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141-578: The establishment of ASEAN-WEN was a response by the governments of Southeast Asia to the illegal wildlife trade . ASEAN-WEN addresses illegal exploitation and trade in CITES -listed endangered species within the ASEAN region. ASEAN-WEN promotes implementation of national wildlife protection laws and international species protection treaties, with the goal of reducing illegal wildlife trade in Southeast Asia through

282-449: A Chinese Ming emperor sent a princess, Hang Li Po , to Malacca, with a retinue of 500, to marry Sultan Mansur Shah after the emperor was impressed by the wisdom of the sultan. Hang Li Poh's Well (constructed 1459) is now a tourist attraction there, as is Bukit Cina , where her retinue settled. The strategic value of the Strait of Malacca , which was controlled by Sultanate of Malacca in

423-499: A consumer and a global transit point - three roles that make the region a crucial area to address in the global fight against illicit trade. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reports that Southeast Asian countries rank among the highest in the world for density of endangered species. Nine countries in the world's top 20-list of countries with the most endangered mammal species are in Southeast Asia. Biodiversity, including endemic species of flora and fauna ,

564-492: A cultural or linguistic perspective the definitions of "Southeast Asia" may vary, the most common definitions nowadays include the area represented by the countries (sovereign states and dependent territories) listed below. Ten of the eleven states of Southeast Asia are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), while East Timor is an observer state. Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and

705-622: A dominant maritime power of Indian subcontinent, in 1025. The invasion reshaped power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as the Khmer Empire and Kahuripan . Continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia are

846-523: A form of transnational organized environmental crime driving species to extinction by the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime ( UNODC ) in their report “The Globalization of Organized Crime- A Transnational Organized Crime Threat Assessment" A World Bank report from 2008 states that the Southeast Asian region functions as a key supplier for global demand for protected wildlife, as well as

987-756: A framework for the integration of commerce and regional responses to international concerns. China has asserted broad claims over the South China Sea , based on its nine-dash line , and has built artificial islands in an attempt to bolster its claims. China also has asserted an exclusive economic zone based on the Spratly Islands . The Philippines challenged China in the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 2013, and in Philippines v. China (2016),

1128-564: A lack of cross-border cooperation between India, Nepal and the People's Republic of China to coordinate enforcement operations and lack of political will to treat wildlife crime effectively. The poaching of elephants is a significant problem in Southern India and in the North-Eastern states of Nagaland and Mizoram . In 2015-17, Operation Shikkar led to the arrest of 72 individuals and

1269-437: A management program. The use of legal trade and quotas have allowed management of a species as well as economic incentive for sustaining habitat with greater ecological benefits. Legalising the trade of products derived from endangered species is highly controversial. Many researchers have proposed that a well regulated legal market could benefit some endangered species by either flooding the market with products that drive down

1410-513: A new local power emerged. Myinsaing Kingdom became the real ruler of Central Burma and challenged the Mongol rule. This resulted in the second Mongol invasion of Burma in 1300, which was repulsed by Myinsaing. The Mongols would later in 1303 withdrawn from Burma. In 1292, The Mongols sent envoys to Singhasari Kingdom in Java to ask for submission to Mongol rule. Singhasari rejected the proposal and injured

1551-553: A result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation. The Allied powers who then defeated Japan (and other allies of Axis ) in the South-East Asian theatre of World War II then contended with nationalists to whom the occupation authorities had granted independence. Gujarat , India had a flourishing trade relationship with Southeast Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. The trade relationship with Gujarat declined after

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1692-423: A result of large population numbers or pests, there is potential for the use of legal trade to reduce illegal trade threatening many species. Legalizing the trade of species can allow for more regulated harvesting of animals and prevent illegal over-harvesting. Many environmentalists, scientists, and zoologists around the world are against legalizing pet trade of invasive or introduced species, as their release into

1833-474: A stronger driver for illegal wildlife trade than poverty. Demand for wildlife has grown along with growing wealth in Asia. It is reported that there is hardly any species of flora or fauna that has not yet been traded for a valuable part of it, and that, the rarer a species, the more money are customers willing to pay for it. Amongst other reasons contributing to the exploitation of Southeast Asia's natural resources are

1974-572: Is Insulindia (Indian Islands), used to describe the region between Indochina and Australasia . The term "Southeast Asia" was first used in 1839 by American pastor Howard Malcolm in his book Travels in South-Eastern Asia . Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia. The term was officially used in the midst of World War II by

2115-751: Is captive-bred saltwater crocodiles, with some wild populations listed in Appendix I and others in Appendix II. Many animals are kept for months in markets waiting to be sold. The welfare of animals in trade is almost universally poor, with the vast majority of animals failing to receive even the most basic freedom from pain, hunger, distress, discomfort, and few opportunities to express normal behaviour. Reptiles specifically endure tight living spaces, torn claws and dehydration during capturing and transportation. Sometimes, they are also crushed from being stacked on top of each other. Southeast Asia Southeast Asia

2256-577: Is currently an observer. Sovereignty issues exist over some islands in the South China Sea . * Administrative centre in Putrajaya . Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia (or the Indochinese Peninsula) and Maritime Southeast Asia . Mainland Southeast Asia includes : Maritime Southeast Asia includes : While Peninsular Malaysia

2397-601: Is currently hold the position as Director of ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network Law Enforcement Extension Office. Dr.Vatanarak received his bachelor, master and doctor degree with Summa Cum Laude (first class honor) from prestige universities in USA. Currently, the ASEAN-WEN LEEO is stationary at Natural Resources and Environment Crime Division, Royal Thai Police (RTP). Under the PCU, with the overall guidance from ASEAN-WEN/ASEAN Member States,

2538-490: Is evident in the Arab-Indonesian, Arab-Singaporean, and Arab-Malay populations who were at one time very prominent in each of their countries. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam and that further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region's most important port, Malacca Sultanate , embraced Islam in the 15th century, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout

2679-509: Is expected to establish a national inter-agency task force of police, customs, and environmental officers. The Kingdom of Thailand, the Philippines, Cambodia, Indonesia and Malaysia have established national task forces. Lao PDR and Viet Nam are preparing to establish their national task forces very soon. Law enforcement officers in national task forces receive training on investigations, species identification and wildlife laws. The Secretariat of

2820-503: Is fighting the trafficking of illegal wildlife in Asia in three ways: reducing consumer demand; strengthening law enforcement; and strengthening regional cooperation and anti-trafficking networks. ARREST unites the efforts of the member states of ASEAN, China and South Asia, NGOs, and private sector organizations. U.S-Government sponsored ASEAN-WEN training courses and workshops are taking place across Southeast Asia . On-the-job training delivered by law enforcement experts assisting ASEAN-WEN

2961-628: Is geographically situated in Mainland Southeast Asia, it shares many similar cultural and ecological affinities with surrounding islands, thus it is often grouped with them as part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Geographically, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India is also considered a part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and Northeast India have strong cultural ties with Mainland Southeast Asia and are sometimes considered transregional areas between South Asia and Southeast Asia. To

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3102-868: Is housed at the Natural Resources and Environmental Crimes Suppression Division of the Royal Thai Police. The inaugural lead officer of the LEEO was Police Major General Surasit Sangkaphong (2008-2009), formally appointed by the Royal Thai Police to lead the LEEO. In 2010, the ASEAN-WEN Support Program, the Malaysian Government (then acting as the Country Chair of ASEAN-WEN), and the Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation approved of

3243-412: Is immense and continues to rise. According to an analysis to the 2012 Harmonized System customs statistics, global import of wildlife products amounted to US$ 187 billion, of which fisheries commodities accounted for $ 113 billion; plants and forestry products for $ 71 billion; non-fishery animal for $ 3 billion including live animals, parts and derivatives. However, the global trade of wildlife commodities

3384-528: Is imparting knowledge and support to these authorities. Trade in endangered species in Southeast Asia has devastating impacts on the region's biodiversity , disturbing ecological balances and undermining environmental services. This, in turn impacts the people of Southeast Asia and their well-being. The multibillion-dollar illegal wildlife trade supplies one of the world's largest black markets, surpassed only by illicit commerce in arms and drugs. The illicit harvesting of natural resources has been defined as

3525-667: Is ineffectively monitored and accounted for due to the constraint of the HS Code System used by the customs worldwide. The majority of international imports of wildlife are only recorded in extremely basic and general categories, such as 'plant' or 'animal products', with no further taxonomic detail. It is estimated that near 50% of the global import of plant and 70% of animal products are imported as general categories, with an exception for fisheries (ca. 5%), thanks to various multilateral fishery management agreements that requires taxon-specific fish catch reporting. Many jurisdictions rely on

3666-543: Is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He ." There are several theories to the Islamization process in Southeast Asia. Another theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India, and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders from South Arabia ( Hadhramaut ) brought Islam to the region with their large volume of trade. Many settled in Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia. This

3807-558: Is part of the ecological heritage of the region. Despite laws and treaties, this resource is being sold off illegally to consumers in East Asia, in Europe and in North America at an unsustainable rate. However, law enforcement efforts to protect Southeast Asia's endangered species are increasing. In 2008, 67 major and model law enforcement actions by Southeast Asian authorities were reported to

3948-586: Is politically represented through the Pacific Islands Forum , a governing body which, up until 2022, included Australia, New Zealand and all independent territories in Melanesia , Micronesia, and Polynesia . Several countries of Maritime Southeast Asia, such as Indonesia and the Philippines, are dialogue partners of the Pacific Islands Forum, but none have full membership. Maritime Southeast Asia

4089-544: Is present in the markets as photo props, sold for decoration, used in medicinal practices, sold as pets and used to decorate shops. Large numbers of reptiles are sold in the markets, especially spur-thighed tortoises. Although leopards have most likely been extirpated from Morocco, their skins can regularly be seen sold openly as medicinal products or decoration in the markets. Although the volume of animals traded may be greater in Southeast Asia, animal trading in Latin America

4230-488: Is prohibited. This rule applies to all species threatened with extinction, except in exceptional circumstances. Commercial trade of endangered species listed under Appendix II and III is not prohibited, although Parties must provide non-detriment finding to show that the species in the wild is not being unsustainably harvested for the purpose of trade. Specimens of Appendix I species that were bred in captivity for commercial purposes are treated as Appendix II. An example of this

4371-484: Is rampant. Capturing the baby tamarins , marmosets , spider monkeys , saki monkeys , in order to sell them, often requires shooting the mother primate out of a treetop with her clinging child; the youngster may or may not survive the fall. With the human population increasing, such practices have a serious impact on the future prospects for many threatened species. The United States is a popular destination for Amazonian rainforest animals. They are smuggled across borders

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4512-615: Is the geographical southeastern region of Asia , consisting of the regions that are situated south of China , east of the Indian subcontinent , and northwest of the Australian mainland , which is part of Oceania . Southeast Asia is bordered to the north by East Asia , to the west by South Asia and the Bay of Bengal , to the east by Oceania and the Pacific Ocean , and to the south by Australia and

4653-647: Is the only country where its folk religion makes up the plurality. Recently, Vietnamese folk religion is undergoing a revival with the support of the government. Elsewhere, there are ethnic groups in Southeast Asia that resisted conversion and still retain their original animist beliefs, such as the Dayaks in Kalimantan , the Igorots in Luzon, and the Shans in eastern Myanmar. After

4794-405: Is the strengthening of organized crime . Profits from illegal wildlife trade, which now ranks among the most lucrative types of black market commerce, can support other forms of criminal activity. Links are now being detected between wildlife crime, drug trafficking and human trafficking . With generally weak laws governing wildlife trade, low penalties and limited awareness of the problem among

4935-508: Is widespread as well. In open air Amazon markets in Iquitos and Manaus , a variety of rainforest animals are sold openly as meat, such as agoutis , peccaries , turtles, turtle eggs, walking catfish, etc. In addition, many species are sold as pets. The keeping of parrots and monkeys as pets by villagers along the Amazon is commonplace. But the sale of these "companion" animals in open markets

5076-541: The Allies , through the formation of South East Asia Command (SEAC) in 1943. SEAC popularised the use of the term "Southeast Asia", although what constituted Southeast Asia was not fixed; for example, SEAC excluded the Philippines and a large part of Indonesia while including Ceylon . However, by the late 1970s, a roughly standard usage of the term "Southeast Asia" and the territories it encompasses had emerged. Although from

5217-686: The Austronesian peoples , who form the majority of the modern population in Brunei, Indonesia, East Timor, Malaysia, and the Philippines, migrated to Southeast Asia from Taiwan in the first seaborne human migration known as the Austronesian Expansion . They arrived in the northern Philippines between 7,000 BC to 2,200 BC and rapidly spread further into the Northern Mariana Islands and Borneo by 1500 BC; Island Melanesia by 1300 BC; and to

5358-733: The CITES Secretariat (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), the United States, Interpol , the United Nations Office on for Drugs and Crime ( UNODC ), the United Nations Environment Program ( UNEP ), ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB), The World Bank , Global Tiger Initiative , and the World Customs Organization ( WCO ). The network is building partnerships with China, South Asia,

5499-762: The Indian Ocean . Apart from the British Indian Ocean Territory and two out of 26 atolls of the Maldives in South Asia, Maritime Southeast Asia is the only other subregion of Asia that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere . Mainland Southeast Asia is entirely in the Northern Hemisphere . East Timor and the southern portion of Indonesia are the parts of Southeast Asia that lie south of

5640-531: The Indonesian region of Western New Guinea (Papua and West Papua ). Both countries share the island of New Guinea . Islands to the east of the Philippines make up the region of Micronesia . These islands are not biogeographically, geologically or historically linked to mainland Asia, and are considered part of Oceania by the United Nations , The World Factbook , and other organisations. The Oceania region

5781-648: The Javan Rhinoceros , the Asian elephant , the Pangolin , freshwater turtles and tortoises and wild orchids in Southeast Asia. With scientists predicting severe impacts from a changing climate, reducing other man-induced pressures on biodiversity and ecosystems, such as poaching, is imperative. Illegal wildlife trade also threatens sustainable development in rural and coastal communities, as it destroys those natural and biological resources upon which thousands of people around

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5922-466: The Philippines and Indonesia . It covers about 4,500,000 km (1,700,000 sq mi), which is 8% of Eurasia and 3% of Earth's total land area. Its total population is more than 675 million, about 8.5% of the world's population. It is the third most populous geographical region in Asia after South Asia and East Asia. The region is culturally and ethnically diverse, with hundreds of languages spoken by different ethnic groups. Ten countries in

6063-572: The Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram ( Kedah ); the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present-day Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith, and converted to Islam with

6204-538: The Sultanate of Kedah established in 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in 1267, the King of Malacca Parameswara married the princess of Pasai, and the son became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon, Malacca became the center of Islamic study and maritime trade, and other rulers followed suit. Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholar Hamka (1908–1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia and Malaya

6345-562: The Sunda Trench . Even though they are geographically closer to Maritime Southeast Asia than mainland Australia , these two Australian external territories are not geologically associated with Asia as none of them is actually on the Sunda Plate . The UN Statistics Division 's geoscheme , which is a UN political geography tool created specifically for statistical purposes, has classified both island territories as parts of Oceania , under

6486-516: The UNSD subregion "Australia and New Zealand" ( Australasia ). Some definitions of Southeast Asia may include Taiwan . Taiwan has sometimes been included in Southeast Asia as well as East Asia but is not a member of ASEAN . Likewise, a similar argument could be applied to some southern parts of mainland China , as well as Hong Kong and Macau , may also considered as part of Southeast Asia as well as East Asia but are not members of ASEAN . The region

6627-624: The Wallace Line in the region of Wallacea ) are considered to be geographically associated with Oceania due to their distinctive faunal features. Geologically, the island of New Guinea and its surrounding islands are considered as parts of the Australian continent , connected via the Sahul Shelf . Both Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands are located on the Australian Plate , south of

6768-399: The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), told Reuters in an interview "The situation regarding the illegal trade in wildlife parts in India is very grim. It is a vast, a varied trade ranging from smuggling of rare medicinal plants to butterflies to peafowl to tigers and it is difficult to predict how big it is, but the threats and dimensions suggest that

6909-417: The equator . The region lies near the intersection of geological plates , with both heavy seismic and volcanic activities. The Sunda Plate is the main plate of the region, featuring almost all Southeast Asian countries except Myanmar , northern Thailand , northern Laos , northern Vietnam , and northern Luzon of the Philippines , while the Sunda Plate only includes western Indonesia to as far east as

7050-404: The traffic of drugs and weapons . Wildlife trade is a serious conservation problem, has a negative effect on the viability of many wildlife populations and is one of the major threats to the survival of vertebrate species. The illegal wildlife trade has been linked to the emergence and spread of new infectious diseases in humans, including emergent viruses . Global initiative like

7191-409: The 15th and early 16th century, did not go unnoticed by Portuguese writer Tomé Pires , who wrote in the Suma Oriental : "Whoever is lord of Malacca has his hand on the throat of Venice ." (Venice was a major European trading partner, and goods were transported there via the Straight.) Western influence started to enter in the 16th century, with the arrival of the Portuguese in Malacca, Maluku , and

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7332-436: The ASEAN-WEN was the ASEAN-WEN Program Coordination Unit (PCU), located in Bangkok, Thailand. The secretariat is now located in Jakarta, Indonesia. Together with the ASEAN Member States, ASEAN-WEN is supported by the ARREST Program (Asia's Regional Response to Endangered Species Trafficking): ARREST is a five-year program funded by US Agency for International Development (USAID) and implemented by FREELAND Foundation. The program

7473-535: The Australian government. Kangaroos are currently legally harvested for commercial trade and export in Australia. There are a number of species included in the trade including: Harvesting of kangaroos for legal trade does not occur in National Parks and is determined by quotas set by state government departments. Active kangaroo management has gained a commercial value in the trade of kangaroo meat , hides and other products. Alligators have been traded commercially in Florida and other American states as part of

7614-498: The Court ruled in favour of the Philippines and rejected China's claims. Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia and is also the largest archipelago in the world by size (according to the CIA World Factbook ). Geologically, the Indonesian Archipelago is one of the most volcanically active regions in the world. Geological uplifts in the region have also produced some impressive mountains, culminating in Puncak Jaya in Papua , Indonesia at 5,030 metres (16,503 feet), on

7755-407: The European Community, Africa (through the Lusaka Agreement Task Force) Australia and New Zealand. In October 2004, ASEAN Ministers expressed their support for cooperation to improve CITES implementation. In May 2005, the ASEAN Regional Action Plan on Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora (2005–2010) was developed. The plan, which includes the ASEAN-WEN, was adopted the following August in Phnom Penh during

7896-612: The Illegal Wildlife Trade?, World Bank Report 2008 See also: Wildlife Trade- what is it? Some estimate the value of the illegal wildlife trade at a minimum of US$ 5 billion and may exceed US$ 20billion annually. For estimates, see: Scientists predict 13-42% of Southeast Asia's animal and plant species could be wiped out this century. At least half those losses would represent global extinctions . Poaching and illegal wildlife trade contribute to this trend. Populations of species of high commercial value have already drastically declined (e.g. Tiger subspecies ( Endangered Subspecies of Tiger ),

8037-434: The Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar, as well as commerce between Western Asia, eastern coast of India and Chinese southern coast. Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome. Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History about Chryse and Argyre , two legendary islands rich in gold and silver, located in the Indian Ocean. Their vessels, such as the vinta , were capable to sail across

8178-415: The Indian subcontinent and its having cultural influences from both neighbouring regions. In the 20th century, however, the term became more restricted to territories of the former French Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). The maritime section of Southeast Asia is also known as the Malay Archipelago , a term derived from the European concept of a Malay race . Another term for Maritime Southeast Asia

8319-484: The Indonesian province of Bali . The mountain ranges in Myanmar, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia , and the Indonesian islands of Sumatra , Java , Bali , Lesser Sunda Islands , and Timor are part of the Alpide belt , while the islands of the Philippines and Indonesia as well as East Timor are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire . Both seismic belts meet in Indonesia, causing the region to have relatively high occurrences of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, particularly in

8460-429: The LEEO leads ASEAN-WEN PCU's partnership building with INTERPOL, the World Customs Organization (WCO), ASEANAPOL and other enforcement agencies. On September 29, 2011, Thailand's Commissioner General of Police formally approved linking the ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN) Law Enforcement Extension Office (LEEO) with the Royal Thai Police - Transnational Crime Coordination Center's (TNCCC). This decision allows

8601-524: The LEEO to begin providing Thailand's Wildlife Enforcement Network with new technical resources, information and assistance in its fight against nature crime. It also clears the way for it to eventually serve the same function at the regional level, serving as ASEAN-WEN's regional wildlife crime suppression and intelligence arm. Currently, ASEAN-WEN and the LEEO is supported by the USAID funded Asia's Regional Response to Endangered Species Trafficking (ARREST) Program, together with in-kind and financial support from

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8742-419: The Middle East, North America and Africa. The Chatuchak weekend market in Bangkok is a known center of illicit wildlife trade, and the sale of lizards, primates, and other endangered species has been widely documented. Trade routes connecting in Southeast Asia link Madagascar to the United States (for the sale of turtles, lemurs, and other primates), Cambodia to Japan (for the sale of slow lorises as pets), and

8883-423: The Mongols tried to invade Đại Việt and Champa . The invasions were unsuccessful, yet both Dai Viet and Champa agreed to become tributary states to Yuan dynasty to avoid further conflicts. The Mongols also invaded Pagan Kingdom in Burma from 1277 to 1287, resulted in fragmentation of the Kingdom and rise of smaller Shan States ruled by local chieftains nominally submitted to Yuan dynasty. However, in 1297,

9024-438: The Papuan-related and East Asian-related branches of the Eastern non-African lineage. The hunter-gatherer individual had approximately ~50% "Basal-East Asian" ancestry, and was positioned in between modern East Asians and Papuans of Oceania. The authors concluded that East Asian-related ancestry expanded from Mainland Southeast Asia into Maritime Southeast Asia much earlier than previously suggested, as early as 25,000BC, long before

9165-425: The Philippines, the latter being settled by the Spaniards years later, which they used to trade between Asia and Latin America . Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies ; the French Indochina ; and the British Strait Settlements . By the 19th century, all Southeast Asian countries were colonised except for Thailand . European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia from

9306-493: The Portuguese invasion of Southeast Asia in the 17th century. The United States took the Philippines from Spain in 1898. Internal autonomy was granted in 1934, and independence in 1946. Most countries in the region maintain national autonomy. Democratic forms of government are practised in most Southeast Asian countries and human rights is recognised but dependent on each nation state. Socialist or communist countries in Southeast Asia include Vietnam and Laos. ASEAN provides

9447-425: The Royal Thai Government, the ASEAN-WEN Support Program (2005-2010), the ASEAN Secretariat, and the US State Department. The LEEO is tasked with the support and coordination of operational law enforcement matters and transnational wildlife investigations. The LEEO is staffed by seconded officers from the Royal Thai Police, Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation (DNP) and the Customs Department, and

9588-447: The Royal Thai Government. Wildlife smugglers are often part of organized criminal syndicates, taking advantage of Asia's transport infrastructure to traffic wildlife within and out of the region. Environmental agencies and NGOs do not possess the authority or the capacity to stop organized crime. ASEAN-WEN facilitates a multi-agency and cross-border response, including police, customs and the judiciary. The US Secretary of State highlighted

9729-426: The South China Sea. Mayon Volcano , despite being dangerously active , holds the record of the world's most perfect cone which is built from past and continuous eruption . Geographically, Southeast Asia is bounded to the southeast by the Australian continent , the boundary between these two regions is most often considered to run through Wallacea . Geopolitically, the boundary lies between Papua New Guinea and

9870-477: The U.S. Agency for International Development and external funders, is one response to the region's illegal wildlife trade networks. There is no clear relationship between the legality of wildlife trade and its sustainability; a species can be legally traded to extinction but it is also possible for illegal trade to be sustainable Notable trade hubs of the wildlife trade include Suvarnabhumi Airport in Bangkok , which offers smugglers direct jet service to Europe,

10011-421: The UN convention on biological diversity stated: "We have seen many diseases emerge over the years, such as Zika, Aids, Sars and Ebola, and they all originated from animal populations under conditions of severe environmental pressures." Outbreaks of zoonotic diseases including COVID-19 , H5N1 avian flu , severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and monkeypox have been traced to live wildlife markets where

10152-663: The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15 have a target to end the illegal supply of wildlife. Wildlife use is a general term for all uses of wildlife products, including ritual or religious uses, consumption of bushmeat and different forms of trade. Wildlife use is usually linked to hunting or poaching . Wildlife trade can be differentiated in legal and illegal trade, and both can have domestic (local or national) or international markets, but they might be often related with each other. The volume of international trade in wildlife commodities

10293-461: The amount of activity is still negligible compared to the amount on the open or surface web. As stated in an examination of search engine key words relating to wildlife trade in an article published by Conservation Biology , "This negligible level of activity related to the illegal trade of wildlife on the dark web relative to the open and increasing trade on the surface web may indicate a lack of successful enforcement against illegal wildlife trade on

10434-436: The brunt of anti-tiger poaching measures, despite the main reason for the tiger population crash in the 20th century being due to hunting by European colonists and Indian elites. In fact, contrary to popular belief, there is strong evidence to show that they effectively regulate and manage animal populations. Interpol has estimated the extent of the illegal wildlife trade between $ 10 billion and $ 20 billion per year. While

10575-504: The caves of Borneo . Homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until at least 50,000 years ago, after which they became extinct. During much of this time the present-day islands of western Indonesia were joined into a single landmass known as Sundaland due to lower sea levels. Ancient remains of hunter-gatherers in Maritime Southeast Asia, such as one Holocene hunter-gatherer from South Sulawesi , had ancestry from both

10716-561: The civil population, criminals see an opportunity to make money trafficking wildlife with very little risk. ASEAN-WEN is working with policy makers and courts across Southeast Asia to strengthen laws and close loopholes. To strengthen law enforcement capabilities, ASEAN-WEN and its partners hold law enforcement training courses and workshops for ASEAN Member Country authorities. Because of the lack of public awareness about illegal wildlife trade, ASEAN-WEN works with government and non-government partners to increase awareness of protected species and

10857-692: The creation of the post of Chief Technical Advisor for Law Enforcement to formally lead the LEEO. From 2010-2012, Police General Dr. Chanvut Vajrabukka (Ret.), former Deputy Commissioner-General of the Royal Thai Police, and Immigration Commissioner of Thailand held the position of LEEO Chief Technical Advisor. From 2013–Present, Honorable Police Captain Dr. Vatanarak Amnucksoradej, former INTERPOL Thailand in charge of environmental crime issue, former Advisor to Minister of Science and Technology, Elected Member of Parliament - Bangkok District 10 and Advisor on many Standing Committees, House of Representative, Kingdom of Thailand. He

10998-536: The dangers that wildlife trafficking poses to the environment, human health and security. The launch of the network has created a framework for continued long-term cooperation to stop illegal wildlife trade in Southeast Asia. ASEAN-WEN is the largest such inter-governmental initiative dedicated to tackling wildlife crime. Species identification guides, training manuals and instructor guides have been developed in local languages. Since 2008, ASEAN authorities have reported more than 200 wildlife law enforcement actions across

11139-499: The declared HS Code of the consignments for detection and prosecution of illegal wildlife import. The lack of specificity of HS Code precludes effective monitoring and traceability of global wildlife trade. There is an increasing call for a reform of the HS Code to strengthen monitoring and enforcement of global wildlife trade. Different forms of wildlife trade or use (utilization, hunting, trapping, collection or over-exploitation) are

11280-721: The departure of the Mongols, Wijaya established the Majapahit Empire in eastern Java in 1293. Majapahit would soon grow into a regional power. Its greatest ruler was Hayam Wuruk , whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire's peak when other kingdoms in the southern Malay Peninsula , Borneo , Sumatra , and Bali came under its influence. Various sources such as the Nagarakertagama also mention that its influence spanned over parts of Sulawesi , Maluku , and some areas of western New Guinea and southern Philippines , making it one of

11421-628: The dismantlement of the region's major wildlife trafficking networks. ASEAN-WEN works closely with the ASEAN Secretariat in Jakarta, Indonesia. ASEAN-WEN is supported by USAID , the US Agency for International Development. Non-governmental organization partners include FREELAND Foundation , and TRAFFIC , the international wildlife trade monitoring network. ASEAN-WEN has developed links with partner countries and intergovernmental organizations such as

11562-465: The dominant trading power in mainland Southeast Asia for about five centuries, provided passage for Indian and Chinese goods and assumed authority over the flow of commerce through Southeast Asia. In maritime Southeast Asia, the first recorded Indianised kingdom was Salakanagara , established in western Java circa second century CE. This Hindu kingdom was known by the Greeks as Argyre (Land of Silver). By

11703-519: The early people travelled along the south coast of Asia, first entered the Malay Peninsula 50,000–90,000 years ago. The Orang Asli, in particular the Semang who show Negrito characteristics, are the direct descendants of these earliest settlers of Southeast Asia. These early people diversified and travelled slowly northwards to China, and the populations of Southeast Asia show greater genetic diversity than

11844-460: The east, Hong Kong is sometimes regarded as part of Southeast Asia. Similarly, Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands have strong cultural ties with Maritime Southeast Asia and are sometimes considered transregional areas between Southeast Asia and Australia/Oceania. On some occasions, Sri Lanka has been considered a part of Southeast Asia because of its cultural and religious ties to Mainland Southeast Asia. The eastern half of

11985-521: The elite language of the region, which effectively made Southeast Asia part of the Indosphere . Most of the region had been Indianised during the first centuries, while the Philippines later Indianised c.  ninth century when Kingdom of Tondo was established in Luzon. Vietnam, especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the many periods of Chinese domination it experienced. The first Indian-influenced polities established in

12126-458: The envoys, enraged the Mongols and made them sent a large invasion fleet to Java. Unbeknownst to them, Singhasari collapsed in 1293 due to a revolt by Kadiri, one of its vassals. When the Mongols arrived in Java, a local prince named Raden Wijaya offered his service to assist the Mongols in punishing Kadiri. After Kadiri was defeated, Wijaya turned on his Mongol allies, ambushed their invasion fleet and forced them to immediately leave Java. After

12267-658: The exotic pet trade, captive wildlife are held in sanctuaries which have been involved in illegal wildlife trade. In Thailand the Tiger Temple was closed in 2016 due to being accused of clandestine exchange of tigers. Illegal wildlife trade in India has increased. According to a report published by the Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) in 2004, India is the chief target for the traders of wildlife skin. Between 1994 and 2003, there have been 784 cases where

12408-522: The expansion of Austroasiatic and Austronesian groups. Distinctive Basal-East Asian (East-Eurasian) ancestry was recently found to have originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000BC, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Geneflow of East Asian-related ancestry into Maritime Southeast Asia and Oceania could be estimated to ~25,000BC (possibly also earlier). The pre-Neolithic Papuan-related populations of Maritime Southeast Asia were largely replaced by

12549-411: The expansion of various East Asian-related populations, beginning about 50,000BC to 25,000BC years ago from Mainland Southeast Asia. The remainders, known as Negritos, form small minority groups in geographically isolated regions. Southeast Asia was dominated by East Asian-related ancestry already in 15,000BC, predating the expansion of Austroasiatic and Austronesian peoples . In the late Neolithic ,

12690-590: The fifth century CE, trade networking between East and West was concentrated in the maritime route. Foreign traders were starting to use new routes such as Malacca and Sunda Strait due to the development of maritime Southeast Asia. This change resulted in the decline of Funan, while new maritime powers such as Srivijaya , Tarumanagara , and Mataram emerged. Srivijaya especially became the dominant maritime power for more than 5 centuries, controlling both Strait of Malacca and Sunda Strait . This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya were invaded by Chola Empire ,

12831-593: The former western colonies under the concept of " Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere ". However, the Shōwa occupation regime committed violent actions against civilians such as live human experimentation, sexual slavery under the brutal " comfort women " system, the Manila massacre and the implementation of a system of forced labour , such as the one involving four to ten million romusha in Indonesia. A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as

12972-455: The globe depend for their livelihoods. Moreover, human health is endangered by unregulated trade in wild animals that can spread and pass on viruses and zoonotic diseases . SARS and Avian Influenza , for example, were transferred by wild animals to human beings. The lack of health standards within the trade chains increase the transmission of diseases to people, who come into contact with trafficked live or deceased animals. Another consequence

13113-417: The illegal nature; vendors rather not risk that the chameleons were to be discovered and so do not ship them in plain view. Due to the very low survival rate, it also means that far higher amounts of organisms (in this case chameleons) are taken away from the ecosystem, to make up for the losses. In many instances, tribal people have become the victims of the fallout from poaching . With increased demand in

13254-440: The illegal wildlife trade, tribal people are often direct victims of the measures implemented to protect wildlife. Often reliant upon hunting for food, they are prevented from doing so, and are frequently illegally evicted from their lands following the creation of nature reserves aimed to protect animals. Tribal people are often falsely accused of contributing to the decline of species – in the case of India, for example, they bear

13395-466: The island of New Guinea , which is not a part of Indonesia, namely, Papua New Guinea, is sometimes included as a part of Maritime Southeast Asia, and so are Guam , the Northern Mariana Islands , and Palau , which were all parts of the Spanish East Indies with strong cultural and linguistic ties to the region, specifically, the Philippines. East Timor and the eastern half of Indonesia (east of

13536-461: The island of New Guinea ; it is the only place where ice glaciers can be found in Southeast Asia. The highest mountain in Southeast Asia is Hkakabo Razi at 5,967 metres (19,577 feet) and can be found in northern Burma sharing the same range of its parent peak, Mount Everest . The South China Sea is the major body of water within Southeast Asia. The Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore, have integral rivers that flow into

13677-573: The ladder ensure that the species below them do not become too abundant (hence controlling the population of those below them). Animals lower on the ladder are often non-carnivorous (but instead herbivorous ) and control the abundance of plant species in a region. Due to the very large amounts of species that are removed from the ecosystem, it is not inconceivable that environmental problems will result, similar to e.g. overfishing , which causes an overabundance of jellyfish blooms. Furthermore, research suggests that invasive species are over represented in

13818-407: The largest empire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history. By the 15th century CE however, Majapahit's influence began to wane due to many war of successions it experienced and the rise of new Islamic states such as Samudera Pasai and Malacca Sultanate around the strategic Strait of Malacca . Majapahit then collapsed around 1500. It was the last major Hindu kingdom and the last regional power in

13959-658: The meeting of the ASEAN Senior Officials on Forestry (ASOF). ASEAN-WEN is mentioned under Objective Two of the Action Plan to encourage networking among law enforcement authorities in ASEAN countries to counter the illegal trade in wild fauna and flora. The ASEAN-WEN was established on 1 December 2005 in Bangkok. The Law Enforcement Extension Office (LEEO) of the ASEAN WEN PCU was created in 2008 through an agreement with

14100-575: The network. More than 31,590 live animals and 31,684 dead animals, animal parts and derivatives were recovered, which adds up to over 53 tons of seized wildlife. In 2009, there were 140 reported major and model law enforcement actions by Southeast Asian authorities. More than 26,261 live animals were rescued from illegal trade along with almost 10,000 deceased animals, animal parts and derivates (over 268 tons of seized wildlife) during these interdictions. According to estimates by wildlife authorities and non-governmental organizations, this confiscated contraband

14241-452: The number of found elephant carcasses increased approximately six times in the years 2014–2018 and the country legalized elephant hunting in May 2019. At the same time, the elephants began to die from a mysterious disease that possibly presents a danger to humans. Morocco has been identified as a transit country for wildlife moving from Africa to Europe due to its porous borders with Spain. Wildlife

14382-641: The ocean. Magellan's voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships. A slave from the Sulu Sea was believed to have been used in the Magellan expedition as a translator. Studies presented by the Human Genome Organisation (HUGO) through genetic studies of the various peoples of Asia show empirically that there was a single migration event from Africa, whereby

14523-560: The potential for zoonotic transmission is greatly increased. Wildlife markets in China have been implicated in the 2002 SARS outbreak and the COVID-19 pandemic . It is thought that the market environment provided optimal conditions for the coronaviruses of zoonotic origin that caused both outbreaks to mutate and subsequently spread to humans. Nonetheless, the COVID-19 pandemic declaration – and

14664-626: The price of illegal products, decreasing the incentive to illegally harvest, or by providing revenue that could fund the species's conservation. However, laundering and corruption pose a major obstacle to implementing such policies, as illegal harvesters attempt to disguise illegal product as legal when trade is legalized. Under the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ), species listed under Appendix I are threatened with extinction, and commercial trade in wild-caught specimens, or products derived from them,

14805-602: The region and Sri Lanka . Buddhism later established a strong presence in Funan region in the fifth century. In present-day mainland Southeast Asia, Theravada is still the dominant branch of Buddhism, practised by the Thai, Burmese, and Cambodian Buddhists. This branch was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture. Mahayana Buddhism established presence in Maritime Southeast Asia, brought by Chinese monks during their transit in

14946-407: The region and made contacts with local courts. Local rulers converted to Hinduism or Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow chief counterparts and facilitate trade with South Asian states. They periodically invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and began a gradual process of Indianisation in the region. Shaivism

15087-500: The region are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a regional organisation established for economic, political, military, educational, and cultural integration among its members. Southeast Asia is one of the most culturally diverse regions of the world. There are many different languages and ethnicities in the region. Historically, Southeast Asia was significantly influenced by Indian , Chinese , Muslim , and colonial cultures, which became core components of

15228-423: The region as Islam provided a positive force among the ruling and trading classes. Gujarati Muslims played a pivotal role in establishing Islam in Southeast Asia. Trade among Southeast Asian countries has a long tradition. The consequences of colonial rule, struggle for independence, and in some cases war influenced the economic attitudes and policies of each country. From 111 BC to 938 AD northern Vietnam

15369-513: The region before the arrival of the Europeans. Islam began to make contacts with Southeast Asia in the eighth-century CE, when the Umayyads established trade with the region via sea routes. However its spread into the region happened centuries later. In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Maritime Southeast Asia . The Indian Chola navy crossed the ocean and attacked

15510-572: The region came under contact with the Indian subcontinent c.  400 BCE , it began a gradual process of Indianisation where Indian ideas such as religions, cultures, architectures, and political administrations were brought by traders and religious figures and adopted by local rulers. In turn, Indian Brahmins and monks were invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help transforming local polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and indigenous traditions. Sanskrit and Pali became

15651-581: The region decolonised. Today, Southeast Asia is predominantly governed by independent states. The region, together with part of South Asia, was well known by Europeans as the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Chinese sources referred to the region as Nanyang (" 南洋 "), which literally means the "Southern Ocean". The mainland section of Southeast Asia was referred to as Indochina by European geographers due to its location between China and

15792-639: The region en route to Nalanda . It is still the dominant branch of Buddhism practised by Indonesian and Malaysian Buddhists. The spread of these two Indian religions confined the adherents of Southeast Asian indigenous beliefs into remote inland areas. The Maluku Islands and New Guinea were never Indianised and its native people were predominantly animists until the 15th century when Islam began to spread in those areas. While in Vietnam, Buddhism never managed to develop strong institutional networks due to strong Chinese influence. In present-day Southeast Asia, Vietnam

15933-626: The region were the Pyu city-states that already existed circa second century BCE, located in inland Myanmar. It served as an overland trading hub between India and China. Theravada Buddhism was the predominant religion of these city states, while the presence of other Indian religions such as Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were also widespread. In the first century, the Funan states centered in Mekong Delta were established, encompassed modern-day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern Thailand. It became

16074-486: The region's cultural and political institutions. Most modern Southeast Asian countries were colonised by European powers. European colonisation exploited natural resources and labour from the lands they conquered, and attempted to spread European institutions to the region. Several Southeast Asian countries were also briefly occupied by the Japanese Empire during World War II . The aftermath of World War II saw most of

16215-453: The region's high biodiversity, porous borders, well-established trade routes and accessible transport links. Consumers with computer access can procure illicit wildlife products from an online marketplace, and poor awareness about the importance of conservation and impacts of over-exploitation has also contributed to the destruction of the region's fauna and flora. Main Article : What's Driving

16356-498: The region, almost 58,000 seized live animals, 42,000 seized deceased animals and derivatives and have done more than 200 arrests. The black market value of seized contraband in the ASEAN region during this period is estimated to be in excess of US$ 45million. Illegal wildlife trade Wildlife trade refers to the products that are derived from non-domesticated animals or plants usually extracted from their natural environment or raised under controlled conditions. It can involve

16497-487: The rest of Indonesia , Malaysia , southern Vietnam , and Palau by 1000 BC. They often settled along coastal areas, replacing and assimilating the diverse preexisting peoples. The Austronesian peoples of Southeast Asia have been seafarers for thousands of years. They spread eastwards to Micronesia and Polynesia , as well as westwards to Madagascar , becoming the ancestors of modern-day Malagasy , Micronesians , Melanesians , and Polynesians . Passage through

16638-453: The result of the Chola expeditions. As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Hindu Khmer Empire experienced a golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire's capital Angkor hosts majestic monuments—such as Angkor Wat and Bayon . Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world. The Champa civilisation

16779-834: The sale of many species to China. Despite international and local laws designed to crack down on the trade, live animals and animal parts – often those of endangered or threatened species – are sold in open-air markets throughout Asia. The animals involved in the trade end up as trophies, or in specialty restaurants. Some are used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Despite the name, elements of TCM are widely adopted throughout East and Southeast Asia, among both Chinese and non-Chinese communities. The trade also includes demand for exotic pets especially birds, and consumption of wildlife for meat. Large volumes of fresh water tortoises and turtles, snakes, pangolins and monitor lizards are consumed as meat in Asia, including in specialty restaurants that feature wildlife as gourmet dining. Related to

16920-426: The same way illegal drugs are – in the trunks of cars, in suitcases, in crates disguised as something else. In Venezuela more than 400 animal species are involved in subsistence hunting, domestic and international (illegal) trade. These activities are widespread and might overlap in many regions, although they are driven by different markets and target different species. In Brazil, the wildlife trade has grown over

17061-422: The second major threat to endangered mammals and it also ranks among the first ten threats to birds , amphibians and cycads . Wildlife trade threatens the local ecosystem , and puts all species under additional pressure at a time when they are facing threats such as over-fishing , pollution , dredging , deforestation and other forms of habitat destruction . In the food chain , species higher up on

17202-517: The seizure of 464 kg of ivory. The majority of tiger poaching happen in Madhya Pradesh , Uttar Pradesh, Orissa , West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh . There was a famous leopard poaching case at Mankulam in Kerala in 2021. Following is a comparison of reported cases of tiger and leopard poaching from 1998 to 2003: Samir Sinha, head of TRAFFIC India , the wildlife trade monitoring arm of

17343-459: The skins of tiger, leopard or otter have been seized. Leopards , rhinoceros , reptiles , birds, insects, rare species of plants are being smuggled into the countries in Southeast Asia and the People's Republic of China. Between 1994 and 2003, poaching and seizure of 698 otters have been documented in India. Kathmandu is a key staging point for illegal skins smuggled from India bound for Tibet and PRC. The report by EIA noted there has been

17484-416: The subsequent quarantines – increased online trade in wildlife. The isolation of quarantine itself immediately became the selling point, with pets as companions and distractions. In some instances; such as the sale of chameleons from Madagascar , organisms are transported by boat or via the air to consumers. The survival rate of these is extremely poor (only 1% survival rate). This is undoubtedly caused by

17625-716: The surface web." A study conducted by the International Fund for Animal Welfare (Ifaw) in 2018 revealed online sales of endangered wildlife (on the list of the global Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species ) was pervasive across Europe. Ivory accounted for almost 20 percent of the items offered. Legal trade of wildlife has occurred for many species for a number of reasons, including commercial trade, pet trade as well as conservation attempts. Whilst most examples of legal trade of wildlife are as

17766-557: The trade is a global one, with routes extending to every continent, conservationists say the problem is most acute in Southeast Asia . There, trade linkages to key markets in China, the United States, and the European Union; lax law enforcement; weak border controls; and the perception of high profit and low risk contribute to large-scale commercial wildlife trafficking. The ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN), supported by

17907-453: The trade is increasing". Many African species are traded both within the country of origin and internationally. Charismatic mega-fauna are among commonly traded species native to the African continent including African elephants , pangolin , rhinoceros , leopards , and lions . Other animals such as vultures play a role in trade, both domestically and internationally. In northern Botswana

18048-420: The trade of living or dead individuals, tissues such as skins, bones or meat, or other products. Legal wildlife trade is regulated by the United Nations ' Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which currently has 184 member countries called Parties . Illegal wildlife trade is widespread and constitutes one of the major illegal economic activities, comparable to

18189-425: The urgency of strengthening partnerships with networks like ASEAN-WEN hoping to building similar networks in South Asia and Central America. ASEAN-WEN involves CITES authorities, customs, police, prosecutors, specialized governmental wildlife-law enforcement organizations and other relevant national law enforcement agencies from across the ASEAN region. ASEAN-WEN operates on national and regional levels. Each country

18330-457: The west and from the east. Regular trade between the ships sailing east from the Indian Ocean and south from mainland Asia provided goods in return for natural products, such as honey and hornbill beaks from the islands of the archipelago. Before the 18th and 19th centuries, the Europeans mostly were interested in expanding trade links. For the majority of the populations in each country, there

18471-644: The wild, be it intentional or not, could compete with indigenous species, and lead to their endangerment. Trade of crocodiles in Australia has been largely successful. Saltwater crocodiles ( Crocodylus porosus ) and freshwater crocodiles ( Crocodylus johnstoni ) are listed under CITES Appendix II. Commercial harvesting of these crocodiles occurs in Northern Territory , Queensland and Western Australia , including harvesting from wild populations as well as approved captive breeding programs based on quotas set by

18612-496: The wildlife trade, and are over 7 times more frequently traded than other species in the global pool. This may be due to a specific preference for invasive species in the trade. According to the United Nations , World Health Organization and World Wildlife Foundation , the Coronavirus disease 2019 is linked to the destruction of nature, especially to deforestation, habitat loss in general and wildlife trade. The head of

18753-618: The years, as it one of the most biodiverse areas in the world. Mammals and amphibians are among the highest traded animals. In recent studies, non-native species of amphibians and mammals were identified in Brazil, with frogs and rodents, respectively, posing the greatest invasion risks. The online trade of amphibians as exotic pets has risen almost six times since 2015. Through both deep web (password protected, encrypted) and dark web (special portal browsers) markets, participants can trade and transact illegal substances, including wildlife. However

18894-520: The younger population of China. Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD. The Bronze Age Dong Son culture flourished in Northern Vietnam from about 1000 BC to 1 BC. Its influence spread to other parts Southeast Asia. The region entered the Iron Age era in 500 BC, when iron

19035-501: Was already inhabited by Homo erectus from approximately 1,500,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene age. Distinct Homo sapiens groups, ancestral to Eastern non-African (related to East Asians as well as Papuans) populations, reached the region by between 50,000BC to 70,000BC, with some arguing earlier. Rock art (parietal art) dating from 40,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in

19176-598: Was comparatively little interaction with Europeans and traditional social routines and relationships continued. For most, a life with subsistence-level agriculture, fishing and, in less developed civilisations, hunting and gathering was still hard. Europeans brought Christianity allowing Christian missionaries to become widespread. Thailand also allowed Western scientists to enter its country to develop its own education system as well as start sending royal members and Thai scholars to get higher education from Europe and Russia. During World War II, Imperial Japan invaded most of

19317-459: Was forged also in northern Vietnam still under Dong Son, due to its frequent interactions with neighbouring China. Most Southeast Asian people were originally animist , engaged in ancestors, nature, and spirits worship. These belief systems were later supplanted by Hinduism and Buddhism after the region, especially coastal areas, came under contact with Indian subcontinent during the first century. Indian Brahmins and traders brought Hinduism to

19458-544: Was located in what is today central Vietnam, and was a highly Indianised Hindu Kingdom. The Vietnamese launched a massive conquest against the Cham people during the 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa , ransacking and burning Champa, slaughtering thousands of Cham people, and forcibly assimilating them into Vietnamese culture. During the 13th century CE, the region experienced Mongol invasions , affected areas such as Vietnamese coast, inland Burma and Java . In 1258, 1285 and 1287,

19599-436: Was the dominant religious tradition of many southern Indian Hindu kingdoms during the first century. It then spread into Southeast Asia via Bay of Bengal , Indochina, then Malay Archipelago, leading to thousands of Shiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in the region. Theravada Buddhism entered the region during the third century, via maritime trade routes between

19740-500: Was under Chinese rule. Vietnam was successfully governed by a series of Chinese dynasties including the Han , Eastern Han , Eastern Wu , Cao Wei , Jin , Liu Song , Southern Qi , Liang , Sui , Tang , and Southern Han . Records from Magellan's voyage show that Brunei possessed more cannon than European ships, so the Chinese must have been trading with them. Malaysian legend has it that

19881-518: Was worth more than US$ 40 million on the black market. In addition, there were 156 related arrests and 45 convictions across seven countries during 2009. The drivers of the illegal wildlife trade include demand for bones, scales and other ingredients for traditional medicines; demand for live animals as pets and zoo exhibits; demand for their parts and bodies as collectors’ trophies; decorations and luxury items; demand for wild meat and exotic dishes from restaurants, etc. In Southeast Asia, wealth seems to be

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