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85-534: Abdur Rahman Khan GCSI ( Pashto / Dari : عبدالرحمن خان ) (between 1840 and 1844 – 1 October 1901) also known by his epithets , The Iron Amir , was Amir of Afghanistan from 1880 to his death in 1901. He is known for perpetrating the Hazara Genocide , but also uniting the country after years of internal fighting and negotiation of the Durand Line Agreement with British India . Abdur Rahman Khan

170-610: A Jirga , with many tribal leaders declaring for him, while Abdur Rahman was declared the Amir of Kabul . Griffin described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous manners, shrewd and able in conversation on the business in hand. A central political issue in Afghanistan during Khan's reign was the difficulties in establishing a relationship between nationalism, Islam, and claims to political legitimacy by traditional tribal structures. At

255-472: A centre of economic, cultural, and political power. It did not significantly revive until the 5th century. Samarkand was conquered by the Persian Sassanians c. 260 AD. Under Sassanian rule, the region became an essential site for Manichaeism and facilitated the dissemination of the religion throughout Central Asia. Between AD 350 and 375, Samarkand was conquered by the nomadic tribes of Xionites ,

340-473: A community of weavers of Chinese origin , and Samarkand and Outer Mongolia both had artisans of Chinese origin, as reported by Changchun . After Genghis Khan conquered Central Asia, foreigners were chosen as governmental administrators; Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) were appointed as co-managers of gardens and fields in Samarkand, which Muslims were not permitted to manage on their own. The khanate allowed

425-443: A dusty steppe... Samakandian Sogd... [extends] eight days travel through unbroken greenery and gardens... . The greenery of the trees and sown land extends along both sides of the river [Sogd]... and beyond these fields is pasture for flocks. Every town and settlement has a fortress... It is the most fruitful of all the countries of Allah ; in it are the best trees and fruits, in every home are gardens, cisterns and flowing water. After

510-631: A foothold within his country. He also built himself several summer and guest houses, including the Bagh-e Bala Palace and Chihil Sutun Palace in Kabul, and the Jahan Nama Palace in Kholm. The Amir found himself unable, by reason of ill-health , to accept an invitation from Queen Victoria to visit England; but his second son Nasrullah Khan , the crown prince, went instead. In 1893, Mortimer Durand

595-461: A large number of astronomers and mathematicians of the Islamic world to this madrasah. Under Ulugh Beg, Samarkand became one of the world centers of medieval science. In the first half of the 15th century, a whole scientific school arose around Ulugh Beg, uniting prominent astronomers and mathematicians including Jamshid al-Kashi , Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī , and Ali Qushji . Ulugh Beg's main interest in science

680-554: A part of Afghanistan. Believing that the British might withdraw, Abdur Rahman Khan arrived in Charikar sometime in July 1880, where religious leaders from regions such as Panjshir , Kohistan , and Tagab welcomed his arrival. On 19 July, the British informed Abdur Rahman that they were prepared to recognize him as the ruler of Afghanistan, inviting him to Kabul for a ceremony. Abdur Rahman called

765-705: A pilgrimage to the shrine of Khwaja Ahrar , taking his banner after claiming he had a vision that ensured victory. The ruler of Badakhshan did not permit Abdur Rahman to ford the Amu Darya, to which Abdur Rahman did so further downstream. He then crossed a mountain pass while it snowed, arriving at Rostaq , where its garrison defected. With the fall of Rostaq, Abdur Rahman met the Mir of Badakhshan in battle, forcing him to flee to Chitral while Abdur Rahman annexed Badakhshan. Abdur Rahman requested from Sultan Murad of Kunduz for military access so he could advance on Kabul . This request

850-499: A quick conclusion to the war due to the resignation of Lytton , with his successor, the Marquis of Ripon , wishing to withdraw all British troops from Afghanistan as quickly as possible. With this, the British no longer wished to uphold a British envoy in Afghanistan. However, both sides continued to differ, with the British wishing to keep Kandahar under their control with Sardar Sher Ali as governor, while Abdur Rahman saw it imperative as

935-435: A suitable candidate to be the ruler of Afghanistan , scouted Abdur Rahman Khan, and began negotiating with him. Abdur Rahman was reluctant to accept such a proposal, as he considered himself an opponent of the British, with his own men wishing for Jihad against them. While negotiations continued, the British considered numerous political solutions, including dividing Afghanistan into numerous kingdoms. The British were seeking to

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1020-485: A sure underlying insight into the real situation. In the agreement that followed relations between the British Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged, were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan on the east, towards India. A Royal Commission was set up to determine the boundary between Afghanistan and British-governed India, and

1105-641: A time, Greek aesthetics heavily influenced local artisans. This Hellenistic legacy continued as the city became part of various successor states in the centuries following Alexander's death, the Seleucid Empire , Greco-Bactrian Kingdom , and Kushan Empire (even though the Kushana themselves originated in Central Asia). After the Kushan state lost control of Sogdia during the 3rd century AD, Samarkand went into decline as

1190-644: A verse praising the madrasah. Zayn ad-din Vasifi, who visited the Sheibani-khan madrasah several years later, wrote in his memoirs that the veranda, hall and courtyard of the madrassah are spacious and magnificent. Abdulatif Khan, the son of Mirzo Ulugbek's grandson Kuchkunji Khan, who ruled in Samarkand from 1540 to 1551, was considered an expert in the history of Maverannahr and the Shibanid dynasty. He patronized poets and scientists. Abdulatif Khan himself wrote poetry under

1275-624: A widespread system of espionage . The nickname, The Iron Amir , is also associated due to his victory over a number of rebellions by various tribes who were led by his relatives. One source says that during his reign there were over 40 rebellions against his rule. Abdur Rahman Khan's rule was termed by one British official as a "reign of terror", as he was considered despotic and had up to 100,000 people judicially executed during his 21 years as Emir. Thousands more starved to death, caught deadly diseases and died, were massacred by his army, or were killed during his forceful migrations of tribes. However, he

1360-553: A widespread system of espionage ; while the exercise of his personal authority was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty. He held open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable. In the 1880s, the "Iron Emir" decided to strategically displace some members of different ethnic groups in order to bring better security. For example, he "uprooted troublesome Durrani and Ghilzai Pashtun tribes and transported them to Uzbek and Tajik populated areas in

1445-573: Is the father of Amanullah Khan . Today, his descendants can be found in many places outside Afghanistan, such as in America, France , Germany , and even in Scandinavian countries such as Denmark . His two eldest sons, Habibullah Khan and Nasrullah Khan , were born at Samarkand . His youngest son, Mahomed Omar Jan, was born in 1889 of an Afghan mother, connected by descent with the Barakzai family. One of

1530-470: The durbar on 22 July 1880, Abdur Rahman was officially recognized as Amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he align his foreign policy with the British. The British evacuation of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in 1881, the British troops also handed over Kandahar to

1615-675: The Jizya tax was also enforced on Shias, which was only meant to be for non-Muslims. It caused some Hazaras to migrate to Quetta in Balochistan , and to Mashhad in northeastern Iran . In the Bamyan region, Abdur Rahman ordered soldiers to destroy the faces of the Buddhas of Bamiyan during a military campaign against a Hazara rebellion in the area. Abdur Rahman died on 1 October 1901, inside his summer palace, being succeeded by his son Habibullah Khan who

1700-596: The Oxus into Bukhara . Sher Ali threw Afzal Khan into prison, and a revolt followed in southern Afghanistan. The Amir had scarcely suppressed it by winning a desperate battle when Abdur Rahman's reappearance in the north was a signal for a mutiny by troops stationed in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard. After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azam Khan, occupied Kabul in March 1866. The Amir Sher Ali marched up against them from Kandahar ; but in

1785-659: The Samanids (875–999), though the Samanids were still nominal vassals of the Caliph during their control of Samarkand. Under Samanid rule the city became a capital of the Samanid dynasty and an even more important node of numerous trade routes. The Samanids were overthrown by the Karakhanids around 999. Over the next 200 years, Samarkand would be ruled by a succession of Turkic tribes, including

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1870-559: The Seljuqs and the Khwarazmshahs . The 10th-century Persian author Istakhri , who travelled in Transoxiana , provides a vivid description of the natural riches of the region he calls "Smarkandian Sogd": I know no place in it or in Samarkand itself where if one ascends some elevated ground one does not see greenery and a pleasant place, and nowhere near it are mountains lacking in trees or

1955-633: The Soviet Union , a number of Samarkand's citizens were sent to Smolensk to fight the enemy . Many were taken captive or killed by the Nazis . Additionally, thousands of refugees from the occupied western regions of the USSR fled to the city, and it served as one of the main hubs for the fleeing civilians in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic and the Soviet Union as a whole. European study of

2040-475: The Timurid Empire , made Samarkand his capital. Timur used various tools for legitimisation, including urban planning in his capital, Samarkand. Over the next 35 years, he rebuilt most of the city and populated it with great artisans and craftsmen from across the empire. Timur gained a reputation as a patron of the arts, and Samarkand grew to become the centre of the region of Transoxiana . Timur's commitment to

2125-564: The Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919. The Durand Line was once again recognised as international border between Pakistan and Afghanistan by Sardar Mohammed Daoud Khan (former prime minister and later president of Afghanistan) during his visit to Pakistan in August 1976. Abdur Rahman Khan's government was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed army; it was administered through officials absolutely subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by

2210-452: The American scholar and explorer Eugene Schuyler as "a tall well-built man, with a large head, and a marked Afghan, almost Jewish , face", Abdur Rahman distinguished himself for his ability and energetic daring. Although his father, Afzal Khan came to terms with Amir Sher Ali, Abdur's behavior in the northern province soon excited Amir's suspicion and, when he was summoned to Kabul, fled across

2295-439: The Amir's grandchildren, Azizullah Khan Ziai was the ambassador of Iran from 1930 to 1932, he was the son of Nasrullah Khan . Afghan society has mixed feelings about his rule. A majority of Pashtuns (his native ethnics) remember him as a ruler who initiated many programs for modernisation, and effectively prevented the country from being occupied by Russia by using the "financial and advisory" support of British Empire during

2380-472: The Amir's reserved and circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced towards a pacific solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action, with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications of the implacable severity that too often marked his administration. His investment with

2465-656: The Durand Line Treaty for the demarcation of the frontier between Afghanistan, the FATA , North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan , now provinces of Pakistan as a successor state of British India . In 1905, Amir Habibullah Khan signed a new agreement with the United Kingdom which confirmed the legality of the Durand Line. Similarly, the legality of the Durand Line was once again confirmed by King Amanullah Khan through

2550-622: The Great in 329 BC, when it was known as Markanda, which was rendered in Greek as Μαράκανδα . The city was ruled by a succession of Iranian and Turkic rulers until it was conquered by the Mongols under Genghis Khan in 1220. The city is noted as a centre of Islamic scholarly study and the birthplace of the Timurid Renaissance . In the 14th century, Timur made it the capital of his empire and

2635-649: The Great Game . The Emir was effectively dependent on British arms and money to stay in power. To some historians he is called a tyrant, to other people he is a hero. But what did Abdul Rahman give us? He united Afghanistan under one king and one flag. Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include

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2720-642: The Greeks. Written sources offer small clues as to the subsequent system of government. They mention one Orepius who became ruler "not from ancestors, but as a gift of Alexander." While Samarkand suffered significant damage during Alexander's initial conquest, the city recovered rapidly and flourished under the new Hellenic influence. There were also major new construction techniques. Oblong bricks were replaced with square ones and superior methods of masonry and plastering were introduced. Alexander's conquests introduced classical Greek culture into Central Asia and for

2805-732: The Iranian languages Persian and Sogdian samar "stone, rock" and kand "fort, town." In this respect, Samarkand shares the same meaning as the name of the Uzbek capital Tashkent , with tash- being the Turkic term for "stone" and -kent the Turkic analogue of kand borrowed from Iranian languages. According to 11th-century scholar Mahmud al-Kashghari , the city was known in Karakhanid as Sämizkänd ( سَمِزْکَنْدْ ‎), meaning "fat city." 16th-century Mughal emperor Babur also mentioned

2890-837: The Sassanid Persians, won it at the Battle of Bukhara , c. 560 AD. In the middle of the 6th century, a Turkic state was formed in Altai, founded by the Ashina dynasty. The new state formation was named the Turkic Khaganate after the people of the Turks, which were headed by the ruler – the Khagan. From 557 to 561, the Hephthalites empire was defeated by the joint actions of the Turks and Sassanids, which led to

2975-474: The Shaybani Khan madrasah dates back to 1504 (it was completely destroyed during the years of Soviet power). Muhammad Salikh wrote that Sheibani Khan built a madrasah in Samarkand to perpetuate the memory of his brother Mahmud Sultan. Fazlallah ibn Ruzbihan in "Mikhmon-namei Bukhara" expresses his admiration for the majestic building of the madrasah, its gilded roof, high hujras, spacious courtyard and quotes

3060-413: The arts is evident in how, in contrast with the ruthlessness he showed his enemies, he demonstrated mercy toward those with special artistic abilities. The lives of artists, craftsmen, and architects were spared so that they could improve and beautify Timur's capital. Timur was also directly involved in construction projects, and his visions often exceeded the technical abilities of his workers. The city

3145-506: The battle that ensued at Sheikhabad on 10 May, he was deserted by a large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat Abdur Rahman released his father, Afzal Khan, from prison in Ghazni , and installed him upon the throne as Amir of Afghanistan. Notwithstanding the new Amir's incapacity, and some jealousy between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his uncle, they again routed Sher Ali's forces and occupied Kandahar in 1867. When Afzal Khan died at

3230-469: The campaigns of Abdul Rahman. In the early 1890s Hazaras revolted against Abdur Rahman. As the Kabul Newsletters written by the British agents indicate, Abdur Rahman was an extremely ruthless man. He has been called 'The Dracula Amir' by some writers. Due to Abdur Rahman's depredations, over 50–60 percent of the total Hazara population was massacred and numerous towers of Hazara heads were made from

3315-629: The center of Samarkand, built by Shaibani Khan at the beginning of the 16th century. After an assault by the Afshar Shahanshah Nader Shah , the city was abandoned in the early 1720s. From 1599 to 1756, Samarkand was ruled by the Ashtrakhanid branch of the Khanate of Bukhara . From 1756 to 1868, it was ruled by the Manghud Emirs of Bukhara . The revival of the city began during

3400-503: The city and its suburbs with water, appeared around the 7th–5th centuries BC (early Iron Age ). From its earliest days, Samarkand was one of the main centres of Sogdian civilization. By the time of the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia, the city had become the capital of the Sogdian satrapy . Alexander the Great conquered Samarkand in 329 BC. The city was known as Maracanda (Μαράκανδα) by

3485-535: The city hosted the 2022 SCO summit . Samarkand has a multicultural and plurilingual history that was significantly modified by the process of national delimitation in Central Asia . Many inhabitants of the city are native or bilingual speakers of the Tajik language , whereas Uzbek is the official language and Russian is also widely used in the public sphere, as per Uzbekistan's language policy . The name comes from

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3570-485: The city to its World Heritage List as Samarkand – Crossroads of Cultures . Modern Samarkand is divided into two parts: the old city, which includes historical monuments, shops, and old private houses; and the new city, which was developed during the days of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union and includes administrative buildings along with cultural centres and educational institutions. On 15 and 16 September 2022,

3655-532: The city under this name, and 15th-century Castillian traveler Ruy González de Clavijo stated that Samarkand was simply a distorted form of it. Along with Bukhara , Samarkand is one of the oldest inhabited cities in Central Asia , prospering from its location on the trade route between China and Europe. There is no direct evidence of when it was founded. Researchers at the Institute of Archaeology of Samarkand date

3740-516: The city was built after this point, largely west of the old city. In 1886, the city became the capital of the newly formed Samarkand Oblast of Russian Turkestan and regained even more importance when the Trans-Caspian railway reached it in 1888. Samarkand was the capital of the Uzbek SSR from 1925 to 1930, before being replaced by Tashkent . During World War II , after Nazi Germany invaded

3825-515: The city's founding to the 8th–7th centuries BC. Archaeological excavations conducted within the city limits (Syob and midtown) as well as suburban areas (Hojamazgil, Sazag'on) unearthed 40,000-year-old evidence of human activity, dating back to the Upper Paleolithic . A group of Mesolithic (12th–7th millennia BC) archaeological sites were discovered in the suburbs of Sazag'on-1, Zamichatosh, and Okhalik. The Syob and Darg'om canals , supplying

3910-463: The city's leaders at or about this time. In 1501, Samarkand was finally taken by Muhammad Shaybani from the Uzbek dynasty of Shaybanids , and the city became part of the newly formed “Bukhara Khanate”. Samarkand was chosen as the capital of this state, in which Muhammad Shaybani Khan was crowned. In Samarkand, Muhammad Shaybani Khan ordered to build a large madrasah, where he later took part in scientific and religious disputes. The first dated news about

3995-536: The death of Sher Ali Khan, Abdur Rahman Khan, serving exile in Turkestan, requested from the Russians to enter Afghanistan as a claimant of the throne. This request was denied. However, following Yaqub Khan 's abdication, as well as the British occupation of Kabul, the Russians allowed Abdur Rahman Khan to re-enter Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman made way for Badakhshan , whose ruler he had marriage ties with. While on route, he did

4080-533: The defeated rebels. Upon each victory Abdur Rahman claimed, it unleashed a reign of terror. This resulted in Hazara women being forcibly married to Pashtuns, as well as Hazara territories, specifically in largely ethnic Hazara areas such as Urzugan , Ghazni , Maiden Shah, and Zawar being depopulated of Hazara populations. The territories of prominent Hazara chiefs in these areas were given to Mohammadzai sardars, or other closely related government loyalists. Alongside this,

4165-407: The details below. Request from 172.68.168.226 via cp1108 cp1108, Varnish XID 764108963 Upstream caches: cp1108 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Fri, 29 Nov 2024 05:46:15 GMT Samarkand There is evidence of human activity in the area of the city dating from the late Paleolithic Era. Though there is no direct evidence of when Samarkand was founded, several theories propose that it

4250-507: The development of culture in the region. During his reign, a public hospital (bemoristan) and a madrasah were established in Samarkand, where medicine was also taught. The memorial complex Shah-i-Zinda was founded by the rulers of the Karakhanid dynasty in the 11th century. The most striking monument of the Qarakhanid era in Samarkand was the palace of Ibrahim ibn Hussein (1178–1202), which

4335-575: The documents. The armies of the Umayyad Caliphate under Qutayba ibn Muslim captured the city from the Tang dynasty c. 710 CE. During this period, Samarkand was a diverse religious community and was home to a number of religions, including Zoroastrianism , Buddhism , Hinduism , Manichaeism , Judaism , and Nestorian Christianity , with most of the population following Zoroastrianism. Qutayba generally did not settle Arabs in Central Asia; he forced

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4420-399: The end of the 740s, a movement of those dissatisfied with the power of the Umayyads emerged in the Arab Caliphate, led by the Abbasid commander Abu Muslim , who, after the victory of the uprising, became the governor of Khorasan and Maverannahr (750–755). He chose Samarkand as his residence. His name is associated with the construction of a multi-kilometer defensive wall around the city and

4505-449: The end of the year, Azam Khan became the new ruler, with Abdur Rahman installed as governor in the northern province. But towards the end of 1868, Sher Ali's return and a general rising in his favour resulted in Abdur Rahman and Azam Khan's defeat at Tinah Khan on 3 January 1869. Both sought refuge to the east in Central Asia, where Abdur Rahman placed himself under Russian protection at Samarkand . Azam died in Kabul in October 1869. Upon

4590-403: The establishment of Christian bishoprics (see below). Ibn Battuta , who visited in 1333, called Samarkand "one of the greatest and finest of cities, and most perfect of them in beauty." He also noted that the orchards were supplied water via norias . In 1365, a revolt against Chagatai Mongol control occurred in Samarkand. In 1370, the conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), the founder and ruler of

4675-427: The establishment of a common border between the two empires. In the early Middle Ages, Samarkand was surrounded by four rows of defensive walls and had four gates. An ancient Turkic burial with a horse was investigated on the territory of Samarkand. It dates back to the 6th century. During the period of the ruler of the Western Turkic Kaganate, Tong Yabghu Qaghan (618–630), family relations were established with

4760-450: The fall of the Samanids state in 999, it was replaced by the Qarakhanid State, where the Turkic Qarakhanid dynasty ruled. After the state of the Qarakhanids split into two parts, Samarkand became a part of the West Karakhanid Kaganate and from 1040 to 1212 was its capital. The founder of the Western Qarakhanid Kaganate was Ibrahim Tamgach Khan (1040–1068). For the first time, he built a madrasah in Samarkand with state funds and supported

4845-462: The history of Afghanistan. The Amir received an annual subsidy from the British government of 1,850,000 rupees . He was allowed to import munitions of war. He succeeded in imposing an organised government one of the most the fiercest and unruly population in Asia ; he availed himself of European inventions for strengthening his armament, while he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like railways and telegraphs , might give Europeans

4930-413: The insignia of the highest grade of the Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much pleasure. His adventurous life, his forcible character, the position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure in contemporary Asian politics and will mark his reign as an epoch in

5015-424: The invasion of Kafiristan and the conversion of its indigenous peoples to Islam. The region was subsequently renamed Nuristan . In 1896, he adopted the title of Zia-ul-Millat-Wa-ud Din ("Light of the nation and religion"), and his zeal for the cause of Islam induced him to publish treatises on jihad . Chitral, Yarkand and Ferghana became shelters for refugees in 1887 and 1883 from Badakhshan who fled from

5100-407: The literary pseudonym Khush. During the reign of the Ashtarkhanid Imam Quli Khan (1611–1642) famous architectural masterpieces were built in Samarkand. In 1612–1656, the governor of Samarkand, Yalangtush Bahadur, built a cathedral mosque, Tillya-Kari madrasah and Sherdor madrasah. Zarafshan Water Bridge is a brick bridge built on the left bank of the Zarafshan River , 7–8 km northeast of

5185-434: The local rulers to pay him tribute but largely left them to their own devices. Samarkand was the major exception to this policy: Qutayba established an Arab garrison and Arab governmental administration in the city, its Zoroastrian fire temples were razed, and a mosque was built. Much of the city's population converted to Islam. As a long-term result, Samarkand developed into a center of Islamic and Arabic learning. At

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5270-439: The moment when the Amir was in conference with the British viceroy , Lord Dufferin , in India, the news came of a skirmish between Russian and Afghan troops at Panjdeh , over a disputed point in the demarcation of the northwestern frontier of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman's attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political sagacity. To one who had been a man of war from his youth, who had won and lost many fights,

5355-503: The mosque, pillaged the city completely, and conscripted 30,000 young men along with 30,000 craftsmen. Samarkand suffered at least one other Mongol sack by Khan Baraq to get treasure he needed to pay an army. It remained part of the Chagatai Khanate (one of four Mongol successor realms) until 1370. The Travels of Marco Polo , where Polo records his journey along the Silk Road in the late 13th century, describes Samarkand as "a very large and splendid city..." The Yenisei area had

5440-425: The new Amir . However, Ayub Khan , one of Sher Ali Khan's sons, marched upon that city from Herat, defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and occupied the place in July 1880. This serious reverse roused the Amir , who had not displayed much activity. Instead, Ayub Khan was defeated in Kandahar by the British General Frederick Roberts on 1 September 1880. Ayub Khan was forced to flee into Persia. From that time Abdur Rahman

5525-489: The north, where they could spy on local Dari-speaking, non-Pashtun ethnic groups and act as a screen against further Russian encroachments on Afghan territory." From the end of 1888, the Amir spent eighteen months in his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where he was engaged in pacifying the country that had been disturbed by revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand all who were known or suspected to have taken any part in rebellion. In 1895–1896, Abdur Rahman directed

5610-419: The origin of which remains controversial. The resettlement of nomadic groups to Samarkand confirms archaeological material from the 4th century. The culture of nomads from the Middle Syrdarya basin is spreading in the region. Between 457 and 509, Samarkand was part of the Kidarite state. After the Hephtalites ("White Huns") conquered Samarkand, they controlled it until the Göktürks , in an alliance with

5695-412: The palace. Legend has it that during Abbasid rule, the secret of papermaking was obtained from two Chinese prisoners from the Battle of Talas in 751, which led to the foundation of the first paper mill in the Islamic world at Samarkand. The invention then spread to the rest of the Islamic world and thence to Europe. Abbasid control of Samarkand soon dissipated and was replaced with that of

5780-468: The reign of the founder of the Uzbek dynasty, the Mangyts, Muhammad Rakhim (1756–1758), who became famous for his strong-willed qualities and military art. Muhammad Rakhimbiy made some attempts to revive Samarkand. The city came under imperial Russian rule after the citadel had been taken by a force under Colonel Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufman in 1868. Shortly thereafter the small Russian garrison of 500 men were themselves besieged . The assault, which

5865-417: The rout of a detachment and the forcible seizure of some debatable frontier lands was an untoward incident; but it was not a sufficient reason for calling upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities which would certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north, and would compel his British allies to throw an army into Afghanistan from

5950-408: The ruler of Samarkand – Tong Yabghu Qaghan gave him his daughter. Some parts of Samarkand have been Christian since the 4th century. In the 5th century, a Nestorian chair was established in Samarkand. At the beginning of the 8th century, it was transformed into a Nestorian metropolitanate. Discussions and polemics arose between the Sogdian followers of Christianity and Manichaeism , reflected in

6035-458: The site of his mausoleum, the Gur-e Amir . The Bibi-Khanym Mosque , rebuilt during the Soviet era, remains one of the city's most notable landmarks. Samarkand's Registan square was the city's ancient centre and is bounded by three monumental religious buildings. The city has carefully preserved the traditions of ancient crafts: embroidery, goldwork, silk weaving, copper engraving, ceramics, wood carving, and wood painting. In 2001, UNESCO added

6120-542: The southeast. He also published his autobiography in 1885, which served more as an advice guide for princes than anything else. His interest lay in keeping powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his kingdom. He knew this to be the only policy that would be supported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Government of India made ready for that contingency,

6205-486: The two elder half brothers of Sher Ali, Afzal Khan and Azam Khan . At first, the new Amir was quietly recognized. But after a few months, Afzal Khan raised an insurrection in the north of the country, where he had been governing when his father died. This began a fierce internecine conflict for power between Dost Mohammad's sons, which lasted for nearly five years. The Musahiban are descendants of Dost Mohammad Khan 's older brother, Sultan Mohammad Khan . Described by

6290-460: Was astronomy, and he constructed an observatory in 1428. Its main instrument was the wall quadrant , which was unique in the world. It was known as the "Fakhri Sextant" and had a radius of 40 meters. Seen in the image on the left, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements. In 1500, nomadic Uzbek warriors took control of Samarkand. The Shaybanids emerged as

6375-415: Was built in the citadel in the 12th century. During the excavations, fragments of monumental painting were discovered. On the eastern wall, a Turkic warrior was depicted, dressed in a yellow caftan and holding a bow. Horses, hunting dogs, birds and periodlike women were also depicted here. The Mongols conquered Samarkand in 1220. Juvayni writes that Genghis killed all who took refuge in the citadel and

6460-443: Was denied. However, Ghulam Haidar Khan, Yaqub's governor of Balkh , attacked Kunduz, occupying it, and forcing Sultan Murad to flee to Fayzabad . Sultan Murad then aligned with Abdur Rahman, and encouraged rebellion against Ghulam Haidar, with the commander of Takhtapul declaring for Abdur Rahman. Ghulam Haidar fled across the Amu Darya, leaving the entirety of Afghan Turkestan under Abdur Rahman's control. The British, eyeing for

6545-474: Was deputed to Kabul by the government of British India for this purpose of settling an exchange of territory required by the demarcation of the boundary between northeastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in order to discuss with Amir Abdur Rahman Khan other pending questions. Abdur Rahman Khan showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with

6630-423: Was fairly seated firm on the throne at Kabul, thanks to the unwavering British protections in terms of giving large supplies of arms and money. In the course of the next few years, Abdul Rahman consolidated his grip over all Afghanistan, suppressing insurrection by a relentless and brutal use of his despotic authority. The powerful Ghilzai revolted against the severity of his measures several times. In 1885, at

6715-568: Was founded between the 8th and 7th centuries BC. Prospering from its location on the Silk Road between China , Persia and Europe , at times Samarkand was one of the largest cities in Central Asia , and was an important city of the empires of Greater Iran . By the time of the Persian Achaemenid Empire , it was the capital of the Sogdian satrapy . The city was conquered by Alexander

6800-458: Was in a state of constant construction, and Timur would often order buildings to be done and redone quickly if he was unsatisfied with the results. By his orders, Samarkand could be reached only by roads; deep ditches were dug, and walls 8 km (5 mi) in circumference separated the city from its surrounding neighbors. At this time, the city had a population of about 150,000. Henry III of Castile 's ambassador Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo , who

6885-577: Was led by Abdul Malik Tura, the rebellious elder son of the Bukharan Emir , as well as Baba Beg of Shahrisabz and Jura Beg of Kitab , was repelled with heavy losses. General Alexander Konstantinovich Abramov became the first Governor of the Military Okrug , which the Russians established along the course of the Zeravshan River with Samarkand as the administrative centre. The Russian section of

6970-609: Was perhaps the greatest military genius Afghanistan ever produced. Abdur Rahman Khan was a Pashtun , born in Kabul in 1844. He spent most of his youth in Balkh with his father, Mohammad Afzal Khan. Abdul Rahman learned conventional warfare tactics from the British soldier William Campbell. Before his death in Herat , on 9 June 1863, Abdur Rahman's grandfather, Dost Mohammad Khan , nominated his third son, Sher Ali Khan , as his successor, passing over

7055-407: Was stationed at Samarkand between 1403 and 1406, attested to the never-ending construction that went on in the city. "The Mosque which Timur had built seemed to us the noblest of all those we visited in the city of Samarkand." Between 1417 to 1420, Timur's grandson Ulugh Beg built a madrasah in Samarkand, which became the first building in the architectural ensemble of Registan. Ulugh Beg invited

7140-678: Was tasked to negotiate terms for agreeing to the Durand Line , between the two parties camped at Parachinar , now part of FATA Pakistan, which is near Khost , Afghanistan. From the British side the camp was attended by Mortimer Durand and Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum , British Political Agent in Khyber. Afghanistan was represented by Sahibzada Abdul Latif and the Governor Sardar Shireendil Khan representing Amir Abdur Rahman Khan. In 1893, Mortimer Durand negotiated with Abdur Rahman Khan

7225-522: Was the only son of Mohammad Afzal Khan , and grandson of Dost Mohammad Khan , founder of the Barakzai dynasty . Abdur Rahman Khan re-established the writ of the Afghan government after the disarray that followed the second Anglo-Afghan war . He became known as The Iron Amir because his government was a military despotism . This despotism rested upon a well-appointed army and was administered through officials subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by

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