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120-928: During the Mfecane , the Zulu Kingdom expanded significantly until the cession of territory by King Dingane to the Natalia Republic following the Battle of Blood River . Zulu territory was annexed into the Natal Colony and the South African Republic following the Anglo-Zulu War during the reign of King Cetshwayo . Following which, the Zulu Kingdom had a civil war whereby the Mandlakazi under Zibhebhu rebelled against

240-703: A Eurocentric context also does not translate directly. The Zulu titles of the King are as follows: In English, the King has the style "His Majesty" (or in the second-person "Your Majesty"). Mfecane The Mfecane , also known by the Sesotho names Difaqane or Lifaqane (all meaning "crushing," "scattering," "forced dispersal," or "forced migration"), was a historical period of heightened military conflict and migration associated with state formation and expansion in Southern Africa . The exact range of dates that comprise

360-626: A certificate by the President . The King exercises other official duties such as reading a speech at the opening of the KwaZulu-Natal Legislature , and receiving the Executive Council of KwaZulu-Natal . The Zulu monarchy traces its founding to Mnguni , who was succeeded by several other monarchs however the namesake of the Zulu people is Zulu I ka Malandela. Shaka Zulu and his mother left

480-554: A finding that undermines Cobbing's thesis that Shaka's early military activities were a response to slave raids . Moreover, Eldredge argues that the Griqua and other groups (rather than European missionaries as asserted by Cobbing) were primarily responsible for the slave raids coming from the Cape. Eldredge also asserts that Cobbing downplays the importance of the ivory trade in Delagoa Bay, and

600-510: A period of social breakdown and recombination. Further bolstered in number by escaped slaves, bandits, and people of all ethnicities from the Cape Colony , some of these peoples would eventually become the Korana . Their power increased as trade with and raids upon colonists provided guns and horses, and by the 1780s they began raiding northwards against Tswana polities. From the 1780s to the turn of

720-513: A traditional leader in a secular republic and the royal family's conversion to and syncretic practice with the Christian religion. The rituals and rites performed as part of the broader coronation are as follows: The King was historically formally an absolute monarch who was the head of state, head of government, commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the Kingdom of the Zulu and the spiritual leader of

840-515: A traditional leader. The reigning King is Misuzulu Zulu who ascended in 2021. Although South Africa is a constitutional republic, the Zulu ethnolinguistic group is afforded formal representation, inter alia , through the King's participation in the National House of Traditional Leaders , who continues to act as the highest ceremonial and religious leader of the Zulu nation whose duties include hosting

960-415: Is Kwakhangelamankengane Royal Palace among others. Formally known as Isilo Samabandla Onke and Ingonyama YamaZulu in the Zulu language , he is addressed as His Majesty in official English sources. Although formal recognition by the President of South Africa is required for the King to enjoy his emoluments and assume his powers, accession is by a form of agnatic primogeniture which gives preference to

1080-595: Is due to a failed westerly branch of the main rift that caused Antarctica to start drifting away from southern Africa during the breakup of Gondwana about 150 million years ago. The lower Limpopo River and Save River drain into the Indian Ocean through what remains of this relict incipient rift valley, which now forms part of the South African Lowveld . During the past 20 million years, southern Africa has experienced massive uplifting, especially in

1200-589: Is formed by slightly younger Beaufort rocks (250 million years old) that also are part of the Karoo Supergroup. The Ecca and Beaufort groups are composed of sedimentary rocks that are less erosion resistant than the other rocks that make up the Drakensberg escarpment. Therefore, this portion of escarpment is not so impressive as the Mpumalanga and Lesotho stretches of the Drakensberg. The Drakensberg that form

1320-727: Is home to large herds of grazing fauna and antelopes such as eland (Taurotragus oryx) , reedbuck (Redunca arundinum) , mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula) , grey rhebok (Pelea capreolus) , and even some oribi (Ourebia ourebi) . Chacma baboons also are present. Endemic species include a large number of chameleons and other reptiles. There is one endemic frog, the forest rain frog ( Breviceps sylvestris ) , and four more species that are found mainly in these mountains; long-toed tree frog ( Leptopelis xenodactylus ) , plaintive rain frog ( Breviceps maculatus ) , rough rain frog ( Breviceps verrucosus ) , and Poynton's caco ( Cacosternum poyntoni ) . The high slopes are hard to reach so

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1440-774: Is known as 'Klein Drakensberg' by the Afrikaner . From Hoedspruit it extends west to Tzaneen , also in Limpopo Province , where it is known as the Wolkberg Mountains and Iron Crown Mountain. At 2,200 m (7,200 ft) above sea level, the Wolkberg is the highest elevation in Limpopo. The escarpment extends west again and at Mokopane it is known as the Strydpoort Mountains. The Afrikaans name Drakensberge comes from

1560-641: Is part of the Transvaal Supergroup, which also forms the Magaliesberg to the north and northwest of Pretoria. These rocks are more than 2000 million years old. South of the 26°S parallel the Drakensberg escarpment is composed of Ecca shales , which belong to the Karoo Supergroup , and they are 300 million years old. The portion of the Drakensberg that forms the KwaZulu-Natal – Free State border

1680-523: Is the largest private reserve adjoining the World Heritage Site and is found in the accessible Kamberg area, the heart of the historic San (Bushman) painting region of the Ukhahlamba. The grassland of the lower slopes has been greatly affected by agriculture, however, especially by overgrazing . Nearly all of the original grassland and forest has disappeared and more protection is needed, although

1800-552: Is unknown. The KwaZulu-Natal – Free State Drakensberg are composed of softer rocks and therefore have a more rounded, softer appearance from below. Generally, the top of the escarpment is almost table-top flat and smooth, even in Lesotho. The "Lesotho Mountains" are formed away from the Drakensberg escarpment by erosion gulleys which turn into deep valleys containing tributaries of the Orange River . The large number of such tributaries give

1920-528: Is usually expected to be a legitimate son of the King and a Queen born of royal blood whose bridal price was paid by the nation on his behalf. Unlike monarchies that practice primogeniture such as that of the United Kingdom or of the Kingdom of the Netherlands , a vacancy in the throne is permissible. The customs of the Zulu people are evolving as demonstrated by the fact that King Goodwill Zwelithini left

2040-597: The Anglo-Zulu War of 1879, which despite the Zulu victory at the Battle of Isandlwana led to the Boer and British alliance to partition Zululand. With his defeat at the Battle of Ulundi , Cetshwayo was exiled to Cape Town , then London , returning to civil war in Zululand, due to the secession of the Kingdom of the Mandlakazi under Zibhebhu from the Usuthu -led faction of the Zulu Kingdom. Dinuzulu succeeded Cetshwayo in 1884 with

2160-645: The Beaver Wars of the seventeenth century in northeastern North America , due to the alleged similarity of the narratives of indigenous "self-vanishing" that were propagated by apologists for European colonialism about the Mfecane and the Beaver Wars. Drakensberg The Drakensberg ( Zulu : uKhahlamba, Sotho : Maloti, Afrikaans : Drakensberge) is the eastern portion of the Great Escarpment , which encloses

2280-588: The Drakensberg montane grasslands, woodlands, and forests ecoregion. The mountains are rich in plant life, including a large number of species listed in the Red Data Book of threatened plants, with 119 species listed as globally endangered and "of the 2 153 plant species in the park, a remarkable 98 are endemic or near-endemic". The flora of the high alti-montane grasslands is mainly tussock grass , creeping plants, and small shrubs such as ericas . These include

2400-630: The Eastern Cape and the border between Lesotho and KwaZulu-Natal Province . Thereafter it forms the border between KwaZulu-Natal and the Free State , and next as the border between KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga Province . The escarpment winds north from there, through Mpumalanga, where it includes features such as the Blyde River Canyon , Three Rondavels , and God's Window . It then extends farther north to Hoedspruit in southeastern Limpopo where it

2520-572: The Giant's Castle reserve is a haven for the eland and also is a breeding ground for the bearded vulture . 5.81% of the Drakensberg montane grasslands, woodlands and forests ecoregion is in protected areas. These include Kruger National Park , Mountain Zebra National Park , Golden Gate Highlands National Park, Camdeboo National Park , Sehlabathebe National Park, and Tsehlanyane National Park. The Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Conservation Area

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2640-520: The Lesotho Highlands a very rugged mountainous appearance, both from the ground and from the air. The higher parts of Drakensberg have a mildly periglacial environment . It is possible that recent climate change has diminished the intensity of periglaciation. Knight and Grab mapped out the distribution of lightning strikes in the Drakensburg and discovered that lightning significantly controls

2760-651: The Lozi people . The next force was the Mzilikazi and the Matebele who moved across Tswana territory in 1837. Both of these invading forces continued to travel north across Tswana territory without establishing any sort of state. In addition to these major kingdoms, a number of smaller groups also moved north into Tswana territory, where they met with defeat and ultimately vanished from history. Among those involved in these invasions were European adventurers such as Nathaniel Isaacs (who

2880-654: The Magaliesberg mountains, where he subjugated the Bahurutshe , Bakwena , and Bakgatla and regularly raided the Bangwaketse and southern Batswana peoples. A multi-ethnic force under the Kora leader Jan Bloem sought to profit from the Ndebele's wealth with a mid-1828 raid, which proved only a partial success as his Kora and Griqua parties were destroyed before they could escape. By 1830, the Ndebele had extended their political influence over

3000-517: The Magaliesberg . The high treeless peaks of the Drakensberg (from 2,500 m (8,200 ft) upward) have been described by the World Wide Fund for Nature as the Drakensberg alti-montane grasslands and woodlands ecoregion . These steep slopes are the most southerly high mountains in Africa, and being farther from the equator provide cooler habitats at lower elevations than most mountain ranges on

3120-809: The Mzimkhulu River . This in turn contributed to the rise of the Mpondo Kingdom. The 1810s saw the continued expansion of the Ndwandwe and Mthethwa Paramountcies, as well as the Portuguese Delagoa Bay slave trade. The Ndwandwe Paramountcy would come to blows with the Mthethwa in the late 1810s, ultimately defeating and slaying their leader Dingiswayo kaJobe . The Mthethwa promptly collapsed as its client polities reasserted independence. The Ndwandwe king Zwide kaLanga went on to war with one of these breakaways,

3240-576: The Ndwandwe Paramountcy and Mthethwa Paramountcy respectfully. On the borders of their spheres of influence, the amaHlubi of the upper Mzinyathi , the abakwaDlamini north of the Phongolo, and the abakwaQwabe of the lower Thukela. The latter's rise displaced elements of the abakwaCele and amaThuli further south. The amaThuli managed to secure a sizable chiefdom between the lower Mngeni and Mkhomazi Rivers, which displaced local groups across

3360-558: The Pedi Kingdom and certainly dominating the region between the Olifants and Phongolo Rivers. Msane, Zwangendaba, and the followers of Nxaba, for their part, were displaced farther north. The Gaza Kingdom expanded to the northeast, heavily raiding small Tsonga polities. Slave trading expanded at Delagoa Bay, and the Portuguese worked to expand their regional sphere of influence. In 1826,

3480-638: The Umkhosi Wokweshwama and Umhlanga Reed Dance . He is paid a salary and the Zulu royal family receives a grant from the state. He is the trustee of the Ingonyama Trust which administers rural land formerly part of the KwaZulu homeland. The Zulu monarchy maintains relations with other monarchies such as Eswatini through dynastic marriages. The official seat of the monarchy is in Nongoma and his main seat

3600-450: The Usuthu faction of the monarch, during the reign of King Dinuzulu which was eventually reincorporated with the aid of Dinuzulu's Volunteers . With the formation of the KwaZulu homeland, King Goodwill Zwelithini became a non-sovereign constitutional monarch of the Zulu. Following the end of apartheid in 1994, KwaZulu was reincorporated into South Africa and the King was recognised as

3720-543: The Vaal and Orange River. There, they absorbed some of their San and Korana neighbors as clients . The Griqua, like other ethnic groups, were not politically unified and differed in their livelihood strategies, which ranged from raiding to agriculture to controlling trade between Batswana and the Cape Colony. By the turn of the century amaXhosa groups also began arriving in the middle Orange River region, fleeing instability along

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3840-832: The Venda Kingdom to the north, the Maroteng, amaNdzundza , and Balodebu to the northeast, the Bangwaketse to the far west, and Matiwane's nation in the Caledon Valley. Sebetwane and Moletsane's nations, for their part, were outright put to flight. Between 1827 and 1828 Matiwane's amaNgwane launched a failed attack on Moshoeshoe and, after suffering a major raid (likely perpetrated by the Ndebele), relocated to abaThembu territory in 1828, where they were destroyed by British, Boer, amaGcaleka , amaMpondo , and abaThembu forces. Though Matiwane

3960-509: The Zulu religion . While he was endowed with vast formal powers, the support of other leadership structures influence the extent to which he could exert those prerogatives. As the Zulu people and lands were colonised and annexed into the Boer Republics cum British Colonies of Natal and the Transvaal , the powers of the King were circumscribed by treaties and legislation. With the formation of

4080-471: The amaZulu of Shaka kaSenzangakhona . Their raids and counterraids proved costly and indecisive, contributing to the breakup of the Ndandwe Paramountcy. Groups broke away under Soshangane and Zwangendaba who settled their followers in the Delagoa Bay region, while Msane did the same in what is now eastern Eswatini . King Zwide, now in a position of weakness, evacuated to his territories north of

4200-654: The uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park was listed by UNESCO in 2000 as a World Heritage site. The park also is in the List of Wetlands of International Importance (under the Ramsar Convention ). The Royal Natal National Park , which contains some of the higher peaks, is part of this large park complex. Adjacent to the Ukhahlamba Drakensberg World Heritage Site is the 1900 ha Allendale Mountain Reserve, which

4320-449: The 1780s. There was significant population growth in the region which lead to more competition for resources. There was an increasing amount of trade with the Cape colony and the Portuguese; this had the consequence of separate chiefdoms becoming more eager to conquer land for themselves in order to control trade routes. Dutch settlers from the Cape Colony encroaching upon the Khoikhoi and San into regions where Tswana people live resulted in

4440-650: The 1820s to the 1830s was driven in large part by slave and cattle raiding by Griqua , Basters , and other Khoekhoe -European groups armed and mounted by European settlers, who benefitted from trading their plunder. The increasing economic pull of the international slave trade also incentivized greater warfare and disruption between polities close to international ports such as Delagoa Bay . The Mfecane began in eastern Southern Africa with increasing competition and political consolidation as chiefdoms vied for control over trade routes and grazing land. Delagoa Bay and its international port saw increasing regional conflict in

4560-419: The 1820s, Shoshangane's Gaza Kingdom and Shaka's Zulu kingdom had established themselves alongside the remains of the Ndwandwe Paramountcy as the major players in the Northeast of Southern Africa. After relocating once again to the Nkomati River region, Zwide successfully raided and recruited his way back to power. By the time of his death in 1825 the Ndwandwe had muscled into the interior, possibly sundering

4680-403: The 1830s and blamed the disruption on the actions of King Shaka , who was alleged to have waged near-genocidal wars that depopulated the land and sparked a chain reaction of violence as fleeing groups sought to conquer new lands. Since the latter half of the 20th century, this interpretation has fallen out of favor among scholars due to a lack of historical evidence. The Mfecane resulted from

4800-612: The Drakensberg Royal Natal National Park and Bushman's Nek. Due to the materials used in their production, these paintings are difficult to date, but there is anthropological evidence, including many hunting implements, that the San people existed in the Drakensberg at least 40,000 years ago, and possibly more than 100,000 years ago. According to mountainsides.co.za, "[i]n Nd edema Gorge in the Central Ginsberg 3,900 paintings have been recorded at 17 sites. One of them, Sebaayeni Cave, contains 1,146 individual paintings." The website, south Africa.info, indicates that although "the oldest painting on

4920-426: The Drakensberg are an essential resource for South Africa's economy, providing water for the industrial provinces of Mpumalanga and Gauteng , which contains the city of Johannesburg . The climate is wet and cool at the high elevations, which experience snowfall in winter. The grassy lower slopes (from 1,800 to 2,500 m (5,900 to 8,200 ft)) of the Drakensberg in Eswatini , South Africa and Lesotho constitute

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5040-511: The Drakensberg, two of which are highly venomous. One bird is endemic to the high peaks, the mountain pipit (Anthus hoeschi) , and another six species are found mainly here: Bush blackcap (Lioptilus nigricapillus) , buff-streaked chat (Oenanthe bifasciata) , Rudd's lark (Heteromirafra ruddi) , Drakensberg rockjumper (Chaetops aurantius) , yellow-breasted pipit (Anthus chloris) , and Drakensberg siskin (Serinus symonsi) . The endangered Cape vulture and lesser kestrel are two of

5160-413: The King is not conferred with a crown i.e., in Zulu it is also referred to as ukubekwa which translates to be placed or enthroned. Preparations for the coronation are overseen by the Prime Minister. While the coronation had been solely characterised by Zulu traditional religious ritual prior to colonisation, secular and Christian elements have been introduced in keeping with the status of the Zulu king as

5280-409: The King's preferred successor can be made from the way that the King grooms one or more of his sons to succeed him, but these are unreliable. The coronation ( ukugcotshwa or annointing ) of the Zulu king is the formal religious and secular ceremony that is required to solicit the benevolence of the gods and to unify the people behind the appointed sovereign. It is technically an enthronement since

5400-436: The KwaZulu-Natal Traditional Leadership and Governance Act formally recognised the Zulu King as the Province of KwaZulu-Natal’s ceremonial monarch and head of state. By convention, legislation or custom, the King administers the following functions and has the following powers: The King's resides and works in the following palaces: Kwakhangelamankengane, Khethomthandayo, Osuthu, Dlamahlahla, Enkonyeni, and Linduzulu Palaces. Of

5520-405: The Maroteng clan, also came into conflict with the amaNdzundza Ndebele, Masemola, Magakala, Bamphahlele, and Balobedu polities. Meanwhile, the region of the modern north and central Free State was increasingly coming under the control of the Bataung . In the late 1790s, expansion by the Cape Colony to the lower Orange River region displaced the mixed-race Griqua peoples to the confluence of

5640-470: The Matebele left a trail of destruction in their wake. From 1837 to 1838, the arrival of Boer settlers and the subsequent battles of Vegtkop and Mosega, drove the Matebele north of the Limpopo. They settled in the area now known as Matabeleland , in present-day southern Zimbabwe . Mzilikazi set up his new capital in Bulawayo . The AmaNdebele drove the MaShona of the region northward and forced them to pay tribute. This caused resentment that has continued to

5760-497: The Mfecane fled to the lands of the Xhosa people. Some of them such as the amaNgwane were driven back by force and defeated. Those who were accepted were obliged to be tributary to the Xhosas and lived under their protection. They were assimilated into the Xhosa cultural way of life, becoming part of the Xhosa people. After years of oppression by the Xhosas, they later formed an alliance with the Cape Colony . Southern Tswana populations had experienced an increase in conflict as early as

5880-425: The Mfecane varies between sources. At its broadest, the period lasted from the late eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century, but scholars often focus on an intensive period from the 1810s to the 1840s. Traditional estimates for the death toll range from 1 million to 2 million; however, these numbers are controversial, and some recent scholars revise the mortality figure significantly downward and attribute

6000-449: The Mthethwa and their vassals into the Zulu Kingdom. Whereas, prior to Shaka's ascendance, Lords exerted autonomy as tributaries of a suzerain such as Dingiswayo, Shaka centralised administrative functions and made the monarchy of the Zulu the locus of political power, through hitherto unprecedented conquest in the area between the Drakkensburg Mountains and Indian Ocean , annexed hundreds of other lordships and principalities. Shaka Zulu

6120-424: The Ndwandewe allowed Sekwati to rebuild the sundered Pedi Kingdom around a fortified hilltop base near the Steelpoort River . From this stronghold, he soon gathered a large following by offering protection to groups of refugees. In 1827, Shoshangane relocated the Gaza Kingdom from the lower Nkomati to the lower Limpopo River area. Gaza defeated a Zulu army in 1828 and developed economic and political ties with

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6240-401: The Ndwandwe army, fled north with Soshangane after his defeat in 1819. Zwangendaba's followers were henceforth called Ngoni . Continuing north of the Zambezi River , they formed a state in the region between lakes Malawi and Tanganyika . Maseko , who led another part of the Ngoni people, founded another state to the east of Zwangendaba's kingdom. To the east, refugee clans and tribes from

6360-406: The Northern Transvaal. In 1833, Soshangane invaded various Portuguese settlements, and was initially successful. But a combination of internal disputes and war against the Swazi caused the downfall of the Gaza kingdom. The Ngwane people lived in present-day Eswatini (Swaziland), where they had settled in the southwest. They warred periodically with the Ndwandwe. Zwangendaba , a commander of

6480-486: The Palace of Nobamba, the seat of the Zulu monarchy, and eventually settled at the Palace of Yengweni of the Mthethwa where King Dingiswayo appointed Shaka as a general. After demonstrating military prowess, he successfully challenged Prince Sigujana and ascended to the throne of the Zulu Kingdom, succeeding King Senzangakhona , his father. The forces of King Zwide of the Ndwandwe murdered King Dingiswayo, King Shaka's suzerain, Shaka succeeded King Dingiswayo and annexed

6600-526: The Phongolo to rebuild. Shaka took advantage of the power vacuum to expand the Zulu state to the Mkhuze River . The 1810s also saw the expansion of British colonial rule in southeastern southern Africa, with Xhosa polities displaced northwards by the Fourth and Fifth Xhosa Wars . Meanwhile, between the Mzimkhulu and Mzimvubu Rivers, some polities fleeing the upheavals further north joined Faku kaNgqungqushe 's Mpondo Kingdom, while most others instead vied for dominance just outside of its reach. By

6720-428: The Portuguese governor. In an attempt to solidify their control over inland trade, the Portuguese launched a failed attack on the Gaza Kingdom in 1834, leaving Gaza dominant over Delagoa Bay and the territories to its north. By the late 1830s, the Kingdom's sphere of influence reached as far as the Zambezi River . In 1836, the Swazi Kingdom weathered a joint attack by Zulu forces and British adventurers. Sometime in

6840-418: The Portuguese. In May of 1828, Shaka launched a successful cattle raid against the Bomvana and the Mpondo Kingdom, following up with another raid north of Delagoa Bay before the first expeditionary force had returned home. Sensing political weakness, his brothers Dingane and Mhlangana assassinated him in September. Dingane subsequently purged Mhlangana and other political rivals and established himself as

6960-440: The Regent until 1971 while King Goodwill Zwelithini was in exile in the Transkei due to threats back home, acting as the ceremonial figurehead of KwaZulu until 1994 when he was made the ceremonial figurehead of KwaZulu-Natal . He was succeeded by King Misuzulu Zulu following his passing due to diabetes in 2021. The Constitution of South Africa recognises traditional leadership in South Africa and subjects such leadership and

7080-403: The Zulu King as the ceremonial head of state of KwaZulu-Natal province. The final authority for the recognition of the Zulu monarch is the President of South Africa , who by formal proclamation in the Government Gazette formally recognises the ascendance of a new monarch. The President recognises the person who ascends in terms of the customs of the Zulu royal family. By virtue of the fact that

7200-435: The Zulu Kingdom. 1828 saw a further advance of colonial power as a combined British-Boer force marched far beyond the colonial borders and destroyed Matiwane 's amaNgwane at Mbholompo. Benefitting from the fall of the Ndwandwe and Shaka, Sobhuza's Swazi Kingdom expanded from the core of modern Eswatini to the Sabie River by the early 1830s. In an 1833 trade dispute, Zulu forces briefly captured Delagoa Bay and executed

7320-400: The Zulu Nation is formally recognised and subjected to the laws of the Republic , the courts of South Africa have the final authority to apply those laws to determine which monarch is recognised by the government. Formal recognition by the government entitles the King to emoluments provided by the state and with the authority to exercise powers vested in the Crown by legislation. In terms of

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7440-412: The Zulu king, but also the Boers , and the Griqua and Tswana . Defeats in several clashes convinced Mzilikazi to move north towards Swaziland. Going north and then inland westward along the watershed between the Vaal and the Limpopo rivers, Mzilikazi and his followers, the AmaNdebele, (called Matebele in English) established a Ndebele state northwest of the city of Pretoria . During this period,

7560-415: The Zulu monarchy and its tributary chiefs to retain their relative autonomy under British imperial rule . Progressive attempts to erode the power of the Zulu monarchy (whose militant resistance to British colonial rule outweighed its function as a buffer with the Boer Republics) through the imposition of government-appointed chiefs on pseudo-historical pre- Shaka Zulu kingdoms and principalities culminated in

7680-451: The Zulu-centric explanation for the Mfecane is not reliable. By the early 2000s, a new historical consensus had emerged, recognizing the Mfecane to be not simply a series of events resulting from the founding of the Zulu Kingdom but rather a multitude of factors caused before and after Shaka Zulu came into power. The debate and controversy within Southern African historiography over the Mfecane has been compared to similar debates about

7800-438: The ability of average people to meet their needs. Though far less susceptible to famine, leaders faced threats to their power as (taxable) agricultural production dropped and ivory became scarcer due to overhunting. Faced with the challenges of fighting famine and maintaining wealth flows, leaders were incentivized to turn to raiding and conquest. Conquest protected conquering peoples against famine by providing immediate access to

7920-452: The aforementioned, three are in Nongoma , a town in KwaZulu-Natal that is the de facto official seat of the Zulu King and royal family . The King receives a salary of approximately R1 million and the Zulu royal court receives emoluments of up to R79 million from the government (2023/2024 financial year) The titles of the Zulu king in the Zulu language do not have direct translations to English. The notion of titles and styles as it exists in

8040-406: The aid of Dinuzulu's Volunteers who were rewarded with land upon which they formed the Nieuwe Republiek which was annexed into the South African Republic . He was arrested in 1906 following accusations that he fomented the Bambatha Rebellion against the British and was subsequently released by Prime Minister Louis Botha of the Union of South Africa in 1908 and passed away in 1913. Dinuzulu

8160-440: The area bordering on Lesotho, which contains an area popular for hikers, Cathedral Peak . North of Lesotho the range becomes lower and less rugged until entering Mpumalanga where the quartzite mountains of the Transvaal Drakensberg are loftier and more broken and they form the eastern rim of the Transvaal Basin, the Blyde River Canyon lying within this stretch. The geology of this section is the same as, and continuous with, that of

8280-458: The assistance of Andries Pretorius , Mpande assassinated and succeeded King Dingane in 1840 at the Hlathikhulu Forest following the Battle of Magonqo , the same year that the British amnexed the Natalia Republic and formed the Natal Colony . His son, Cetshwayo was the de facto monarch from 1856, but Mpande's reign formally ended in 1872 with his passing due to health complications suspected to be induced by his alleged morbid obesity. Due to

8400-419: The birds of prey that hunt in the mountains. Mammals include klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus) , eland (Taurotragus oryx) , and mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula) . Other endemic species include three frogs found in the mountain streams, Drakensberg river frog (Amietia dracomontana) , Phofung river frog ( Amietia vertebralis ) , and Maluti river frog (Amietia umbraculata) . Fish are found in

8520-415: The brutality of the Mfecane to justify European colonialism. Cobbing's hypothesis generated an immense volume of polemics among historians; the discussions were termed the "Cobbing Controversy". While historians had already embarked upon new approaches to the study of the Mfecane in the 1970s and 1980s, Cobbing's paper was the first major source that overtly defied the hegemonic "Zulu-centric" explanation at

8640-524: The central Southern African plateau. The Great Escarpment reaches its greatest elevation – 2,000 to 3,482 metres (6,562 to 11,424 feet) within the border region of South Africa and Lesotho . The Drakensberg escarpment stretches for more than 1,000 kilometres (600 miles) from the Eastern Cape Province in the South, then successively forms, in order from south to north, the border between Lesotho and

8760-460: The century, the southern Tswana chiefdoms underwent fragmentations and consolidations as raids and counter-raids proliferated. The powerful Bahurutshe Chiefdom of the upper Marico River region had their control of the lucrative trade with the Cape Colony eroded by the Bangwaketse to the northwest, the Batlhaping to the southwest, and the emerging Pedi Kingdom to the east. The latter, helmed by

8880-498: The choice of his successor. The rationale for not following strict agnatic primogeniture lies in fears that agnates can improve their prospects of succession by eliminating those ahead of them. Additionally, the rationale for not having an elected monarchy, is to reduce the instability from candidates and their constituencies fomenting strife to advance their cause. This was the reasoning provided for King Goodwill Zwelithini Zulu not naming an heir well before his passing. Inferences about

9000-809: The complex interplay of pre-existing trends of political centralization with the effects of international trade, environmental instability, and European colonization. State formation and expansion had already been intensifying in Southeastern African as of at least the late 1700s, but these processes were greatly accelerated after the international ivory trade opened. The trade allowed leaders to amass unprecedented amounts of wealth, which they could then use to cultivate greater political power. Wealth and power became mutually reinforcing, as wealth enabled leaders to develop state instruments of control and expropriation, which they used to extract further wealth through taxation and military action. The consequence of this cycle

9120-487: The conquered peoples' livestock and grain stores and, in the long term, by securing arable land and the people (particularly women) to farm it at greater intensities than before. Here another self-reinforcing cycle set in as famine and warfare promoted insecurity and militarism, which promoted political centralization and more warfare as strong leaders expanded their authority by offering a desperately-needed escape from famine to loyal followers. A second stage of turmoil from

9240-518: The continent. High rainfall generates many mountain streams and rivers, including the sources of the Orange River , southern Africa's longest, and the Tugela River . These mountains also have the world's highest waterfall, the Tugela Falls (Thukela Falls), which has a total drop of 947 m (3,107 ft) (Venezuela's Angel Falls is also a candidate for highest waterfall). The rivers that run from

9360-582: The costs of running a colony and the preference of preventing the extant Boer Republics (i.e., the South African Republic and the Orange Free State ) from acquiring a coastline on the Indian Ocean , the British government directed that the Governor of the Natal Colony , Sir Theophilus Shepstone , annex Zululand but retain the aristocratic structures that would allow for native self-management, thereby enabling

9480-552: The current day in modern Zimbabwe. At the Battle of Mhlatuze River in 1818, the Ndwandwe were defeated by a Zulu force under the direct command of Shaka. Soshangane , one of Zwide's generals, fled to Mozambique with the remainder of the Ndwandwe. There, they established the Gaza kingdom . They oppressed the Tsonga people living there, some of whom fled over the Lebombo Mountains into

9600-485: The customary law of the Zulu Nation, a vacancy in the throne arises when the monarch is deceased, abdicates, or is declared permanently incapacitated. When a monarch is deceased, a period of mourning follows and it is customary that a new King is not appointed until this period is over. Usually the previous monarch or a regent in cases where the monarch is deceased or incapacitated, nominates an heir before their passing which

9720-578: The customary law which shapes it, including that of the Zulu King, to the constitution and the law of South Africa . The KwaZulu-Natal Ingonyama Trust Act of 1997 places all the land of the former KwaZulu homeland under the Ingonyama Trust of which the King is the trustee. The Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act of 2003 and subsequently the Traditional and Khoi-San Leadership Act state, among other things, that traditional leadership must advance

9840-402: The decision of a monarch to his Queen Consort & Regent, Queen Mantfombi Dlamini in his will. She appointed King Misuzulu Zulu in her will. Other claimants can contest the throne should it be unclear what the wishes of the previous King were or there be some criteria that precludes the designated successor. Where the throne is contested, especially when the claimants meet some but not all of

9960-570: The easily eroded sandstone of Clarens Formation , the layer below the thick, hard basalt layer on the KwaZulu Natal-Lesotho border. Many of these caves have paintings by the San (Bushmen). This portion of the Drakensberg has between 35,000 and 40,000 works of San rock art , and is the largest collection of such parietal work in the world. Some 20,000 individual rock paintings have been recorded at 500 different caves and overhanging sites between

10080-411: The east, with the result that most of the plateau lies above 1,000 m (3,300 ft) despite extensive erosion. The plateau is tilted such that it is highest in the east and slopes gently downward toward the west and south. Typically, the elevation of the edge of the eastern escarpments is in excess of 2,000 m (6,600 ft). It reaches its highest point of over 3,000 m (9,800 ft) where

10200-462: The eastern Cape Colony frontier. There they absorbed Korana, San, and others and engaged in extensive raiding along the Orange and lower Vaal rivers. This proved particularly damaging to the trade activities of their Batlhaping victims. By the 1810s, Boer expansion brought increasing destabilization to the middle Orange River region, not least in that it increased the flow of firearms. The Caledon Valley

10320-711: The environment is fairly undamaged. However, tourism in the Drakensberg is developing, with a variety of hiking trails , hotels, and resorts appearing on the slopes. Much of the higher South African parts of the range have been designated as game reserves or wilderness areas . 7% of the Drakensberg alti-montane grasslands and woodlands ecoregion is in protected areas. These include Golden Gate Highlands National Park , Sehlabathebe National Park , Tsehlanyane National Park , Malekgalonyane Nature Reserve , Giant's Castle Game Reserve , Loteni Nature Reserve , Natal National Park , Vergelegen Nature Reserve , Beaumont Nature Reserve , and Lammergeier Highlands Nature Reserve . Of these

10440-573: The escarpment forms part of the international border between Lesotho and the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal . The escarpment seen from below resembles a range of mountains. The Limpopo, Mpumalanga, and Lesotho Drakensberg have hard erosion-resistant upper surfaces and therefore have a very rugged appearance, combining steep-sided blocks and pinnacles (giving rise to the Zulu name "Barrier of up-pointed spears"). Who first gave these mountains their Afrikaans or Dutch name Drakensberg , and why,

10560-499: The evolution of the mountain landscapes because it helps to shape the summit areas – the highest areas – with this blasting effect. Previously, angular debris was presumed to have been created by changes typical of cold, periglacial environments, such as fracturing due to frost. The geological composition of Drakensberg (escarpment wall) varies considerably along its more than 1000 km length. The Limpopo and Mpumalanga Drakensberg are capped by an erosion resistant quartzite layer that

10680-635: The expansion of the Ndwandwe Paramountcy under Sikhunyana began to threaten the Zulu Kingdom's borders. In response, Shaka marched his army (and allied British traders) to the Izindololwane Hills and put Sikhunyana to flight. Their victory was so total that the Ndwandwe state collapsed shortly thereafter, with some constituent polities fleeing south or joining the Zulu, the Gaza Kingdom, or Mzilikazi 's Matabele/Ndebele Kingdom. The collapse of

10800-417: The extent to which African groups and leaders sought to establish more centralised and complex state formations to control ivory routes and the wealth associated with the trade. She suggests these pressures created internal movements, as well as reactions against European activity, that drove the state formations and concomitant violence and displacement. She still agreed with Cobbing's overall sentiment in that

10920-539: The formation of the Korana who started to launch raids on other communities by the 1780s. The fact that many of them had access to firearms and horses likely exacerbated the devastation caused by their raiders. Xhosa who were escaping the already violent region of the Eastern Cape often launched their own raids as well. All of these events led to making the region progressively more unstable. Missionary interference, internal politics, and raids by Dutch settlers also impacted

11040-422: The highest part of Drakensberg the composition of the flora is independent on slope aspect (direction) and varies, depending on the hardness of the rock clasts . This hardness is related to weathering and is variable even within a single landform . The Drakensberg area is "home to 299 recorded bird species"' making up "37% of all non-marine avian species in southern Africa". There are 24 species of snakes in

11160-641: The kingdom of Lesotho . The Tswana were pillaged by two large invading forces set on the move by the Mfecane. Sebitwane gathered the Kololo ethnic groups near modern Lesotho and wandered north across what is now Botswana , plundering and killing many of the Tswana people in the way. They also took large numbers of captives north with them, finally settling north of the Zambezi River in Barotseland , where they conquered

11280-521: The late 1830s the Swazi launched a raid against the Pedi Kingdom, which repelled them. The Mfecane began in the interior regions of Central Southern Africa in the late 18th century with the displacement of Khoekhoe and San peoples by slave and cattle raiders from the expanding Dutch Cape Colony . Arriving in the middle and lower Orange River regions, they competed with local Batwsana peoples, beginning

11400-595: The leadership of Moshoeshoe . Separately, facing violence and starvation, Sebetwane 's BaFokeng , Tsooane's MaPhuting, and Nkarahanye's BaHlakoana fled their homes. The three joined forces in 1823 to take the BaThlaping town of Dithakong , whose access to water kept it rich in grain and cattle despite the overall drought. The BaThlaping repelled the invasion on 24 June with the aid of a mounted force of Griqua, inflicting heavy casualties and killing Tsooane and Nkarahanye. In 1825, Mpangazita's followers dispersed after he

11520-583: The many rivers and streams, including the Maluti redfin ( Pseudobarbus quathlambae ) that was thought to be extinct before being found in the Senqunyane River in Lesotho. The lower slopes of the Drakensberg support much wildlife, perhaps most importantly the rare southern white rhinoceros (which was nurtured here when facing extinction) and the black wildebeest ( Connochaetes gnou , which as of 2011 only thrives in protected areas and game reserves). The area

11640-569: The mid-to-late 1700s. The local Tembe and Mabhudu-Tembe competed for control, absorbing or expelling some of their neighboring polities. The abakwaDlamini , who would later form the Swazi Kingdom , were one such group put to flight by the conflict. The mid-to-late 1700s also saw the rise of the Nxumalo and Nyambose chiefdoms between the Phongolo and Thukela rivers, which would eventually become

11760-574: The name the earliest Dutch settlers gave to the escarpment, namely Drakensbergen , or Dragons' Mountains . The highest portion of the Great Escarpment is known in Zulu as uKhahlamba and as Maloti in Sotho ("Barrier of up-pointed spears"). The Great Escarpment is composed of steep rift valley walls formed around a bulging of continental crust during the breakup of southern Gondwana that have since eroded inland from their original positions near

11880-616: The new Zulu king. These chaotic events prompted the secession of a segment of the subject abakwaQwabe nation, though they were dispersed in late 1829 by a Mpondo attack south of the Mzimkhulu. By the late 1820s the power struggles between the Mzimkhulu and Mzimvubu Rivers had produced two victors: the Mpondo Kingdom and the Bhaca Chiefdom. Several weaker polities again relocated, with some moving north, others moving south, and yet others to

12000-920: The northeastern and eastern borders of Lesotho, as well as the Eastern Cape Drakensberg, are composed of a thick layer of basalt (lava) that erupted 180 million years ago. That layer rests on the youngest of the Karoo Supergroup sediments, the Clarens sandstone , which was laid down under desert conditions, about 200 million years ago. The highest peak is Thabana Ntlenyana , at 3,482 m (11,424 ft). Other notable peaks include Mafadi (3,450 m (11,319 ft)), Makoaneng at 3,416 metres (11,207 ft), Njesuthi at 3,408 metres (11,181 ft), Champagne Castle at 3,377 metres (11,079 ft), Giant's Castle at 3,315 metres (10,876 ft), Ben Macdhui at 3,001 metres (9,846 ft), and Popple Peak at 3,331 metres (10,928 ft), all of these are in

12120-420: The qualifying criteria, the royal family recognises the claimant who meets the most of these criteria and has the most support from constituencies such as the aristocracy ( amakhosi ), militia ( amabutho ), and traditional council and Prime Minister ( indunankulu ). Unlike European or Japanese monarchies there is not a line of succession that allows for clear succession given that the King has some control over

12240-600: The rare Spiral Aloe ( Aloe polyphylla ) , which as its name suggests, has leaves with a spiral shape. Meanwhile, the lower slopes are mainly grassland, but are also home to conifers , which are rare in Africa, the species of conifer found in the Drakensberg belong to the genus Podocarpus . The grassland is of interest as it contains a great number of endemic plants. Grasses found here include oat grass Monocymbium ceresiiforme , Diheteropogon filifolius , Sporobolus centrifugus , caterpillar grass ( Harpochloa falx ) , Cymbopogon dieterlenii , and Eulalia villosa . In

12360-569: The region. By the start of the 19th century, the most powerful Tswana chiefdom, the Bahurutse, were increasingly being challenged by the Bangwaketse. Moshoeshoe I gathered the mountain clans together in an alliance against the Zulus. Fortifying the easily defended hills and expanding his reach with cavalry raids, he fought against his enemies with some success, despite not adopting the Zulu tactics, as many clans had done. The territory of Moshoeshoe I became

12480-450: The root causes to complex political, economic, and environmental developments. The Mfecane is significant in that it saw the formation of new states, institutions, and ethnic identities in southeastern Africa. The Mfecane's historiography itself is also historically significant, with different versions having been employed to serve a range of political purposes since its inception as a historical concept. The concept first emerged in

12600-460: The roots of the conflicts lay in the labour needs of Portuguese slave traders operating out of Delagoa Bay, Mozambique and European settlers in the Cape Colony . The resulting pressures led to forced displacement , famine, and war in the interior, allowing waves of Afrikaner settlers to colonize large swaths of the region. Cobbing's views were echoed by historian Dan Wylie, who argued that colonial-era white writers such as Isaacs had exaggerated

12720-402: The semi-autonomous ethnolinguistic reservation known as KwaZulu Homeland , the King exercised predominantly reserve and ceremonial powers with respect to that area. With the advent of a democratic state following the end of apartheid and in seeking to restore the dignity of the indigenous people, the new government recognised and delineated a formal role for the Zulu and other monarchs. In 2005,

12840-469: The sons of the Indlunkulu ( great wife ) in which he has some discretion to choose his successor. The King's coronation incorporates Zulu religious elements such as the royal hunting of a lion, entering of the kraal enrobed with the lion's pelt and cleansing of the throne, which binds the Zulu regiments to the King, Christian elements such as the annointing and secular elements such as the presentation of

12960-465: The southern African coast, and its entire eastern portion (see the accompanying map) constitutes the Drakensberg. The Drakensberg terminate in the north near Tzaneen at about the 22° S parallel. The absence of the Great Escarpment for approximately 450 km (280 mi) to the north of Tzaneen (to reappear on the border between Zimbabwe and Mozambique in the Chimanimani Mountains )

13080-412: The time. This was followed by fierce discourse in the early 1990s prompted by Cobbing's hypothesis. Many agree that Cobbing's analysis offered several key breakthroughs and insights into the nature of early Zulu society. The historian Elizabeth Eldredge challenged Cobbing's thesis on the grounds that there is scant evidence of the resumption of the Portuguese slave trade out of Delagoa Bay before 1823,

13200-604: The values of equality, dignity and freedom for all. It empowers the Premier of the Province to recognise traditional communities in the province and set out a framework for the traditional council tasked with overseeing that community, and it prescribes the conditions for the recognition and removal of kings including the Zulu King. In 2005, the KwaZulu-Natal Traditional Leadership and Governance Act legally recognised

13320-507: The western Tswana polities. Mzilikazi suffered another major raid from the Griqua leader Berend Berends in 1831, but again managed to decimate the loot-laden attackers. In 1832 it was the Zulu Kingdom's turn to raid the Ndebele, but for the most part they were successfully repelled. Mzilikazi relocated after the Zulu attack, settling in the Bahurutshe's upper Marico territory. The Bahurutshe response

13440-444: Was an increasing political and wealth disparity within and between polities, particularly in concern to productive land and food stores. Political centralization became problematic in the early 1800s when deep drought (aggravated by the atmospheric effects of volcanic eruptions in 1809 and 1815) struck Southeastern Africa. Whereas previous droughts hadn't caused serious famine, the unequal distribution of land and food stores lessened

13560-526: Was assassinated and succeeded by his brother, King Dingane in 1828, who relocated the capital to the Palace of Umngungundlovu , noteworthy for his assassination of Piet Retief and his compatriots in resisting the Voortrekker incursion into Zulu territory and whose defeat at the Battle of Blood River (leading to the establishment of the Natalia Republic ) catalysed his unpopularity and subsequent downfall. With

13680-522: Was cast off, Moshoeshoe's forces successfully raided the abaThembu in 1829, greatly enriching his kingdom and allowing it to recruit large numbers of followers from returning refugees. To the south of Moshoeshoe's territory, small San polities eked out independent livelihoods, while others joined Morosi 's Phuthi polity to raid abaThembu, Cape Colonists, and others. Notably, San groups developed new styles of rock art during this period of change. Also between 1827 and 1828, Mzilikazi's Ndebele relocated to

13800-510: Was divided, with some submitting to Ndebele rule and others relocating to Bathlaping and Griqua territory. In 1834 Jan Bloem launched a second raid against the Ndebele, which ended similarly to his first attack. Mzilikazi responded by maintaining the southern reaches of his domain as an unpopulated buffer zone. Around 1821, the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan defied Shaka, and set up his own kingdom. He quickly made many enemies: not only

13920-485: Was established to preserve some of the high mountain areas of the range. Towns and cities in the Drakensberg area include, from south to north, Matatiele and Barkly East in the Eastern Cape Province; Ladysmith , Newcastle , Ulundi – the former Zulu capital, Dundee , and Ixopo in KwaZulu-Natal; all of Lesotho, whose capital is Maseru ; and Tzaneen in Limpopo Province . There are numerous caves in

14040-532: Was killed in a war against Matiwane 's amaNgwane . The amaNgwane proceeded to control much of the Caledon River environs, raiding and displacing Sotho and Tswana neighbors. The mid-1820s saw Sebetwane dominate the upper Molopo region and Moletsane's Bataung people heavily raid the Vaal River. The eastern interior, however, was coming under the domination of Mzilikazi's Ndebele Kingdom. His forces raided

14160-458: Was later accused of slave trading). In 1988, Rhodes University professor Julian Cobbing advanced a different hypothesis on the rise of the Zulu state; he contended the accounts of the Mfecane were a self-serving, constructed product of apartheid -era politicians and historians. According to Cobbing, apartheid-era historians had mischaracterised the Mfecane as a period of internally induced Black-on-Black destruction. Instead, Cobbing argued that

14280-649: Was now sustaining raids by Boer, Griqua, and Korana parties. By the early 1820s the instability spread north of the Orange River. In 1822 AmaHlubi under the command of Mpangazita crossed the Drakensberg mountains and attacked Queen MmaNthatisi's Batlôkwa people . Put to flight, MmaNthatisi's followers survived off of pillage before resettling west of the Caledon River in 1824. The Sotho polities of this area sometimes held conflictual relations with these Batlôkwa newcomers, and they began coalescing in 1824 under

14400-616: Was succeeded by Solomon who founded the Inkatha yamaZulu to oppose the land policies of the Jan Smuts government and was the maternal grand uncle of Mangosuthu Buthelezi , the founder of the Inkatha Freedom Party . Due to a protracted dispute, Prince Arthur Edward Mshiyeni acted as Regent from Solomon's passing in 1933 to Cyprian Bhekizulu in 1948 who was in turn succeeded by Goodwill Zwelithini in 1968. Prince Mcwayizeni Zulu acted as

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