to great excitement. On June 17, 1999, the Board of PE Corporation announced a two-for-one split of PE Biosystems Group Common Stock. By June 2000, the genomics segment of the technology bubble was peaking. Celera Genomics (CRA) and PE Biosystems (PEB) were among five genetics pioneers leading at that time, along with Incyte Genomics , Human Genome Sciences , and Millennium Pharmaceuticals . All five of those stocks by then had exceeded

3536-686: The Pacific Rim accounting for 26%. The company formed a new subsidiary, Lynx Therapeutics , Inc., to focus on antisense DNA research in the area of therapeutics for chronic myelogenous leukemia , melanoma , colorectal cancer , and AIDS. In February 1993 Applied Biosystems was acquired by Perkin-Elmer , and became the Applied Biosystems Division , as part of the Life Sciences markets segment of that company. Andre Marion, who had been Applied Biosystems's Chairman, President and CEO, became

3640-529: The University of Washington Medical School. The new department was financed by a US $ 12-million gift from Bill Gates , who shared Hood's interest in combining biological research and computer technology and applying them to medical research. Roger Perlmutter , who had worked in Hood's lab at Caltech before moving to UW as chair of the immunology department, played a key role organizing his recruitment to UW. Hood and other scientists from Caltech's NSF center moved to

3744-642: The University of Washington . In 2000, he co-founded the Institute for Systems Biology (ISB) in Seattle, Washington to develop strategies and technologies for systems approaches to biology and medicine. Hood pioneered the systems biology concept of considering human biology as a "network of networks." In this model, understanding how systems function requires knowledge of: (1) the components of each network (including genetic, molecular, cellular, organ networks), (2) how these networks inter- and intra-connect, (3) how

3848-509: The anthrax contamination case of the U.S. Postal Service. In 2005, the company released new tools for small molecule quantitation in pharmaceutical drug development. In Mexico, Applied Biosystems collaborated with the National Institute of Genomic Medicine of Mexico (Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genomica or INMEGEN), and established an Applied Biosystems Sequencing and Genotyping Unit at INMEGEN. In 2006, Applied Biosystems acquired

3952-456: The 1980s and early 1990s, Applied Biosystems, Inc. operated independently and manufactured biochemicals and automated genetic engineering and diagnostic research instruments, including the principal brand of DNA sequencing machine used by the Human Genome Project consortium centers. Applied Biosystems' close ties to the consortium project led to the idea for the founding of Celera Genomics in 1998 as one of several independent competitors to

4056-653: The 2004 Association for Molecular Pathology Award for Excellence in Molecular Diagnostics the 2006 Heinz Award in Technology, the Economy and Employment, for breakthroughs in biomedical science on the genetic level; inclusion in the 2007 Inventors Hall of Fame for the automated DNA sequencer; the 2008 Pittcon Heritage Award for helping to transform the biotechnology industry; and the 2010 Kistler Prize for contributions to genetics that have increased knowledge of

4160-416: The 3700 analyzers to Celera, and also to others worldwide. The new machine cost US$ 300,000 each, but was a major leap beyond its predecessor, the 377, and was fully automated, allowing genetic decoding to run around the clock with little supervision. According to Venter, the machine was so revolutionary that it could decode in a single day the same amount of genetic material that most DNA labs could produce in

4264-546: The Celera Genomics Group announced its decision to shift the role of marketing data from its genetic database over to its sister company, the Applied Biosystems Group. Celera would instead develop pharmaceutical drugs. Applied Biosystems was a better fit for the database, because Applied already had the huge sales force in place for the marketing of its instruments. Plans were to expand those sales and those of

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4368-406: The Department of Molecular Biotechnology (MBT), at the University of Washington in 1992, and co-founded the Institute for Systems Biology in 2000. Hood is credited with introducing the term " systems biology ", and advocates for "P4 medicine", medicine that is "predictive, personalized , preventive, and participatory." Scientific American counted him among the 10 most influential people in

4472-479: The Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement . He won the 2002 Kyoto Prize for Advanced Technology for developing automated technologies for analyzing proteins and genes; the 2003 Lemelson-MIT Prize for Innovation and Invention for inventing "four instruments that have unlocked much of the mystery of human biology" by helping decode the genome ; the 2004 Biotechnology Heritage Award ;

4576-575: The Human Genome Center’s sequencing of portions of human chromosomes 14 and 15 . At the University of Washington in the 1990s, Hood, Alan Blanchard, and others developed ink-jet DNA synthesis technology for creating DNA microarrays . By 2004, their ink-jet DNA synthesizer supported high-throughput identification and quantification of nucleic acids through the creation of one of the first DNA array chips, with expression levels numbering tens of thousands of genes. Array analysis has become

4680-512: The Invitrogen brand. Invitrogen acquired Sequitur in 2003 to obtain Sequitur's proprietary Stealth(TM) RNAi technology. In 2008, Invitrogen virtually doubled its size with the purchase of biotech instrumentation company Applied Biosystems , maker of DNA sequencing and PCR machines and reagents. The company then renamed the overall organization as Life Technologies. The Invitrogen brand and most of

4784-510: The Model 370A DNA Sequencing System, using fluorescent tags, revolutionized gene discovery. The Model 340A Nucleic Acid Extractor became used in medical labs to isolate DNA from bacteria, blood, and tissue. In 1987, Sam Eletr resigned for health reasons. Revenues increase by 63% to nearly US$ 85 million, with 788 employees, and another six new instruments. Applied Biosystems acquired the Kratos Division of Spectros International PLC. By 1988,

4888-523: The Model 470A Protein Sequencer . The machine enabled scientists to determine the order of amino acids within a purified protein , which in turn correlated with the protein's function. With 40 employees, the company, reported first-time revenue of US$ 402,000. In 1983, the company was led by its president and Chairman of the Board, Sam Eletr and Chief Operating Officer Andre Marion, the company doubled its number of employees to 80, and its stock went public on

4992-460: The Novel Prize for this invention The peptide synthesizer assembles long peptides and short proteins from amino acid subunits, in quantities sufficient for subsequent analysis of their structure and function. The commercially available instrument from Applied Biosystems led to a number of significant results, including the synthesis of HIV-1 protease in a collaboration between Kent and Merck and

5096-486: The P4 Medicine institute (P4Mi), for the development of Predictive, Preventive, Personalized and Participatory (P4) Medicine. In 2021 Hood founded Phenome Health, a non profit focused on implementing his vision. He argues that P4 Medicine will improve healthcare, decrease its cost and promote innovation. Leroy Hood is a member of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS, 1982), the National Academy of Engineering (2007),

5200-949: The Research Products Division of Ambion , a supplier of RNA -based reagents and products. That year, with the Influenza A Subtype H5N1 "avian flu" strain scare, the company launched a global initiative to identify and track such infectious diseases. Invitrogen Invitrogen is one of several brands under the Thermo Fisher Scientific corporation. The product line includes various subbrands of biotechnology products, such as machines and consumables for polymerase chain reaction , reverse transcription , cloning , culturing , stem cell production, cell therapy , regenerative medicine , immunotherapy , transfection , DNA/RNA purification , diagnostic tests , antibodies , and immunoassays . The predecessor corporation

5304-554: The University of Washington during 1992-1994, where they received renewed support from the NSF as the Center for Molecular Biotechnology. (Later, in 2001, the department of molecular biotechnology and the genetics department at UW reorganized to form the department of genome sciences. ) In 2000 Hood resigned his position at the University of Washington to become co-founder and president of the non-profit Institute for Systems Biology (ISB), possibly

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5408-410: The analysis of its crystalline structure. Based on this research, Merck developed an important antiprotease drug for the treatment of AIDS . Kent carried out a number of important synthesis and structure-function studies in Hood's lab at Caltech. Among the notable of the inventions from Hood's lab was the automated DNA sequencer. It made possible high-speed sequencing of the structure of DNA, including

5512-413: The brands acquired still exist on product packaging, although the overall company is called Life Technologies. In summer 2010, the company acquired the computer chip DNA sequencing company Ion Torrent Systems. Through this history of acquisitions and continued product research and development, Invitrogen / Life Technologies had over 50,000 products. Utilizing this business strategy, Invitrogen represented

5616-520: The combination of its two component groups' names, Applera In November 2008, a merger between Applied Biosystems and Invitrogen was finalized "creating a global leader in biotechnology reagents and systems". The new company was called Life Technologies . In 1981, the company was founded by two scientist/engineers from Hewlett Packard , Sam Eletr and André Marion based on technology developed by Leroy Hood and Marvin H. Caruthers . In 1982, Applied Biosystems released its first commercial instrument,

5720-430: The company's fluorescent labelling. Also in 1990, the U.S. government approved financing to support the Human Genome Project. Dr. James D. Watson , who founded the consortium, forecast that the project could be completed in 15 years from its 1990 starting date, at a cost of cost US$ 3 billion. Over the next couple years, Japan began a project to sequence the rice genome, and other laboratories initiated programs to sequence

5824-641: The company's set of tools for growth. Invitrogen acquired NOVEX, in cloned protein characterization, within 60 days of going public. In December 1999, it purchased Research Genetics, Inc., a leader in genomics and synthetic DNA chemistry, becoming a $ 100 million (annual sales) company within a year of its IPO. The business scope expanded significantly when it acquired the rival biotechnology and cell culture company Life Technologies in 2000; Life had been formed in 1983 when GIBCO (Grand Island Biological Company) which had been founded around 1960 in New York, merged with

5928-528: The consortium. In 1993 Applied Biosystems, Inc., was delisted from the NASDAQ when it was acquired by the old company known then as Perkin-Elmer . As the PE Applied Biosystems Division under that parent in 1998, it became consolidated with other acquisitions as the primary PE Biosystems Division. In 1999 its parent company reorganized and changed its name to PE Corporation , and the PE Biosystems Group (formerly again became publicly traded, as

6032-461: The critical technique used to amplify segments of DNA a million-fold. The first commercial automated peptide synthesizer, sometimes referred to as a protein synthesizer, was developed by Hood and Stephen B. H. Kent , a senior research associate at Caltech from 1983 to 1989. The automated, programmable peptide synthesizer had previously been invented and developed by Bruce Merrifield and colleagues at Rockefeller University, and Merrifield received

6136-451: The database into an electronic commerce system. In 2002, Applied Biosystems reached revenues of US$ 1.6 billion for the year, and took control from Celera of the support of Celera Discovery System (CDS), a data tool to answer specific genomic and proteomic queries, involving the new genetic data field of tens of thousands of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the human genome. The company developed another new tool, which combined

6240-504: The desired protein's DNA sequence. Automated DNA sequencing began at the California Institute of Technology , using fluorescent dyes, with Rights to the technology granted to Applied Biosystems. At CIT, Dr. Leroy Hood and Dr. Lloyd Smith , together pioneered those first DNA sequencing machines. In 1984, Applied Biosystems sales revenue tripled to over US$ 18 million, with a second yearly profit, and with over 200 employees. Services included synthesizing custom DNA and protein fragments, and

6344-1066: The development of new pharmaceuticals, based on the work of the Human Genome Project. Companies such as Sequana Therapeutics in San Diego, Human Genome Sciences in Maryland, Myriad Genetics in Utah, INCYTE Pharmaceuticals (later Incyte Genomics) in California, and Millennium Pharmaceuticals relied on the Applied Biosystems Division, which made thermal cyclers and automated sequencers for these new genomics companies. In 1995, upon Andre Marion retirement, Mike Hunkapiller became President of PE Applied Biosystems Division which sold its 30,000th thermal cycler. To meet Human Genome Project goals, Perkin-Elmer developed mapping kits with markers every 10 million bases along each chromosome. Also that year, DNA fingerprinting using PCR became accepted in court as reliable forensic evidence. In 1996, Perkin-Elmer acquired Tropix , Inc.,

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6448-461: The division's revenues reached US$ 921.8 million. In January 1998 Perkin-Elmer acquired PerSeptive Biosystems (formerly of Framingham, Massachusetts . It was a leader in the bio-instrumentation field where it made biomolecule purification systems for protein analysis. Noubar Afeyan , Ph.D., had been the founder, Chairman, and CEO of PerSeptive, and with the Perkin-Elmer successor company he set up

6552-492: The drug discovery process. Since 2002 Hood has progressively expanded his vision of the future of medicine: first focusing on predictive and preventive (2P) Medicine; then predictive, preventive and personalized (3P) Medicine; and finally predictive, preventive, personalized and participatory, also known as P4 Medicine. Hood states that P4 Medicine is the convergence of systems medicine, big data and patient (consumer) driven healthcare and social networks. Hood envisions that by

6656-506: The field of biotechnology in 2015. Hood was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 2007 for the invention and commercialization of key instruments, notably the automated DNA sequencer, that have enabled the biotechnology revolution. Hood was born on October 10, 1938, in Missoula, Montana , to Thomas Edward Hood and Myrtle Evylan Wadsworth. and grew up in Shelby . His father

6760-435: The field of molecular biology, the DNA synthesizer enabled biologists to synthesize DNA fragments for cloning and other genetic manipulations. Molecular biologists were able to produce DNA probes and primers for use in DNA sequencing and mapping, gene cloning, and gene synthesis. The DNA synthesizer played a critical role in the identification of many important genes and in the development of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR),

6864-446: The first ever union of triple quadrupole and ion trap technologies, in proteomics research. The database itself would remain with Celera, because of shareholder approval complications. Celera would retain responsibility for its maintenance and support to existing customers, and would receive royalties from Applied Biosystems. In 2003, Catherine Burzik joined Applied's management, from Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics . Applied developed

6968-601: The first independent systems biology organization. His co-founders were protein chemist Ruedi Aebersold and immunologist Alan Aderem . Hood is still an affiliate professor at the University of Washington in Computer Science, Bioengineering and Immunology. In April 2017, the ISB announced that Hood will be succeeded as president of ISB as of January 2018 by James Heath , while continuing to lead his research group at ISB and serving on ISB's board of directors. Hood believes that

7072-501: The first time, when it established a wholly owned subsidiary in Great Britain to save shipping costs on chemical sales, which overall by then accounted for 17% of sales. Also in 1985, Applied Biosystems acquired Brownlee Labs, a manufacturer of columns and pumps for high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) systems, after its founder, Robert Brownlee was diagnosed with AIDS-related complex in 1984. Brownlee's technology brought

7176-511: The gas phase instead of the liquid phase, the retention of the sample during the analysis and the sensitivity of the instrument were increased. Polybrene was used as a substrate coating to better anchor proteins and peptides, and the purification of reagents was improved. HPLC analysis techniques were used to reduce analysis times and extend the technique's applicable range. The amount of protein required for an analysis decreased, from 10-100 nanomoles for Edman and Begg's protein sequencer, to

7280-591: The genome decoding by 2001. That bold announcement prompted the academic consortium to accelerate their own deadline by a couple years, to 2003. Also in 1998, PE Biosystems partnered with Hitachi , Ltd. to develop electrophoresis -based genetic analysis systems, which resulted in their chief new genomics instrument, the ABI PRISM 3700 DNA Analyzer , which advanced the Human Genome sequencing project by nearly five years ahead of schedule. The partnerships sold hundreds of

7384-561: The human genome and its relationship to society. Leroy Hood won the 2011 Fritz J. and Dolores H. Russ Prize "for automating DNA sequencing that revolutionized biomedicine and forensic science"; the 2011 National Medal of Science , presented at a White House ceremony by President Obama in early 2013; the IEEE Medal for Innovations in Healthcare Technology in 2014, and the 2016 Ellis Island Medal of Honor . In 2017 he received

7488-652: The human genome before the academic consortium could complete it, by using the resources of a single, industrial-scale center, even though it would require starting from scratch. It was a bold prediction, given that the consortium target date set by Dr. Watson back in 1990 had been the forward year of 2005, only seven years away, and with the consortium already half the way to the completion target date. Also, it meant that Dr. Hunkapiller's idea would require competing against his own customers, to all of whom Applied Biosystems sold its sequencing machines and their chemical reagents. However, he calculated that it would also mean doubling

7592-408: The human genome. It automated many of the tasks that researchers had previously done by hand. Researchers Jane Z. Sanders and Lloyd M. Smith developed a way to color code the basic nucleotide units of DNA with fluorescent tags, green for adenine (A), yellow-green for guanine (G), orange for cytosine (C) and red for thymine (T). Four differently colored fluorophores , each one specific to

7696-404: The hypothesis advanced by William J. Dreyer that immunoglobulin (antibody) chains are encoded by two separate genes (a constant and a variable gene). He (and others) conducted pioneering studies on the structure and diversity of the antibody genes. This research led to verification of the "two genes, one polypeptide" hypothesis and insights into the mechanisms responsible for the diversification of

7800-593: The immunoglobulin variable genes. Hood shared the Lasker Award in 1987 for these studies. Additionally, Hood was among the first to study, at the gene level, the MHC (major histocompatibility complex) gene family and the T-cell receptor gene families as well as being among first to demonstrate that alternative RNA splicing was a fundamental mechanism for generating alternative forms of antibodies. He showed that RNA splicing

7904-480: The immunology branch of the National Cancer Institute as a senior investigator. In 1970, he returned to Caltech as an assistant professor . He was promoted to associate professor in 1973, full professor in 1975, and was named Bowles Professor of Biology in 1977. He served as chairman of the Division of Biology from 1980-1989 and director of Caltech's Special Cancer Center in 1981. Hood has been

8008-450: The ink-jet technology was commercialized through Agilent Technologies . The automated DNA sequencer was an enabling technology for the Human Genome Project . The peptide synthesizer was used in the synthesis of the HIV protease by Stephen Kent and others, and the development of a protease inhibitor for AIDS treatment. Hood established the first cross-disciplinary biology department,

8112-540: The later tracking stock for Celera. In 1998, Perkin-Elmer formed the PE Biosystems division, by consolidating Applied Biosystems, PerSeptive Biosystems, Tropix and PE Informatics. Informatics was formed from the Perkin-Elmer combination of two other acquisitions, Molecular Informatics and Nelson Analytical Systems, with existing units of Perkin-Elmer. While planning the next new generation of machines, PE Biosystems' president, Michael W. Hunkapiller, calculated that it would be possible for their own private industry to decode

8216-694: The low picomole range, a revolutionary increase in the sensitivity of the technology. The new sequencer offered significant advantages in speed and sample size compared to commercial sequencers of the time, the most popular of which were built by Beckman Instruments . Commercialized as the Model 470A protein sequencer, it allowed scientists to determine partial amino acid sequences of proteins that had not previously been accessible, characterizing new proteins and better understanding their activity, function, and effects in therapeutics. These discoveries had significant ramifications in biology, medicine, and pharmacology. The first automated DNA synthesizer resulted from

8320-518: The market for that equipment. Hunkapiller brought in Dr. J. Craig Venter to direct the project. Tony White, president of the Perkin-Elmer Corporation backed Hunkapiller on the venture. They organized the new company to accomplish the task. In May 1998, Celera Genomics was formed, to rapidly accelerate the human DNA sequencing process. Dr. Venter boldly declared to the media that he would complete

8424-427: The mid-2020s each individual will be surrounded by a virtual cloud of billions of data points and will have the computational tools to analyze this data and produce simple approaches to optimize wellness and minimize disease for each individual. According to this view, the patient's demand for better healthcare will be the real driving force for the acceptance of P4 Medicine by the medical community. This driving force

8528-464: The mouse, fruit fly, and yeast genomes. In 1991, Applied sales revenue grew slightly, to almost $ 164 million, with consumables and service contracts up by 24% to account for 47% of total sales, and DNA sequencer and DNA synthesis instruments having record sales. Forty-five new consumable products and six new instruments were introduced. In 1992, sales revenue grew by more than 11% to over $ 182 million, with Europe representing 25% of revenue, and Asia and

8632-498: The networks change over time and undergo perturbations, and (4) how function is achieved within these networks. At the ISB under Hood's direction, genomic, transcriptomic, metabolomic and proteomic technologies are used to understand the "network of networks" and are focused on diverse biological systems (e.g. yeast, mice and humans). Hood applies the notion of systems biology to the study of medicine, specifically to cancer and neurodegenerative disease . His research article on

8736-488: The neurological defect in mice (the shiverer defect) by transferring a normal MBP gene into the fertilized egg of the shiverer mouse. These discoveries led to extensive studies of MBP and its biology. Beginning in the 1990s, Hood focused more on cross-disciplinary biology and systems biology. He established in 1992 the first cross-disciplinary biology department, the Molecular Biotechnology Department at

8840-575: The new field of bioinformatics , licensed with TRW Inc. Also, joint marketing began with Perkin-Elmer Corporation and Cetus Corporation (formerly of instruments and reagents for DNA replication , the fastest growing segment in biotechnology. In 1990, instrument sales underwent a cyclical slowdown, as the economy entered the 1990–91 recession . For the first year, Applied revenues did not grow, and came in at less than $ 159 million, with 1,334 employees. New company developments included new instrumentation for robotics and detection of DNA fragments using

8944-560: The new genomics, Perkin-Elmer Corporation was renamed PE Corporation , and sold its old Analytical Instruments division to EG&G , Inc., which also acquired the Perkin-Elmer name. PE Biosystems remained with PE Corp., and became PE Biosystems Group , with 3,500 employees and net revenues of over $ 1.2 billion. New instruments were developed and sold for forensic human identification, protein identification and characterization, metabolite pathway identification, and lead compound identification from combinatorial libraries. On April 27, 1999,

9048-582: The new on-line 120A PTH Amino Acid Analyzer . However, Brownlee then began a new company, which was viewed by Applied as a competitor. In 1989 Applied and Brownlee settled in a lawsuit over the conflict. As late as 1990, Brownlee publicly discussed what had been his contributions in the rocky relationship with Applied, before he died early the next year. In 1986, Andre Marion became president and Chief Executive Officer. Sales revenue increased by 45% to nearly US$ 52 million. The company introduced six new products, totalling eleven automated instruments. The release of

9152-641: The product line had increased to over 25 different automated instruments, over 400 liquid chromatography columns and components, and about 320 chemicals, biochemicals, and consumables. Sales revenue grew to over US$ 132 million, with almost 1000 employees in eight countries. In that year for the first time, genetic science reached the milestone of being able to identify individuals by their DNA. In 1989, sales revenue reached nearly $ 160 million. Applied Biosystems maintained 15 offices in 9 different countries, and introduced four new products. The company developed enzyme-based reagent kits made by Promega Corporation, and in

9256-412: The protein one amino acid at the time, followed by solvents to allow extraction of reagents and byproducts. A series of analysis cycles is performed to identify a sequence, one cycle for each amino acid, and the cycle times were lengthy. Hood and Hunkapiller made a number of modifications, further automating steps in the analysis and improving effectiveness and shortening cycle time. By applying reagents in

9360-445: The quality of its offering, industry commentators attributed Arivale's closure to a failure to capture sufficient Customer lifetime value to create a profit from providing the service, suggesting that insufficient numbers of customers stuck with the data-driven, personalized dietary and lifestyle coaching it provided for long enough at a price point which would make the business model work. At Caltech, Hood and his colleagues created

9464-464: The sequencing and first assembly of the two largest genomes in history, that of the fruit fly , and of the human. In 2001, the Applied Biosystems division of Applera reached revenues of US$ 1.6 billion, and developed a new workstation instrument specifically for the new field of proteomics , which had become Celera's new core business focus, as it shifted away from gene discovery. The instrument analyzed 1,000 protein samples per hour. On April 22, 2002,

9568-400: The sequencing of protein samples submitted from customers. The third major instrument made by Applied, the Model 430A Peptide Synthesizer , was introduced. In 1985, Applied Biosystems sales revenue grew nearly 70% to over US$ 35 million, with a third yearly profit. Two new products included the Model 380B DNA Synthesizer and the 381A DNA Synthesizer. That year the company went international for

9672-431: The shareholders of Perkin-Elmer Corporation approved the reorganization of Perkin-Elmer into PE Corporation, a pure-play life science company. Each share of the Perkin-Elmer stock (PKN) was to be exchanged for one share and for + 1 ⁄ 2 of a share respectively of the two new common share tracking stocks for the two component Life Sciences groups, PE Biosystems Group and Celera Genomics Group . On April 28, 1999,

9776-483: The study of protein and DNA chemistries, these ideas were essential to the rapid deciphering of biological information. Hood had a strong interest in commercial development, actively filing patents and seeking private funding. Applied Biosystems, Inc. (initially named GeneCo.) was formed in 1981 in Foster City, California, to commercialize instruments developed by Hood, Hunkapiller, Caruthers, and others. The company

9880-678: The systems viewpoint. Hood advocates several practices in the burgeoning field of systems medicine , including: (1) The use of family genome sequencing, integrating genetics and genomics, to identify genetic variants associated with health and disease (2) The use of targeted proteomics and biomarkers as a window into health and disease. He has pioneered the discovery of biomarker panels for lung cancer and posttraumatic stress syndrome . (3) The use of systems biology to stratify disease into its different subtypes allowing for more effective treatment. (4) The use of systems strategies to identify new types of drug targets to facilitate and accelerate

9984-430: The technological foundation for the study of genomics and proteomics by developing five groundbreaking instruments - the protein sequencer (1982), the DNA synthesizer (1983), the peptide synthesizer (1984), the automated DNA sequencer (1986) and later the ink-jet DNA synthesizer. Hood's instruments incorporated concepts of high throughput data accumulation through automation and parallelization. When applied to

10088-445: The transformation of healthcare from a reactive system to one that predicts and prevents disease, tailors diagnosis and therapy to the individual consumer and engages patients in the active pursuit of a quantified understanding of wellness; i.e. one that is predictive, preventive, personalized and participatory (P4)." In 2012, P4 Medical Institute established an agreement with its first community health partner, PeaceHealth . PeaceHealth

10192-483: The two replacement tracking stocks for the new PE Corporation were issued to shareholders. Dr. Michael W. Hunkapiller remained as a Senior Vice President of PE Corporation, and as president of PE Biosystems. On May 6, 1999, the recapitalization of the company resulted in issuance of the two new classes of common stock, called PE Corporation-PE Biosystems Group Common Stock and PE Corporation-Celera Genomics Group Common Stock. On that date, trading began in both new stocks on

10296-544: Was Invitrogen Corporation (formerly traded as Nasdaq :  IVGN ), headquartered in Carlsbad, California . In 2008, a merger between Applied Biosystems and Invitrogen was finalized, creating Life Technologies. The latter was acquired by Thermo Fisher Scientific in 2014. Invitrogen was founded in 1987 by Lyle Turner, Joe Fernandez, and William McConnell and was incorporated in 1989. The company initially found success with its kits for molecular cloning —notably, The Librarian,

10400-590: Was US$ 653 million. The company acquired GenScope , Inc., and Linkage Genetics , Inc. The Linkage Genetics unit was combined with Zoogen to form PE AgGen , focused on genetic analysis services for plant and animal breeding. The PE Applied Biosystems division partnered with Hyseq , Inc., for work on the new DNA chip technology, and also worked with Tecan U.S. , Inc., on combinatorial chemistry automation systems, and also with Molecular Informatics , Inc. on genetic data management and analysis automated systems. In 1998, PE Applied Biosystems became PE Biosystems , and

10504-408: Was an electrical engineer , and his mother had a degree in home economics . Hood was one of four children, including a sister and two brothers, including a brother with Down syndrome . One of his grandfathers was a rancher and ran a summer geology camp for university students, which Hood attended as a high school student. Hood excelled in math and science, being one of forty students nationally to win

10608-552: Was awarded an R&D 100 Award as being a "Top 100 Technologically Significant New Product" by R&D Magazine . Invitrogen developed and introduced stem cell products. Among more than 1,200 products for stem cell research, the company offered an engineered stem cell line (BG01v/hOG) and various STEMPRO products for manual passaging of human embryonic stem cells (hESC), to promote hESC growth and expansion, and to allow scientists to ascertain hESC pluripotency . Leroy Hood Leroy "Lee" Edward Hood (born October 10, 1938)

10712-481: Was capable of forming short pieces of DNA called oligonucleotides, which could be used in DNA mapping and gene identification. The first commercial phosphoramidite DNA synthesizer was developed from this prototype by Applied Biosystems, who installed the first Model 380A in Caruthers' lab at the University of Colorado in December 1982, before beginning official commercial shipment of the new instrument. Revolutionizing

10816-448: Was supported by venture capitalist William K. Bowes , who hired Sam H. Eletr and André Marion as president and vice-president of the new company. The company shipped the first gas phase protein sequencer, Model 4790A, in August 1982. The 380 DNA synthesizer was commercialized in 1983, the 430A peptide synthesizer in 1984, and the 370A DNA sequencing system in 1986. These new instruments had

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