57-523: The Nagarakretagama or Nagarakṛtāgama , also known as Desawarnana or Deśavarṇana , is an Old Javanese eulogy to Hayam Wuruk , a Javanese king of the Majapahit Empire . It was written on lontar as a kakawin by Mpu Prapanca in 1365 (1287 Saka year ). The Nagarakretagama contains detailed descriptions of the Majapahit Empire during its greatest extent. The poem affirms
114-503: A Javanese wedding , especially for the stylised meeting ritual of bride's parents with groom's parents in the ceremonies of Peningsetan and Panggih . Archaically or for certain nobles very strongly attached to tradition, it is used for the Midodareni , Siraman and Sungkeman ceremonies of the Javanese wedding. The island of Lombok has adopted Kawi as its regional language, reflecting
171-471: A cult, since he often invoked a divine quality of the king and his royal family. Nevertheless, the work seems to be independent of court's patronage since Prapanca wrote them incognito after he retired from the court. One of the religious practices of the Majapahit royal family was the "royal walkabout". They visited cornerstones of the empire and paid homage to the ancestors of the king. The poem also describes
228-477: A demonstrative pronoun means 'that' which is used to differentiate from 'this'. If there is no such contrast, its function is that of a definite article, meaning ‘the’. Ika is put in front of the word to which it belongs and always combined with the definite article. Expression of possessiveness in Old Javanese is done with the help of possessive suffixes, such as suffix -(n)ing and -(n)ika . The suffix - ning
285-431: A possessive relationship between two words, such as in "Wĕtunira sang Suyodhana" (the birth of Suyodhana). The third person pronominal suffixes can be used to nominalise verbs and adjectives such as widagdhanya (his skills) from adjective widagdha and pinintanira (his being asked) from the verb pininta . In Old Javanese, a large number of other words than personal pronouns are used by way of personal pronouns for
342-406: A vowel, such as mānak (having a child) from anak (child), enak (at ease) from inak (ease), and mojar (having speech) from ujar (speech), while there is no change if the word begins with a consonant. Nouns can be qualified by adjectives. Verbs and adjectives, and also adverbs, can be qualified by adverbs. Adverbs are placed before of the words they qualify, except dahat (very, very much)
399-403: Is a cover term for a wide variety of sound changes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. Old Javanese verbs are morphologically complex and are conjugated by taking on a variety of affixes reflecting focus/trigger, aspect, voice, and other categories. -i - akĕn prefix (m)aN- or infix -um- the suffix -ana the suffix -akna or - akĕn infix -in- the suffix -ana
456-422: Is an adjective-class base word, such as urip (alive). The second one is an adjective-class-derived word that uses affixation with the prefix (m)a- from noun base words, such as adoh (far away) from doh (distance), ahayu (beautiful) from hayu (beauty) and mastrī (married) from strī (wife). In case of derivation with the prefix (m)a- , the sandhi law is observed especially when the base word starts with
513-716: Is characteristic of modern Javanese. While evidence of writing in Java dates to the Sanskrit Tarumanegara inscription of 450 AD, the oldest example written entirely in Javanese, called the Sukabumi inscription, is dated 25 March 804 AD. This inscription, located in the district of Pare in the Kediri Regency of East Java, is a copy of the original, dated some 120 years earlier; only this copy has been preserved. Its contents concern
570-400: Is constructed from clitic -(n)i and the definite article (a)ng . The clitic -(n)i have no meaning and cannot self-standing, although it is required in the construction. It is generally written as -ning, while it is written as -ing after base word ending in n . The suffix -(n)ika is constructed from clitic -(n)i and definite article ika and is written as -nika generally, while it
627-795: Is disputed by several linguists, who hold the view that it is also possible that the occurrence of these retroflex consonants was an independent development within the Austronesian language family. A related question is the form in which Sanskrit words were loaned in Old Javanese. The borrowed Sanskrit words in Old Javanese are almost without exceptions nouns and adjectives in their undeclined form (Sanskrit lingga ). Old Javanese texts contain many more characters with similar phonology values to represent distinct vowels and consonants in Sanskrit such as unadapted loanwords. Wherever these diacritics occur in Old Javanese texts, they are neglected in pronunciation: bhaṭāra
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#1732840860073684-493: Is not an indication of usage, but it is an indication that the Ancient Javanese knew and employed these Sanskrit words in their literary works. In any given Old Javanese literary work, approximately 25% of the vocabulary is derived from Sanskrit. Sanskrit has also influenced both the phonology and the vocabulary of Old Javanese. Old Javanese also contains retroflex consonants , which might have been derived from Sanskrit. That
741-490: Is placed after the word. The word tan is used to express 'not' and have several forms as tatan , tātan , ndatan , and ndātan . There are several prepositions in Old Javanese, in which the noun preceded by the preposition is definite, such as: However, there are particularities in the expression of 'inside' or 'from inside' in Old Javanese. Old Javanese use a combination of either jĕro or dalĕm (inner part, depth) followed by clitic -ni , such as dalĕmnikang to express
798-523: Is related to the Pallava script and Kadamba script in South India. Nowadays, Old Javanese can be written with Balinese script and Javanese script in modern literatures which are descendants of Kawi script. Kawi is not truly extinct as a spoken language. It is commonly used in some Javanese traditional events such as wayang golek , wayang wong and wayang kulit , in addition to high activities such as
855-550: Is taken the National motto of Indonesia: " Bhinneka Tunggal Ika " . Although often glibly translated as "Unity in Diversity", it is more correctly rendered as "[although] scattered, remaining [as] one"— referring to the scattered islands of the archipelago nation, not as an expression of multicultural solidarity as may be perceived in modern times. A more modern work is the poem "Susila Budhi Dharma" , by Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo ,
912-427: Is the oldest attested phase of the Javanese language . It was spoken in the eastern part of what is now Central Java and the whole of East Java , Indonesia . As a literary language, Kawi was used across Java and on the islands of Madura , Bali , and Lombok . It had a sizable vocabulary of Sanskrit loanwords but had not yet developed the formal krama language register, to be used with one's social superiors that
969-412: Is the pronunciation of /a/ in open syllables: now å, then /a/, such as in wana (forest). Although, Old Javanese made a distinction between those "short vowels" and "long vowels" in writing such as ā, ö, e, ī, ū, and o, however, these "long vowels" have no distinction in phonology with those "short vowels". This distinction is generally happened with unadapted loanwords from Sanskrit which differentiates
1026-558: Is the same as baṭara (loss of vowel length and aspiration is also shared by Elu Prakrit , the ancestor of Sinhala ). Nor do they influence the order of the words in the dictionary: the variants s, ṣ, and ś, for example, are all treated like s. Medieval poems written in Old Javanese using the Kawi script continued to be circulated within the courts of Kartasura , Surakarta , and Yogyakarta . The poems were called layang kawi (Kawi books) or kakawin and were held in high regard. Starting in
1083-405: Is the same as in main clauses: the subject follows the predicate. However, different from main clauses, in sub-clauses headed by an no separating particle is used. In a basic clause, predicate and subject are separated from each other by a particle ( ta ) marking the border between both parts of the sentence. For example, " lunghā ta sira " means "he leaves" as leave ( lunghā ), particle ( ta ), and
1140-1047: Is today), Kelang ( Klang Valley ), Kedah , Jerai ( Gunung Jerai ), and Kanjapiniran. Also in Canto 14 are territories east of Java: Badahulu and Lo Gajah (part of today's Bali ). Gurun and Sukun, Taliwang , Sapi (Sape town, east end of Sumbawa island, by the Sape Strait ) and Dompo , Sang Hyang Api , Bima . Sheran ( Seram Island ). Hutan Kadali ( Buru island). Gurun island, and Lombok Merah . Together with prosperous Sasak (central, north and east Lombok ) are already ruled. Bantayan with Luwu . Further east are Udamakatraya ( Sangir and Talaud ). Also mentioned are Makassar , Buton , Banggai , Kunir, Galiao with Selayar , Sumba , Solot , Muar . Also Wanda(n) ( Banda island), Ambon or Maluku islands, Kai-islands (Ewab Ohoi-Ewur Mas-Il Larvul-Ngabal-istiadat), Wanin (Onin peninsula, today Fakfak Regency , West Papua), Sran ( Sran or Kowiai, Kaimana ). Timor and other islands. "The wonders of
1197-437: Is written as -ika after base word ending in n . The possessiveness can be expressed with pronominal suffixes, in which no definite article is added in a such case. Honorific articles can also express possessiveness and definiteness, such as ujar sang guru (the word of the teacher), by placing the honorific article after the possessed noun and followed by the possessor. Old Javanese have two types of adjectives. The first one
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#17328408600731254-594: The Majapahit empire in 1292. The Javanese language which was spoken and written in the Majapahit era already underwent some changes and is therefore already closer to the Modern Javanese language. The most important shaping force on Old Javanese was its Austronesian heritage in vocabulary, sentence structure, and grammar that it shared with its sister languages in Southeast Asia. The Indian linguistic influence in
1311-453: The 18th century, literature inspired by Old Javanese was written using the modern Javanese language and verse. Old Javanese has six vowels. Those vowels are "a", "ĕ" /ə/, "e" /e/, i, u, and o in Latin transliteration. Little can be said about the pronunciation of Old Javanese. It is believed that it has not been much different from the pronunciation of modern Javanese. However, the major difference
1368-811: The Mountains, or the Supreme God of the Realm. This religious belief is indigenous to the Javanese people who combined the Deities of two religions, Hinduism and Buddhism , into the same God, the oneness of the Dharma , as is written in the Kakawin Sutasoma (see Bhinneka Tunggal Ika ). When Kertanegara was deified as Shiva–Buddha, he symbolised the collective powers of the God of the Realm. Old Javanese Old Javanese or Kawi
1425-551: The Old Javanese language was almost exclusively Sanskrit influence. There is no evidence of Indian linguistic elements in Old Javanese other than Sanskrit. This is different from, for example, the influence of Indian linguistics in the (Old) Malay language. Sanskrit has had a deep and lasting impact on the vocabulary of the Javanese language. The Old Javanese–English Dictionary , written by Professor P.J. Zoetmulder in 1982, contains approximately 25,500 entries, no fewer than 12,500 of which are borrowed from Sanskrit. This large number
1482-740: The Rajapatni's soul in hopes that her favour would shine on the reign of her descendants. The posthumous ceremony continued and the king ordered the repair of the Kamal Pundak sanctuary to enact a new holy shrine ( candi ) for the Queen Grandmother, deified as the Prajnaparamita . Nagarakretagama was written as a puja sastra , a genre of Old Javanese literature of adoration and reverence, directed mainly to King Hayam Wuruk . Prapanca did not shy away to express his admiration, even bordering somewhat
1539-456: The city: the red stone walls, thick and high, around the palace. The west gate called Pura Waktra, overlooking a spacious ground, belted with trench. Brahmastana tree with bodhi tree trunk, lining along the square, neatly shaped. That is where the royal guards stay, constantly patrolling and guarding the paseban . On the north side stood a beautiful gate with ornate iron door. To the east is the high stage, with stone-lined floor, white and shiny. In
1596-413: The construction of a dam for an irrigation canal near the river Śrī Hariñjing (now shortened to Srinjing ). This inscription is the last of its kind to be written using Pallava script ; all consequent examples of Old Javanese are written using Kawi script . Old Javanese was not static, and its usage covered approximately 500 years – from the Sukabumi (Kediri, East Java) inscription until the founding of
1653-400: The court artisans. During the ceremony, lion thrones were erected, where priests placed a flower effigy ( puspa ) symbolising the soul of the Queen Grandmother. The descent of the soul to earth and its final placement in the puspa were narrated in canto 64, stanza 5. The ceremony lasted for seven days. Colorful pageants crowded the main courtyard. The whole ceremony was performed to please
1710-512: The death of Hayam Wuruk's most trusted regent, Gajah Mada . The Queen Grandmother Rajapatni had a special place in Prapanca's poem. In one stanza, the poem describes the Queen Grandmother as chattra ning rat wisesa (the eminent protector of the world). Rajapatni was the progenitor of the Majapahit kingdom, because she was the daughter of Kertanegara, the last king of the Singhasari kingdom, and she
1767-512: The first and second person. They consist of fixed expressions in which the original meaning of the words involved does not play a role and a virtually boundless list of words referring to functions and family relations. Proper names do not play a role in this respect. For example, first person pronouns can be manifested as nghulun ( hulun , slave) and ngwang ( wwang , man). Old Javanese has four sets of demonstrative pronouns. The members of each set represent different degrees of distance seen from
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1824-420: The first, second, and third person. The pronoun is not differentiated by singular and plural and social status in general. Sira may be used as an honorific particle, similar to sang . The personal pronoun has corresponding pronominal suffixes which serve to express either the possessive relationship or an agent . The suffixes exhibit sandhi features, such as The third person pronominal suffixes can express
1881-480: The founder of Subud . In this work, he provides a framework for understanding the experience of the latihan kejiwaan. Famous poems, epics and other literature include: The following are notable authors of literary works in Kawi. Katingan Regency Katingan Regency ( Indonesian : Kabupaten Katingan ) is one of the thirteen regencies which comprise the Central Kalimantan Province on
1938-443: The founder of the Singhasari kingdom , Rajasa . At the waxing moon, on the twelfth night, they invited there that swah (soul), sutra (sacred texts) recital was performed and homa (fire offering) worship, on the other hand also parίshrama (amphidromy); they were (only considered) complete at the arrival of the swah (soul) again (on earth). The honoured holy puspa (flower effigy) was worked on with yoga (concentration); in
1995-509: The idea of 'inside' or 'from inside'. The preposition of the inside is expressed by placing either (r)i or sake before either jĕro or dalĕm (inner part, depth) without placement of both clitic -ni and definite articles. It is important to remember that (r)i can be used as an object marker of transitive verb and proper noun maker. There are several conjunctions in Old Javanese; the most common ones are an , yan , apan , and yarapwan . The order of elements in sub-clauses headed by an
2052-649: The importance of Hindu–Buddhism in the Majapahit empire by describing temples and palaces and several ceremonial observances. In 1894, the Dutch East Indies launched a military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok . That year, the Dutch took the manuscript as part of the valuable Lombok treasure , war booty from the destroyed palace of Mataram -Cakranagara in Lombok. The first Western scholar to study
2109-587: The island of Kalimantan (Borneo), Indonesia . It was created on 10 April 2002 from what were previously the eastern districts of East Kotawaringin Regency . The town of Kasongan is the capital of the Regency, which covers an area of 20,382.26 km . The population of Katingan Regency was 146,439 at the 2010 Census and 162,222 at the 2020 Census; the official estimate as at mid 2023 was 177,106. Katingan Regency consists of thirteen districts ( kecamatan ), tabulated below with their areas and population totals from
2166-446: The manuscript was J.L.A. Brandes [ nl ] , a Dutch philologist . He accompanied the KNIL expedition to Lombok in 1894 and is credited with saving the valuable manuscripts collection of the Lombok royal library from being burnt in the chaos of the battle. A generation of Dutch scholars participated in translating the poem. Much of its historical value was due to its having been
2223-399: The night was performed the eminent pratistha (placing) ceremony. Canto 64, stanza 5 . Prapanca told details of the sraddha ceremony, performed to honour the soul of a deceased. He described specifically the ceremony for the Queen Grandmother's soul, Gayatri Rajapatni , who had died twelve years earlier. In the canto 63, stanza 4, Prapanca narrated the preparation of the ceremony by
2280-479: The north, south from the marketplace, full with elongated houses, very beautiful. On the south a road intersection: a soldier hall stood, where they held a meeting every Caitra month." Canto 8, stanza 1 and 2 . The manuscript describes the capital city of Majapahit. According to the account of Prapanca in the Nagarakretagama poem, the royal compound was surrounded by a thick, high wall of red brick . Nearby
2337-470: The noun and cannot stand by themselves. The definite article is (a)ng and it is written combined with particles. Examples of honorific articles that express a certain amount of respect are si , pun , sang , sang hyang , ḍang hyang , śrī, and ra . Besides the definite article and the articles of respect, ika can be used to express definiteness. The word ika has two functions, those are definite article and demonstrative pronoun. The word ika as
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2394-545: The palace were quarters for Shiva priests, Buddhists, and other members of the nobility. Further away, and separated from the palace by open fields, were more royal compounds, including that of the chief minister Gajah Mada . all the multitude of the artisans there, making plaited bamboo-work, fashioning the sthana singha (lion-throne) in the wanguntur (main court-yard), setting aside those who carved wawans (carriers) for food, bukubukuran (all kinds of tower-like structures) and figures and things of that kind. Took part also
2451-516: The poem describes the deification of Kertanegara in three forms: a splendid Jina , an Ardhanarishvara , and an imposing Shiva - Buddha . Particularly for the Shiva–Buddha Deity, Prapanca praises him as "the honoured Illustrious Protector of Mountains, Protector of the protectorless. He is surely, Ruler over the rulers of the world". The Shiva–Buddha Deity is neither Shiva nor Buddha, but the Lord of
2508-757: The poem for what it reveals about political history. In canto 13 to 14, the poet Prapanca named several states within today's Indonesian borders. This suggested that those areas were within Majapahit spheres of influence. Prapanca said the states were subsumed by Majapahit or were vassal states. In Canto 13, several lands on Sumatra are mentioned, some of which possibly correspond to contemporary areas: Jambi , Palembang , Teba ( Muaro Tebo ), and Dharmasraya . Also mentioned are Kandis, Kahwas, Minangkabau , Siak , Rokan , Kampar and Pane , Kampe, Haru ( Aru Kingdom in coastal North Sumatra , today around Medan ), and Mandailing . Tamiyang ( Aceh Tamiang Regency ), negara Perlak ( Peureulak ), and Padang Lawas are noted in
2565-523: The predicate is a verb. The predicate can also be a nominal predicate, where the predicate can be an adjective and nouns, including proper names, and pronouns. Old Javanese verbs are not conjugated and do not formally distinguish between present and past time. Old Javanese was written with Kawi or Old Javanese script in 8th–16th century. The Kawi script is a Brahmic script found primarily in Java and used across much of Maritime Southeast Asia . The Kawi script
2622-592: The product of priestly activities directed at enhancing the magical powers of the ruler at the time. The manuscript is written on lontar leaves. It was held in the library of Leiden University in the Netherlands, with inventory code number L Or 5.023. After its translation in the early 20th century, the Nagarakretagama became an inspiration and foundation of the Indonesian independence movement . In 1970, during
2679-518: The short and long vowels. There are twenty consonants in Old Javanese which are written as b, c, d, ḍ, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, ñ, ŋ, p, r, s, t, ṭ, w, and y in Latin transliteration. The consonant ñ sometimes is written as the digraph ny and IPA ɲ, while the consonant ŋ sometimes is written as the digraph ng. The presence of such aspirated consonants, retroflex nasal, palatal sibilant, and retroflex sibilant are used for unadapted loanwords from Indo-Aryan languages (specifically Sanskrit ). Sandhi
2736-504: The smiths of dadaps (embossed coverings) of gold and silver, all of them bestirring themselves the more in their respective customary occupations. Canto 63, stanza 4. In the poem, Prapanca recounted Hayam Wuruk's religious observances in the Candi Singhasari , in which he entered the sanctuary and performed the puspa ceremony for his great-grandfather Kertanegara . After the visit, he went to Kagenengan to perform worship to
2793-417: The south end a gate led to rows of houses set on terraces in which palace servants lived. Another gate led to a third courtyard crowded with houses and a great hall for those waiting to be admitted into the ruler's presence. The king's own quarters, which lay to the east of this courtyard, had pavilions on decorated red brick bases, ornately carved wooden pillars, and a roof decorated with clay ornaments. Outside
2850-477: The speaker, while the four sets at least in theory express different shades of stress. Old Javanese does not have an indefinite article. A noun without an article is indefinite. Old Javanese has three sorts of articles to express definiteness: a definite article, several honorific articles, and ika (there are still other ways of expressing definiteness in Old Javanese, for example, the possessive suffix). Both definite articles and honorific articles are placed before
2907-529: The state visit of President Suharto to the Netherlands, the manuscript was given back to Indonesia. Today, the manuscript is held by the National Library of Indonesia , with inventory code number NB 9. In May 2008, UNESCO recognised the significance of the Nagarakretagama by naming it "The Memory of the World - Regional Register for Asia/Pacific", and finally registered it in 2013. Historians have examined
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#17328408600732964-462: The suffix -akna or -akĕn There are various particles in Old Javanese. Particle ta is the most common one. The other particles that occur regularly are pwa , ya, and sira . These ya and sira as particles must be differentiated from the personal pronouns ya and sira , ‘he, she’. Sometimes they are combined such as ta pwa and ta ya . It is not compulsory to use them; they are often left out. Old Javanese have several personal pronouns for
3021-423: The third person pronoun ( sira ). The predicate comes first in the sentence, the subject follows the predicate, which is the normal order. However, the reversed order also occurs which it signals of some particularity such as stress intended by the writer. These sentences lack an indication of time. Subject in Old Javanese can be personal pronoun, noun, and proper names. The predicate can be a verbal predicate where
3078-543: The very strong influence of East Java . Today, it is taught in primary school education as part of the compulsory secondary language unit of National curriculum. Traditionally, Kawi is written on lontar prepared palm leaves. Kawi remains in occasional use as an archaic prose and literary language, in a similar fashion to Shakespeare -era English . There are many important literary works written in Kawi, most notably Empu Tantular 's epic poem, "Kakawin Sutasoma", from which
3135-743: The west, together with Samudra ( Samudra Pasai ) and Lamuri , Batan ( Bintan ), Lampung , and Barus . Also listed are the states of Tanjungnegara (believed to be on Borneo ): Kapuas Katingan , Sampit , Kota Lingga, Kota Waringin , Sambas , and Lawas. In Canto 14 several lands on Borneo (and Philippines) are mentioned: Kadandangan, Landa , Samadang, Tirem, Sedu ( Sarawak ), Barune ( Brunei ), Kalka, Saludung (Manila), Solot ( Sulu ), Pasir, Barito , Sawaku, Tabalung , Tanjung Kutei and Malano . And also in Hujung Medini (and Singapore): Pahang , Langkasuka , Saimwang, Kelantan , Trengganu , Johor , Paka , Muar , Dungun , Tumasik (where Singapore
3192-687: Was also the wife of Raden Wijaya , the founder of Majapahit. Thus she was seen as the protector of the world. The Queen Grandmother is said in the poem to embody the Pramabhagavati ; Bhagavati is another name of Prajnaparamita (the Goddess of Wisdom in Mahayana ). The poem portrays Kertanegara as a staunch Buddhist , described as "submissive at the Feet of the Illustrious Shakya -Lion ". Upon his death,
3249-434: Was the fortified guard post. The main gate into the palace was located in the north wall, and was entered through huge doors of decorated iron. Outside the north gate was a long building where courtiers met once a year, a market place, and a sacred crossroads. Just inside the north gate was a courtyard containing religious buildings. On the western side of this courtyard were pavilions surrounded by canals where people bathed. At
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