Misplaced Pages

#292707

70-565: By area, Aaqoura is the largest village in Lebanon (belonging to its citizens - not emirate أميرية lands) in Lebanon. By voting power, it is the third largest town in the Byblos Jbeil District after Jbeil Byblos and Qartaba . Maronites emerged from Aaqoura in the fourth century when Saint Maroun's disciple Ibrahim El Korchy started preaching and converting pagans to the Christian faith in

140-523: A bishopric was established in Byblos, and the town grew rapidly. Although a Sasanian colony is known to have been established in the region following the early Muslim conquests of 636, there is little archaeological evidence for it. Trade with Europe effectively dried up, and it was not until the coming of the First Crusade in 1098 that prosperity returned to Byblos, known then as Gibelet or Giblet. In

210-454: A collection of fossilised fish, sharks, eel, flying fish, and other marine life, some of which are millions of years old. The old medieval part of Byblos is surrounded by walls running about 270m from east to west and 200m from north to south. Byblos Castle was built by the Crusaders in the 12th century. It is located in the archaeological site near the port. Work on the church started during

280-464: A direct or indirect object ('me, him', 'to me, to him') or as a possessive ('mine, his') the personal pronoun takes the form of a suffix. These suffixes can be combined with verbal forms, substantives, and paricles. Examples: The paradigm for the suffixed personal pronouns is: The relative pronoun, 'who, that, which', in both Punic and Neo-Punic is’ Š ( ’īs ). In late Neo-Punic M’ ( mū ) (originally an interrogative pronoun, 'what?') emerged as

350-462: A given verbal form may depend on: The numbers from one to ten are: Punic and Neo-Punic take part in the so-called "Semitic polarity ": the numbers 3-10 take the feminine form with masculine nouns, and vice versa. Thus with masculine BN ( bin , 'son') or YM ( yom , 'day'), numbers take the feminine form ending in -T , while with feminine ŠT ( sat , 'year'), they take the masculine form without -T . For example: Multiples of ten take

420-478: A hereditary fief, undertaking to pay an annual fee to Genoa and the church of San Lorenzo (Genoa's Cathedral). The Embriaco family's residence, the Byblos Castle , along with the fortified town, served as an important military base for the Crusaders. The remains of the castle are among the most impressive architectural structures now visible in the town centre. The town was taken by Saladin in 1187, re-taken by

490-411: A protected landing place for boats. Dunand discovered around twenty houses although some of the settlement was suggested to have been lost to the sea, robbed or destroyed. Dwellings were rectangular with plastered floors, pottery was usually Dark faced burnished ware with some shell impressions. The Middle Neolithic was a smaller settlement of no more than 0.15 ha (0.37 acres) adjacent to

560-410: A second relative pronoun. Both pronouns were not inflected. The combination ’Š M’ ( ’īs mū ) was also used in late Neo-Punic. A pronoun Š- ( si- ) was used to express an indirect genitival relationship between two substantives; it can be translated as 'of'. This uninflected pronoun was prefixed to the second of the two substantives. Example: There are two interrogative pronouns: Neither of

630-453: A substantive and indicates that that substantive is an object in the sentence (mostly a direct object). Word order in Punic and Neo-Punic can vary, but this variation has its grammatical limits. For example, in a clause with an imperfect prefixing form the subject can either precede or follow the verb. However, as a rule, if the verb precedes it refers to the present, while if the subject precedes,

700-454: Is 'Gebul' or 'Jabul'), as they're derivatives of ג־ב־ל ('g-ḇ-l' / 'g- b -l' / 'g-v-l'), which means 'twist as a rope', '(be a, set) border' or 'bound(aria)', which tells us that it is a North Boundary of Canaan. Situated approximately 42 km (26 mi) north of Beirut , Byblos holds a strong allure for archaeologists due to its accumulations of various strata resulting from countless centuries of human dwelling. The initial excavation

770-487: Is an ancient city in the Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate of Lebanon . The area is believed to have been first settled between 8800 and 7000   BC and continuously inhabited since 5000   BC. During its history, Byblos was part of numerous cultures including Egyptian , Phoenician , Assyrian , Persian , Hellenistic , Roman , Genoese , Mamluk and Ottoman . Urbanisation is thought to have begun during

SECTION 10

#1732859228293

840-463: Is an old market. This summer music festival is an annual event that takes place in the historic quarter. The Armenian Genocide Orphans' Aram Bezikian Museum is a museum dedicated to preserving the memory of the Armenian Genocide and its survivors. Byblos is twinned with: Punic language The Punic language , also called Phoenicio-Punic or Carthaginian , is an extinct variety of

910-500: Is considered the "primary source on the survival of [late] Punic". According to him, Punic was still spoken in his region (Northern Africa) in the 5th century, centuries after the fall of Carthage, and there were still people who called themselves "chanani" (" Canaanite ") at that time. He wrote around 401: And if the Punic language is rejected by you, you virtually deny what has been admitted by most learned men, that many things have been wisely preserved from oblivion in books written in

980-675: The 19th dynasty , only to decline during the 20th and 21st dynasties. In addition, when the New Kingdom collapsed in the 11th century BC, Byblos ceased being a colony and became the foremost city of Phoenicia. Although the archaeological evidence seems to indicate a brief resurgence during the 22nd and 23rd dynasties, it is clear after the Third Intermediate Period the Egyptians started favouring Tyre and Sidon instead of Byblos. Archaeological evidence at Byblos, particularly

1050-713: The 4th-dynasty pharaoh Sneferu ( fl.  2600   BC) and as Gubla ( 𒁺𒆷 ) in the Akkadian cuneiform Amarna letters to the 18th-dynasty pharaohs Amenhotep III and IV . In the 1st   millennium   BC, its name appeared in Phoenician and Punic inscriptions as Gebal ( 𐤂𐤁𐤋 , GBL ); in the Hebrew Bible as Geval ( גבל ); and in Syriac as GBL ( ܓܒܠ ). The name seems to derive from GB ( 𐤂𐤁 , " well ") and ʾL ( 𐤀𐤋 , " god "),

1120-621: The Achaemenid Empire (538–332 BC), Byblos was the fourth of four Phoenician vassal kingdoms established by the Persians; the first three being Sidon , Tyr , and Arwad . Hellenistic rule came with the arrival of Alexander the Great in the area in 332 BC. Coinage was in use, and there is abundant evidence of continued trade with other Mediterranean countries. During the Greco-Roman period,

1190-566: The Canaanite war god Resheph , but this had fallen into ruins by the time of Alexander the Great . In the Assyrian period, Sibittibaal of Byblos became tributary to Tiglath-Pileser III in 738 BC, and in 701 BC, when Sennacherib conquered all Phoenicia , the king of Byblos was Urumilki . Byblos was also subject to Assyrian kings Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) and Ashurbanipal (r. 668–627 BC), under its kings Milkiasaph and Yehawmelek . In

1260-625: The Grand Serail in Beirut . Byblos was chosen by Condé Nast Traveler as the second best city in the Middle East for 2012, beating Tel Aviv and Dubai , and by the World Tourism Organization as the best Arab tourist city for 2013. The Byblos Wax Museum displays wax statues of characters whose dates of origin range from Phoenician times to current days. The Byblos Fossil Museum has

1330-927: The Lebanese American University (LAU) . The LAU Byblos Campus houses the Medical School, the Engineering School, the School of Architecture and Design, the Pharmacy School, which offers the only Pharm.D. Program outside the United States accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) , the School of Business, and the School of Arts and Sciences. Byblos is re-emerging as an upscale touristic hub. With its ancient port , Phoenician , Roman, and Crusader ruins, sandy beaches and

1400-519: The Mediterranean . A version of Punic, known as Latino-Punic was written in the Latin alphabet and is known from seventy texts. These texts include the 1st-century Zliten LP1 and the second century Lepcis Magna LP1 . They were even written as late as the 4th century, Bir ed-Dreder LP2 . Augustine of Hippo (d. 430) is generally considered the last major ancient writer to have some knowledge of Punic and

1470-614: The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb , as the geographer al-Bakri describes a people speaking a language that was not Berber , Latin or Coptic in Sirte , where spoken Punic survived well past written use. However, it is likely that Arabization of Punic speakers was facilitated by their language belonging to the same group (both were Semitic languages) as that of the conquerors and so they had many grammatical and lexical similarities. The idea that Punic

SECTION 20

#1732859228293

1540-535: The Numidians ". That account agrees with other evidence found to suggest a North African Berber influence on Punic, such as Libyco-Berber names in the Onomasticon of Eusebius . Neo-Punic is mostly known from inscriptions, including Lepcis Magna N 19 (= KAI 124 ; 92 AD). Around the fourth century AD, Punic was still spoken in what is now northern parts of Tunisia and Algeria , other parts of Northwest Africa, and

1610-624: The Phoenician language , a Canaanite language of the Northwest Semitic branch of the Semitic languages . An offshoot of the Phoenician language of coastal West Asia (modern Lebanon and north western Syria ), it was principally spoken on the Mediterranean coast of Northwest Africa , the Iberian Peninsula and several Mediterranean islands , such as Malta , Sicily , and Sardinia by

1680-593: The Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period, approximately 8800 to 7000 BC (Durand's Early Neolithic). Early Neolithic Byblos was a later settlement than others in the Beqaa Valley such as Labweh and Ard Tlaili . It was located on the seaward slope of the larger of the two hills that used to compose ancient Byblos, with a watered valley in between. The original site spread down into the valley and covered an area of 1.2 ha (3.0 acres) providing fertile soils and

1750-488: The Punic people , or western Phoenicians , throughout classical antiquity , from the 8th century BC to the 6th century AD. Punic is considered to have gradually separated from its Phoenician parent around the time that Carthage became the leading Phoenician city under Mago I , but scholarly attempts to delineate the dialects lack precision and generally disagree on the classification. The Punics stayed in contact with

1820-515: The diphthongs ay and aw , respectively (for example Punic mēm , 'water', corresponds to Hebrew mayim ). Two vowel changes are noteworthy. In many cases a stressed long ā developed into / o /, for example in the third person masculine singular of the suffixing conjugation of the verb, baròk , 'he has blessed' (compare Hebrew baràk ). And in some cases that / o / secondarily developed into ū , for example mū , 'what?', < mō < mā (cf. Hebrew māh , 'what?'). In late Punic and Neo-Punic

1890-404: The glottal stop and pharyngeal and laryngeal consonants were no longer pronounced. The signs’ , ‘, h, and ḥ thus became available to indicate vowels. The ‘ayn ( ‘ ) came to be regularly used to indicate an / a / sound, and also y and w increasingly were used to indicate / i / and / o, u /, respectively. But a consistent system to write vowels never developed. In this section "Grammar"

1960-498: The vowels . Like its Phoenician parent, Punic was written from right to left, in horizontal lines, without vowels. Punic has 22 consonants. Details of their pronunciation can be reconstructed from Punic and Neo-Punic texts written in Latin or Greek characters (inscriptions, and parts of Plautus's comedy Poenulus , 'The Little Punic'). The vowels in Punic and Neo-Punic are: short a, i, and u ; their long counterparts ā, ī, and ū ; and ē and ō , which had developed out of

2030-666: The 12th and 13th century, Byblos became part of the County of Tripoli , a Crusader state connected to, but largely independent from, the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem . As Gibelet or Giblet, it came under the rule of the Genoese Embriaco family , who created for themselves the Lordship of Gibelet , first as administrators of the city in the name of the Republic of Genoa , and then as

2100-631: The 3rd millennium BC, the first signs of a town can be observed, with the remains of well-built houses of uniform size. This was the period when the Canaanite civilization began to develop. Neolithic remains of some buildings can be observed at the site. Jacques Cauvin published studies of flint tools from the stratified Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites in 1962. Remains of humans found in Chalcolithic burials have been published by Henri Victor Vallois in 1937. Tombs from this era were discussed by Emir Maurice Chehab in 1950. Early pottery found at

2170-507: The Aaqoura area. The carved stone Saint Peter and Paul church in Aaqoura is by far the oldest existing church in Lebanon and one of the oldest in the world. It was converted in the 4th century from a tomb place to the priests of the temple of Ashtarout in Afqa to a church. The village of Aaqoura is known for the famous mountain chains surrounding and protecting it. These mountains have offered refuge for

Aqoura - Misplaced Pages Continue

2240-651: The Arabic form of the name is used, it is typically rendered Jbeil , Jbail , or Jbayl in English. All of these, along with Byblos, are etymologically related. During the Crusades , this name appeared in Western records as Gibelet or Giblet . This name was used for Byblos Castle and its associated lordship . The Phoenician City, known to the Greeks as Býblos ( Βύβλος ) and to

2310-710: The Crusaders, and conquered by Baibars in 1266, but it remained in the possession of the Embriacos until around 1300. Having voluntarily surrendered to the Mamluks, the city was relatively spared from looting following its capture. Its fortifications were subsequently restored by Baybars . From 1516 until 1918, the town and the whole region became part of the Ottoman Empire . Byblos and all of Lebanon were placed under French Mandate from 1920 until 1943 when Lebanon achieved independence. The 2006 Lebanon War negatively affected

2380-665: The Crusades in 1115. It was considered a cathedral and was partially destroyed during an earthquake in AD 1170. It was later given to the Maronite bishop as a gift by Prince Yusuf Shihab . The old mosque by the Castle dates back to the Mamluk period, and adopted the name of Sultan Abdulmejid I after he renovated it. In the southeast section of the historic city, near the entrance of the archaeological site,

2450-641: The Greek comedy, and Plautus took parts of this Punic version to give his Carthaginian character authentic speech. Moreover, in this way he could enter puns by introducing in his play would-be translators who, to comical effect, claimed to, but did not in fact, understand Punic, and thus gave nonsensical 'translations'. Yth alonim ualonuth sicorathi symacom syth chy mlachthi in ythmum ysthy alm ych-ibarcu mysehi li pho caneth yth bynuthi uad edin byn ui bymarob syllohom alonim ubymysyrthohom byth limmoth ynnocho thuulech- antidamas chon ys sidobrim chi fel yth chyl

2520-625: The New Kingdom pharaohs of Ancient Egypt Around 1350 BC, the Amarna letters include 60 letters from Rib-Hadda and his successor Ili-Rapih who were rulers of Byblos, writing to the Egyptian government. This is mainly due to Rib-Hadda's constant pleas for military assistance from Akhenaten . They also deal with the conquest of neighbouring city-states by the Habiru . It appears Egyptian contact peaked during

2590-475: The Punic tongue. Nay, you ought even to be ashamed of having been born in the country in which the cradle of this language is still warm. Besides Augustine, the only proof of Punic-speaking communities at such a late period is a series of trilingual funerary texts found in the Christian catacombs of Sirte , Libya : the gravestones are carved in Ancient Greek , Latin and Punic. It might have even survived

2660-487: The Romans as Byblus , was important for their import of papyrus out of Ancient Egypt – to the extent that " Byblos " came to mean "papyrus" in Greek. The English word " Bible ", therefore, ultimately derives from the Greek name of the city, Βύβλος ('Βύblos / Byblos') , a Greek mumbo-jumble of גְּבָל ('Gāḇal / Gə b al Gobâl'..., that is, 'Gebal' or 'Jebel'), which shares the same root as גְּבוּל ('Gəḇūl / Gā b ūl, that

2730-399: The absolute state or the so-called construct state. A word in the construct state has a close relation with the word that follows, a relation that is often translated by "of". For example, in the combination "sons of Hanno", "sons of" would be in the construct state, while "Hanno" would be in the absolute state. Morphology: The demonstrative pronoun 'this, these' was: The definite article

2800-479: The ancient city by covering its harbour and town walls with an oil slick that was the result of an oil spill from a nearby power plant. Byblos's inhabitants are predominantly Christian, mostly Maronite , with minorities of Armenian Apostolic , Greek Orthodox , and Greek Catholics . There is also a minority of Shi`i Muslims . It is said that the city of Bint Jbeil ("Daughter of Byblos") in Southern Lebanon

2870-469: The citizens of Aaqoura during the different wars in Lebanon and the region. Also known for their courage, hospitality, and their intelligence the people of Aaqoura are studying and working worldwide. The local citizens work, value, and guard their lands. They cherish and proclaim their Christianity and play a major role in Lebanon through their political influence and their international relations. As of 2022,

Aqoura - Misplaced Pages Continue

2940-563: The five Byblian royal inscriptions dating back to around 1200–1000 BC, shows existence of a Phoenician alphabet of twenty-two characters; an important example is the Ahiram sarcophagus . The use of the alphabet was spread by Phoenician merchants through their maritime trade into parts of North Africa and Europe. One of the most important monuments of this period is the Temple of the Obelisks , dedicated to

3010-412: The form of a plural ( -īm ) of the word for 10 or 3-9: One hundred is M’T ( mīt ), its dual M’TM ( mitēm ) is 200; 1000 is ’LP ( ’èlef ), and 10,000 is RB’ ( ribō ). An important particle is the so-called nota objecti , or accusative particle , ’YT (’et) (rarely ’T ; usually T- before a substantive with definite article or with demonstrative pronoun). It is placed before

3080-460: The form of one copper hook, found in a jar. Some jars were lined with white plaster that was applied and self-hardened after firing. Copper appeared more frequently in the Late Chalcolithic period along with multiple burials in tombs and jar handles with impressed signs. According to Lorenzo Nigro , Byblos moved from being a fishermen's village to its earlier urban form at the beginning of

3150-440: The former Punic territories in 146 BC. The dialect differed from the earlier Punic language, as is evident from divergent spelling compared to earlier Punic and by the use of non-Semitic names, mostly of Libyco-Berber or Iberian origin. The difference was due to the dialectal changes that Punic underwent as it spread among the northern Berber peoples . Sallust (86 – 34 BC) claims Punic was "altered by their intermarriages with

3220-490: The homeland of Phoenicia until the destruction of Carthage by the Roman Republic in 146 BC. At first, there was not much difference between Phoenician and Punic. Developments in the language before 146 BC are largely hidden from us by the adherence of Carthaginian scribes to a traditional Phoenician orthography, but there are occasional hints that the phonology and grammar of Punic had begun to diverge from Phoenician after

3290-512: The islands. Punic itself, being Canaanite, was more similar to Modern Hebrew than to Arabic. Today there are a number of common Berber roots that descend from Punic, including the word for "learn" ( *almid , *yulmad ; compare Hebrew למד ). Punic is known from inscriptions (most of them religious formulae) and personal name evidence. The play Poenulus by Plautus contains a few lines of vernacular Punic which have been subject to some research because unlike inscriptions, they largely preserve

3360-539: The latter a word that could variously refer to any of the Canaanite gods or to their leader in particular . The name thus seems to have meant the "Well of the God" or "Source of the God". Its present Arabic name Jubayl ( جبيل ) or J ( e ) beil is a direct descendant of these earlier names, although apparently modified by a misunderstanding of the name as the triliteral root GBL or JBL , meaning " mountain ". When

3430-416: The notation " XX (xxxx)" is used, where XX is the spelling in Punic characters (without vowels), while xxxx is a phonetic rendering, including vowels, as can be reconstructed from Punic language texts written in the Latin or Greek alphabets. Nouns, including adjectives, in Punic and Neo-Punic can be of two genders (masculine or feminine), three numbers (singular, dual, or plural), and in two 'states',

3500-503: The older site. The pottery was more developed with red washes and more varied forms and elaborate decorations, buildings were poorer with unplastered floors. The Late Neolithic period showed development from the middle in building design, a wider range of more developed flint tools and a far larger variety of pottery with fabrication including silica. The Late Chalcolithic featured developments of " Canaanite blades " and fan scrapers. Adult burials in jars started to appear along with metal in

3570-498: The oldest Egyptian words for an oceangoing boat was "Byblos ship". Archaeologists have recovered Egyptian -made artifacts as old as a vessel fragment bearing the name of the Second dynasty ruler Khasekhemwy , although this "may easily have reached Byblos through trade and/or at a later period". Objects have been found at Byblos naming the 13th Dynasty Egyptian king Neferhotep I . The rulers of Byblos maintained close relationships with

SECTION 50

#1732859228293

3640-460: The picturesque mountains that surround it make it an ideal tourist destination. The city is known for its fish restaurants, open-air bars, and outdoor cafes. Yachts cruise into its harbor today as they did in the 1960s and 1970s when Marlon Brando and Frank Sinatra were regular visitors to the city. Byblos was crowned as the "Arab Tour Capital" for the year 2016 by the Lebanese minister of tourism in

3710-548: The religious make-up of the town's 4,152 registered voters were roughly 92.3% Maronite Catholics , 3.1% Greek Orthodox , 2.4% Greek Catholic , 0.8% Christian Minorities , and 1.4% others. This Lebanon location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Byblos Byblos ( / ˈ b ɪ b l ɒ s / BIB -loss ; Ancient Greek : Βύβλος ), also known as Jebeil , Jbeil or Jubayl ( Arabic : جُبَيْل , romanized :  Jubayl , locally Jbeil [ʒ(ə)beːl] ),

3780-472: The same lines. Charles Krahmalkov is of the opinion that the first ten lines are Neo-Punic, the next ten Punic. Krahmalkov proposed the theory that Plautus, who often translated Greek comedies into Latin, in this case too reworked a Greek original, the Karkhedonios ('The Carthaginian'; Athenian comic poet Alexis wrote a play with this title). In this case, there probably also existed a Punic translation of

3850-413: The sixth century BC. The clearest evidence for this comes from Motya in western Sicily, but there are also traces of it in sixth-century Carthaginian inscriptions and it is unclear whether these developments began in western Sicily and spread to Africa or vice versa. From the fifth-century BC, a shared set of alphabetic, orthographic, and phonological rules are encountered in Punic inscriptions throughout

3920-522: The specific root consonants certain deviations of the standard verbal paradigm occur. For example in the group I- n (verbs with first consonant N- ) the n may disappear through assimilation . Summary: In Punic there was no one-on-one correlation between form and use. For example, the suffix form (perfect) is often translated by a present tense, but it may also refer to the past or future. Tense, aspect, and mood of verbal forms were determined by syntax, not by morphology. The tense, aspect and mood of

3990-400: The tell was published by E.S. Boynton in 1960 with further studies by R. Erich in 1954 and Van Liere and Henri de Contenson in 1964. Prehistoric settlements at Byblos were divided up by Dunand into the following five periods, which were recently expanded and re-calibrated by Yosef Garfinkel to correlate with Tell es-Sultan (Jericho): The site first appears to have been settled during

4060-411: The temple of Resheph was elaborately rebuilt, and the city, though smaller than its neighbours such as Tyrus and Zidonia, was a centre for the cult of Adonis . King Herod of Judaea , known for his extensive building projects, including beyond his own kingdom, constructed a city wall for Byblos. In the 3rd century, a small but impressive theatre was constructed. With the rise of Christianity ,

4130-687: The third millennium BC and it developed into a city making it one of the oldest cities in the world , if not the oldest. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site . It was in Ancient Byblos that the Phoenician alphabet , likely the ancestor of the Greek , Latin and all other Western alphabets, was developed. Eusebius' Onomasticon stated that Byblos was called "Gobel / Gebal" in Hebrew. The name appears as Kebny in Egyptian hieroglyphic records going back to

4200-561: The third millennium BC. Early Bronze Age remains were characterised by the development of Byblos combed ware and a lithic assemblage studied by Jacques Cauvin. Watson Mills and Roger Bullard suggest that during the Old Kingdom of Egypt and Middle Kingdom of Egypt Byblos was virtually an Egyptian colony. The growing city was a wealthy one and seems to have been an ally (among "those who are on his waters") of Egypt for many centuries. First Dynasty tombs used timbers from Byblos. One of

4270-443: The two pronouns was inflected. In Punic and Neo-Punic there was no exclusive indefinite pronoun. Whenever such a pronoun might be needed, it was circumscribed by means of words like ’ḤD (’ḥḥad) , 'one', ’Š (’īs) or ’DM (’adom) , 'a man, a person', or KL (kil) , 'all'. The nucleus of Punic and Neo-Punic verbs is a "root" consisting of three or, sometimes, two consonants. By adding prefixes and suffixes, and by varying

SECTION 60

#1732859228293

4340-419: The verb refers to the future. The repertoire of possible ways in (Neo-)Punic to express a certain combination of tense, aspect, and mood seems to be more restricted than in Phoenician, but at the same time the rules seem to have become less strict. Act V of Plautus's comedy Poenulus opens with Hanno speaking in Punic, his native language, in the first ten lines. Then follows a slightly different version of

4410-803: The vowels that are inserted into the root, the various forms of the verb are formed. These belong to six "stems" (conjugations). The basic, and most common, stem type is the Qal. The other common stems are: A few other stems are found only very rarely: The paradigm of the Qal is (the verb B-R-K ( barok ), 'to bless', is used as an example): The following Niph‘al forms are attested in Punic and Neo-Punic (verb: P-‘-L , fel , 'to make'; < Phoenician pa‘ol ): The following Pi‘el forms are attested in Punic and Neo-Punic (verb: Ḥ-D-Š , ḥados , 'to make new, to restore'): The following Yiph‘il forms are attested in Punic and Neo-Punic (verb: Q-D-Š , qados , 'to dedicate'): Many (Neo-)Punic verbs are "weak": depending on

4480-424: The western Mediterranean, probably due to Carthaginian influence. Punic literary works were written in the period before 146 BC. For example, Mago wrote 28 volumes about animal husbandry . The Roman Senate appreciated the works so much that after taking Carthage, they presented them to Berber princes who owned libraries there. Mago's work was translated into Greek by Cassius Dionysius of Utica . A Latin version

4550-477: Was conducted by Ernest Renan in 1860, documented in his work "Mission de Phénicie" (1865–1874) . This was succeeded by Pierre Montet 's efforts from 1921 to 1924, and later by Maurice Dunand , who continued excavations from 1925 for a span of forty years. Renan's expedition was to "provide the evidence that the city did not move and that Gebeil is Byblos". Fragments attributed to the semi-legendary pre- Homeric Phoenician priest Sanchuniathon say Byblos

4620-437: Was evolving from Phoenician ha- to an unaspirated article a- . By 406 BCE, both variants were attested in the same inscription ( CIS I 5510 ). Although in later times the h- was no longer pronounced, the "historical" spelling H- kept being used, in addition to ’- and Ø-, and one even finds Ḥ- . The personal pronouns, when used on their own, are: (forms between [...] are attested in Phoenician only) When used as

4690-452: Was founded by those Shi`i Muslims. Byblos has three representatives in the Parliament of Lebanon : two Maronites and one Shi`i Muslim. As of 2022, the religious make-up of the town's 9,247 registered voters were roughly 65.8% Maronite Catholics , 8.7% Armenian Orthodox , 7.2% Shia , 6.3% Sunni , 4.6% Greek Orthodox , and 7.4% others. Byblos is home to the professional schools of

4760-622: Was probably translated from the Greek version. Further examples of Punic works of literature include the works of Hanno the Navigator , who wrote about his encounters during his naval voyages around what is today Africa and about the settling of new colonies in Iberia, North Africa and the Mediterranean. Neo-Punic refers to the dialect of Punic spoken after the fall of Carthage and after the Roman conquest of

4830-653: Was the first city erected in Phoenicia and was established by the god Cronus . (Cronus was considered the nearest equivalent to the Canaanite Baal / Baal Hammon in the syncretising system used by the ancient Greeks and Romans.) According to the writer Philo of Byblos (quoting Sanchuniathon, and quoted in Eusebius ), Byblos was founded by the Phoenician shrine god El (whom the Greeks identified with their god Cronus ). During

4900-466: Was the origin of Maltese was first raised in 1565. Modern linguistics has proved that Maltese is in fact derived from Arabic , probably Siculo-Arabic specifically, with a large number of loanwords from Italian . However, Punic was indeed spoken on the island of Malta at some point in its history, as evidenced by both the Cippi of Melqart , which is integral to the decipherment of Punic after its extinction, and other inscriptions that were found on

#292707