List of forms of government
135-491: Field Marshal Jan Christian Smuts , OM , CH , DTD , ED , PC , KC , FRS (baptismal name Jan Christiaan Smuts , 24 May 1870 – 11 September 1950) was a South African statesman, military leader and philosopher. In addition to holding various military and cabinet posts, he served as prime minister of the Union of South Africa from 1919 to 1924 and 1939 to 1948. Smuts
270-461: A crown above two crossed batons or swords surrounded by yellow leaves below, Syria's Marshal rank adds an extra star to its General insignia ergo three stars above crossed swords below the coat of arms. In the Royal Thai Army the rank of Chom Phon ( Thai : จอมพล, จอมพลทหารบก ) was created in 1888, together with all other military ranks along western lines, by King Chulalongkorn . Today it
405-463: A divisional command rank and also as a brigade command rank. Examples of the different uses of the rank include Afghanistan , Austria-Hungary , Pakistan , Prussia / Germany , India and Sri Lanka for an extraordinary achievement; Spain and Mexico for a divisional command (Spanish: mariscal de campo ); and France, Portugal and Brazil for a brigade command (French: maréchal de camp , Portuguese : marechal de campo ). The origin of
540-641: A general or admiral ( Romanian : amiral ), in time of war for exceptional military merits, by the President of Romania and confirmed by the Supreme Council of National Defense . Imperial Russia had for a long time maintained the rank of Field Marshal. It was active all the way until the Russian Revolutions of 1917. When the Bolsheviks took over, they briefly abandoned military ranks until 1935. When it
675-620: A peace conference at Bloemfontein to settle each side's grievances. With an intimate knowledge of the British, Smuts took control of the Transvaal delegation. Sir Alfred Milner , head of the British delegation, took exception to his dominance, and conflict between the two led to the collapse of the conference, consigning South Africa to war. Smuts was the first South African to be internationally regarded as an important psychologist. During Smuts's undergraduate years at Cambridge University, he produced
810-579: A Hutu ethnocracy since 1959. Turkey has been described as an ethnocracy by Bilge Azgın. Azgın points to government policies whose goals are the "exclusion, marginalization, or assimilation" of minority groups that are non-Turkish as the defining elements of Turkish ethnocracy. Israeli researcher As'ad Ghanem also considers Turkey an ethnocracy, while Jack Fong describes Turkey's policy of referring to its Kurdish minority as " mountain Turks " and its refusal to acknowledge any separate Kurdish identity as elements of
945-617: A cabinet minister under Louis Botha . Smuts played a leading role in the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, helping shape its constitution. He and Botha established the South African Party , with Botha becoming the union's first prime minister and Smuts holding multiple cabinet portfolios. As defence minister he was responsible for the Union Defence Force during the First World War. Smuts personally led troops in
1080-413: A career in psychology. He considered psychology as "too impersonal to study great personalities", and believed that the holistic tendency of the personality would be studied best through personology. Smuts, however, never inquired further into the idea of personology due to him wanting to continue laying the foundation of the concept of holism. He never returned to either of the topics. Holism Although
1215-517: A commander "of the dashing type" for the Middle East in succession to Murray , but Smuts refused the command (late May) unless promised resources for a decisive victory, and he agreed with Robertson that Western Front commitments did not justify a serious attempt to capture Jerusalem . Allenby was appointed instead. Like other members of the War Cabinet, Smuts's commitment to Western Front efforts
1350-504: A diverse number of subjects in addition to law. He wrote a book, Walt Whitman : A Study in the Evolution of Personality . It was not published until 1973, after his death, but it can be seen that Smuts in this book had already conceptualized his thinking for his later wide-ranging philosophy of holism . Smuts graduated in 1894 with a double first . Over the previous two years, he had received numerous academic prizes and accolades, including
1485-552: A five-star general in Serbia was Vojvoda (Serbia and Yugoslavia) , a military rank that has many similarities compared to Generalfeldmarschall , Marshal of France and Field marshal (United Kingdom) but also differs in way of promotion, duration and style. However, the name of this military is etymologically closer to the nobility title of duke . It was the highest rank in the army of the Kingdom of Serbia and Kingdom of Yugoslavia until
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#17328524386411620-458: A five-star officer was not adopted because, otherwise, George Marshall would be addressed as "Marshal Marshall", which was considered undignified. Thus, Douglas MacArthur is the only US officer ever to have received the rank of Marshal, which was given to him by the government of the Philippines. On the 17 June 1983, Mobutu Sese Seko promoted himself to the rank of field marshal. The order
1755-485: A friend from Victoria College. In reply, Professor Marais enclosed a cheque for a substantial sum, by way of loan, encouraging Smuts to let him know if he ever found himself in need again. Thanks to Marais, Smuts's financial standing was secure. He gradually began to enter more into the social aspects of the university, although he retained a single-minded dedication to his studies. During this time in Cambridge, Smuts studied
1890-596: A great interest in Smuts's book. Adler requested permission from Smuts to have the book translated to German and published in Germany. Although Smuts's concept of holism is grounded in the natural sciences, he claimed that it has a relevance in philosophy, ethics, sociology, and psychology. In Holism and Evolution , he argued that the concept of holism is "grounded in evolution and is also an ideal that guides human development and one's level of personality actualization." Smuts stated in
2025-545: A key role in establishing and defining the League of Nations, United Nations and Commonwealth of Nations . He supported racial segregation and opposed democratic non-racial rule . At the end of his career, Smuts supported the Fagan Commission 's recommendations to relax restrictions on black South Africans living and working in urban areas. Smuts was born on 24 May 1870, at the family farm, Bovenplaats , near Malmesbury , in
2160-517: A liberal democracy. Smooha in particular argues that ethnocratic democracies, allowing a privileged status to a dominant ethnic majority while ensuring that all individuals have equal rights, are defensible. His opponents reply that insofar as Israel contravenes equality in practice, the term 'democratic' in his equation is flawed. In 2018, Israel passed the Nation-State Bill which declared that "The right to exercise national self-determination in
2295-505: A manuscript in 1895 in which he analysed the personality of the famous American poet Walt Whitman . Due to his manuscript being considered unviable, it was only published 23 years after his death in 1973. Smuts went on to produce his next manuscript, which he completed in 1910, entitled An Inquiry into the Whole . His manuscript was then revised in 1924 and published in 1926 with the title Holism and Evolution . Smuts had no interest in pursuing
2430-476: A militarised ethnocracy that propagates the survival of Tutsis over the well-being of Hutus". In 2024, The New York Times noted that critics contended that members of the Tutsi ethnic group "dominate[d] the top echelons" of Rwanda's government under Kagame, thereby excluding Hutus and their 85% of the country's population. Prior to the 1990–1994 Rwanda Civil War and 1994 Rwandan genocide , Rwanda had been ruled by
2565-574: A poly-ethnocracy and a democracy. Citizens in Belgium exercise political rights found in democracies, such as voting and free speech. However, Belgian politics is increasingly defined by ethnic divisions between the Flemish and Francophone communities. For example, all the major political parties are formed around either a Flemish or Francophone identity . Furthermore, bilingual education has disappeared from most Francophone schools. Malaysia has been labeled as
2700-842: A pro- Bumiputera / Malay ethnocracy by various academics due to the Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia , as well as the Ketuanan Melayu (Malay supremacy) ideology, which gives them more economic, political and social rights over the Malaysian minorities such as the Malaysian Chinese and Malaysian Indians , who are treated as de facto second-class citizens . According to academic Alana Tiemessen in 2004, Rwanda's president Paul Kagame and his Rwandan Patriotic Front political party have "been characterised inside and outside of Rwanda as
2835-571: A rebellion of 500 to 600 people, of which 200 were said to be armed (although only about 40 weapons were captured after the Bondelswarts were crushed). Gysbert Hofmeyr , the Mandatory Administrator, organised 400 armed men, and sent in aircraft to bomb the Bondelswarts. Casualties included 100 Bondelswart deaths, including a few women and children. A further 468 men were either wounded or taken prisoner. South Africa's international reputation
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#17328524386412970-924: A way to eliminate ethnic power hierarchies over time. (Although Creole peoples are central in the Caribbean, Eric Kauffman warns against conflating the presence of a dominant ethnicity in such countries with ethnic nationalism. ) Andreas Wimmler notes that a non-ethnic federal system without minority rights has helped Switzerland to avoid ethnocracy but that this did not help in overcoming ethnic discrimination when introduced in Bolivia . Likewise, ethnic federalism "produced benign results in India and Canada " but did not work in Nigeria and Ethiopia . Edward E. Telles notes that anti-discrimination legislation may not work as well in Brazil as in
3105-443: Is also viewed as an apartheid state by various organisations, including B'Tselem , Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International , due to actions committed against Palestinians that they see as emblematic of such a state. However, some scholars such as Gershon Shafir, Yoav Peled and Sammy Smooha prefer the term ethnic democracy to describe Israel, which is intended to represent a " middle ground " between an ethnocracy and
3240-716: Is ceremonially held by members of the Thai royal family. In the Turkish Armed Forces , the corresponding rank is mareşal . Its origins can be traced to the Ottoman Empire and to the military of Persia , where it was called "müşir" and bestowed upon senior commanders upon order of the ruling sultan . The rank of mareşal can only be bestowed by the National Assembly , to generals or admirals who have displayed distinguished merit in wartime. Only two persons have been bestowed
3375-685: Is equivalent to general of the army of the United States which is the highest rank in the Malaysian army and are reserved for His Majesty the King of Malaysia though there are several non-royals who hold this rank. Charles, Prince of Wales , as he was at the time, was officially appointed a Field Marshal in the New Zealand Army in November 2015. As King Charles III , he remains the only living person to hold
3510-530: Is in charge of the country's military affairs. Later, a more common title for a field marshal or a commandant was (元帥 Yuan Shuai ) or grand field marshal (大元帥 da yuan shuai ). One of the most famous of these generals was Yue Fei from the Song dynasty . Since the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, it has promoted 10 military commanders to the rank of marshal, all in 1955 and abolished in 1965. Since then,
3645-544: Is meant to serve and whose identity it is meant to represent) constitutes a small minority (typically 20% or less) of the population within the state territory, substantial institutionalized suppression will probably be necessary to sustain its control. One view is that the most effective means of eliminating ethnic discrimination vary depending on the specific situation. In the Caribbean , a "rainbow nationalism" type of non-ethnic, inclusive civic nationalism has been developed as
3780-570: Is not a distinctive military rank but an honour. In the French army of the Ancien Régime , the normal brigade command rank was field marshal ( maréchal de camp ). In 1793, during the French Revolution , the rank of field marshal was replaced by the rank of brigade general. The rank insignia of field marshal was two stars (one-star being used for a senior colonel rank). The French field marshal rank
3915-412: Is the highest rank in an army (in countries without the rank of Generalissimo), and as such, few persons are ever appointed to it. It is considered as a five-star rank (OF-10) in modern-day armed forces in many countries. Promotion to the rank of field marshal in many countries historically required extraordinary military achievement by a general (a wartime victory). However, the rank has also been used as
4050-517: The 1924 general election by J. B. M. Hertzog 's National Party . He spent several years in academia, during which he coined the term " holism ", before eventually re-entering politics as deputy prime minister in a coalition with Hertzog; in 1934 their parties subsequently merged to form the United Party . Smuts returned as prime minister in 1939, leading South Africa into the Second World War at
4185-622: The American Expeditionary Forces lacked the proper leadership and experience to be effective quickly. He supported the Anglo-French amalgamation policy towards the Americans. In particular, he had a low opinion of General John J. Pershing 's leadership skills, so much so that he proposed to Lloyd George that Pershing be relieved of command and US forces be placed "under someone more confident, like [himself]". This did not endear him to
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4320-673: The Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary , the rank Feldmarschall was used. The rank was also given to generals in southern German States and Austria by the Holy Roman Emperor during the existence of the Holy Roman Empire up to 1806. Stratarches ( Greek : Στρατάρχης ), meaning Ruler of the Army in Greek, is a title for senior military commanders dating back to classical antiquity, in
4455-698: The Boer republics declared war and launched an offensive into the British-held Natal and Cape Colony areas, beginning the Second Boer War of 1899–1902. In the early stages of the conflict, Smuts served as Paul Kruger 's eyes and ears in Pretoria, handling propaganda, logistics, communication with generals and diplomats, and anything else that was required. In the second phase of the war, from mid-1900, Smuts served under Koos de la Rey , who commanded 500 commandos in
4590-462: The Cape Colony . His parents, Jacobus Smuts and his wife Catharina, were prosperous, traditional Afrikaner farmers, long established and highly respected. As the second son of the family, rural custom dictated that Jan would remain working on the farm. In this system, typically only the first son was supported for a full, formal education. In 1882, when Jan was twelve, his elder brother died, and Jan
4725-463: The Dutch Reformed Church , of which he had once been a dedicated member, which demanded Calvinist teachings in schools. As Colonial Secretary, he opposed a movement for equal rights for South Asian workers, led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi . During the years of Transvaal self-government, nobody could avoid the predominant political debate of the day: South African unification. Ever since
4860-754: The East African campaign in 1916 and the following year joined the Imperial War Cabinet in London. He played a leading role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 , advocating for the creation of the League of Nations and securing South African control over the former German South-West Africa . In 1919, Smuts replaced Botha as prime minister, holding the office until the South African Party's defeat at
4995-655: The Greek Civil War . The rank is not retained by the current (since 1974) Third Hellenic Republic . Field marshal is the highest attainable rank in the Indian Army . It is a ceremonial / war time rank. There have been two Indian field marshals to date. Sam Manekshaw was promoted to the rank in 1973 for his role in leading the Indian Army to assist the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 against Pakistan, backed by
5130-687: The Jameson Raid , in the summer of 1895–96, Smuts was outraged. Feeling betrayed by his employer, friend and political ally, he resigned from De Beers, and left political life. Instead he became state attorney in the capital of the South African Republic , Pretoria . After the Jameson Raid, relations between the British and the Afrikaners had deteriorated steadily. By 1898, war seemed imminent. Orange Free State President Martinus Steyn called for
5265-506: The Musahiban and uncle of King Zahir and President Sardar Mohammed Daoud Khan , was a field marshal. Mohammed Fahim became an honorary marshal in 2004. Abdul Rashid Dostum became an honorary marshal in 2020 (this position is now defunct). The first appointment to the rank was Sir William Birdwood , who received the honour in March 1925. Sir Thomas Blamey was the second appointment to
5400-584: The Second World War . It was first created with the passing of the law on the Organization of the Army of the Kingdom of Serbia in 1901. The law was passed on the suggestion of Lieutenant Colonel (later Divisional General ) Miloš Vasić , who was minister of defense at the time. The rank was awarded only during the war for particular military contributions of top generals. Only four Serbian generals have reached
5535-409: The South African Party , a new pan-South African Afrikaner party. The harmony and co-operation soon ended. Smuts was criticised for his overarching powers, and the cabinet was reshuffled. Smuts lost Interior and Mines, but gained control of Finance. That was still too much for Smuts's opponents, who decried his possession of both Defence and Finance, two departments that were usually at loggerheads. At
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5670-572: The South-West Africa Campaign for details). In 1916 General Smuts was put in charge of the conquest of German East Africa . Col (later BGen) J. H. V. Crowe commanded the artillery in East Africa under General Smuts and published an account of the campaign, General Smuts' Campaign in East Africa in 1918. Smuts was promoted to temporary lieutenant general on 18 February 1916, and to honorary lieutenant general for distinguished service in
5805-605: The United Nations Development Programme 's Development and Transition , contends Latvia and Estonia are cases of 'ethnic democracy', where the state has been captured by the titular ethnic group and then used to promote 'nationalising' policies and alleged discrimination against Russophone minorities. ( Development and Transition has also published papers disputing Hughes' contentions.) Israeli researchers Oren Yiftachel and As'ad Ghanem consider Estonia an ethnocracy. Israeli sociologist Sammy Smooha, of
5940-520: The United States Armed Forces has ever used the rank of field marshal. On 14 December 1944, Congress created the rank of "general of the army ", a five-star rank equivalent to that of field marshal in other countries. Two days later, George Marshall was promoted to this rank, becoming the first five-star general in American history. It has been suggested that the denomination of "Marshal" for
6075-510: The University of Haifa , disagrees with Yiftachel, contending that the ethnocratic model developed by Yiftachel does not fit the case of Latvia and Estonia: they are not settler societies as their core ethnic groups are indigenous, nor did they expand territorially, nor have diasporas intervening in their internal affairs (as in the case of Israel for which Yiftachel originally developed his model). Lise Morjé Howard has labeled Belgium as both
6210-433: The concentration camps of the enemy". He felt it would have been a crime to continue the war without the assurance of help from elsewhere and declared, "Comrades, we decided to stand to the bitter end. Let us now, like men, admit that that end has come for us, come in a more bitter shape than we ever thought." His opinions were representative of the conference, which then voted by 54 to 6 in favour of peace. Representatives of
6345-492: The 1600s. The exact wording of the titles used by field marshals varies: examples include " marshal " and " field marshal general ". The air force equivalent in Commonwealth and many Middle Eastern air forces is marshal of the air force (not to be confused with air marshal ). Navies, which usually do not use the nomenclature employed by armies or air forces, use titles such as " fleet admiral ," " grand admiral " or " admiral of
6480-709: The 1913 South African Party conference, the Old Boers (Hertzog, Steyn, De Wet), called for Botha and Smuts to step down. The two narrowly survived a confidence vote, and the troublesome triumvirate stormed out, leaving the party for good. With the schism in internal party politics came a new threat to the mines that brought South Africa its wealth. A small-scale miners' dispute flared into a full-blown strike, and rioting broke out in Johannesburg after Smuts intervened heavy-handedly. After police shot dead twenty-one strikers, Smuts and Botha headed unaccompanied to Johannesburg to resolve
6615-445: The Americans once it was leaked. Smuts and Botha were key negotiators at the Paris Peace Conference . Both were in favour of reconciliation with Germany and limited reparations. Smuts was a key architect of the League of Nations through his correspondences with Woodrow Wilson, his work with the Imperial War Cabinet during the First World War and his book League of Nations: A Practical Suggestion . According to Jacob Kripp, Smuts saw
6750-629: The Army) or simply marechal also existed. Distinctively from the rank of marechal de campo , the ranks of marechal-general and marechal were the highest in the Portuguese Army, usually being reserved for the commanders-in-chief of the Army. Latter, the rank of marechal-general became reserved for the monarch , as a mere honorary dignity. Mareșal is the highest rank in the Romanian Armed Forces . The rank of mareșal can only be bestowed to
6885-418: The Australian Prime Minister, Billy Hughes , feared the rising power of the Japanese Empire in the post First World War world. When the former German East Africa was divided into two mandated territories ( Ruanda-Urundi and Tanganyika ), Smutsland was one of the proposed names for what became Tanganyika. Smuts, who had called for South African territorial expansion all the way to the River Zambesi since
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#17328524386417020-454: The British victory in the war, it was an inevitability, but it remained up to the South Africans to decide what sort of country would be formed, and how it would be formed. Smuts favoured a unitary state , with power centralised in Pretoria, with English as the only official language , and with a more inclusive electorate. To impress upon his compatriots his vision, he called a constitutional convention in Durban , in October 1908. There, Smuts
7155-476: The Ebden scholarship for overseas study. He decided to attend the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom to read law at Christ's College . Smuts found it difficult to settle at Cambridge. He felt homesick and isolated by his age and different upbringing from the English undergraduates. Worries over money also contributed to his unhappiness, as his scholarship was insufficient to cover his university expenses. He confided these worries to Professor J. I. Marais,
7290-428: The Governments met Lord Kitchener and at five minutes past eleven on 31 May 1902, the Acting State President of the South African Republic , Schalk Willem Burger signed the Treaty of Vereeniging , followed by the members of his government, Acting State President of the Orange Free State , Christiaan De Wet , and the members of his government. Despite Smuts's exploits as a general and a negotiator, nothing could mask
7425-468: The Hungarian border. Hungary's rejection led to the conference's approval of a Czechoslovak - Romanian invasion and harsher terms in the Treaty of Trianon . The Treaty of Versailles gave South Africa a Class C mandate over German South-West Africa (which later became Namibia ), which was occupied from 1919 until withdrawal in 1990. At the same time, Australia was given a similar mandate over German New Guinea , which it held until 1975. Both Smuts and
7560-414: The Hungarians that the agreement would not influence Hungary's final borders. He also teased the lifting of the economic blockade of the country and inviting the Hungarian soviet leaders to the Paris Peace Conference. Kun rejected the terms, and demanded the return to the Belgrade armistice line later that day, upon which Smuts ended negotiations and left. On 8 April he negotiated with Masaryk in Prague over
7695-426: The Indian Army itself, in the last few days of the war . K. M. Cariappa was promoted in 1986, long after he retired, in recognition of his services as the first Indian Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army. Khalifa Haftar was the first to "claim" receive this rank in Libya from the House of Representatives in 2016 after the liberation of oil ports in the Operation Swift Lightning . Field Marshal of Malaysia
7830-426: The League as necessary in unifying white internationalists and pacifying a race war through indirect rule by Europeans over non-whites and segregation. Kripp states that the League of Nations mandates system reflected a compromise between Smuts's desire to annex non-white territories and Woodrow Wilson's principles of trusteeship. He was sent to Budapest to negotiate with Béla Kun 's Hungarian Soviet Republic . This
7965-406: The Orange leaders began to see a final compromise as necessary to secure the concessions that Smuts had already made. They agreed to Smuts's draft South African constitution, which was duly ratified by the South African colonies. Smuts and Botha took the constitution to London, where it was passed by Parliament and given Royal Assent by King Edward VII in December 1909. The Union of South Africa
8100-446: The Philippines nation-state. In the Portuguese Army , the rank of marechal de campo was created in 1762, as the most junior general officer rank. Hierarchically, it was ranked between tenente-general (lieutenant-general) and brigadeiro (brigadier), this last one not being considered a general rank, but a kind of senior colonel . In Portugal, the ranks of marechal-general (marshal-general) and marechal do Exército (marechal of
8235-463: The Rand, including murderous attacks on non-Europeans, conspicuously on African miners in their compounds, and this culminated in a general assault on the police. Smuts declared martial law and suppressed the insurrection in three days – at a cost of 291 police and army deaths, and 396 civilians killed. A Martial Law Commission was established which found that Smuts used larger forces than were strictly required, but had saved lives by doing so. The second
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#17328524386418370-400: The State of Israel is unique to the Jewish people." The law also removed the official status of Arabic, with Hebrew remaining the sole official language of Israel. There is a spectrum of opinion among authors as to the classification of Latvia and Estonia , spanning from liberal democracy through ethnic democracy to ethnocracy. Will Kymlicka regards Estonia as a democracy, stressing
8505-473: The Swedish army, the field marshal had unlimited military and considerable political authority. However, the field marshal was subordinate to the Lord High Constable of Sweden (Riksmarsken) and his closest man was the rikstygmästare [ sv ] . Initially, the field marshal was the commander of the cavalry and first became the foremost military rank in Sweden during the early 17th century, especially after count Jakob Pontusson de la Gardie received
8640-421: The Transvaal within British South Africa. Using the thorny political issue of South Asian labourers (' coolies '), the South Africans convinced Prime Minister Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman and, with him, the cabinet and Parliament . Through 1906, Smuts worked on the new constitution for the Transvaal, and, in December 1906, elections were held for the Transvaal parliament. Despite being shy and reserved, unlike
8775-433: The Turkish ethnocracy. Until 1994, South Africa had institutionalized a highly ethnocratic state structure, apartheid . In his 1985 book Power-Sharing in South Africa , Arend Lijphart classified contemporaneous constitutional proposals to address the resulting conflict into four categories: These illustrate the idea that state power can be distributed along two dimensions: legal-institutional and territorial. Along
8910-402: The U.S. at addressing ethnoracial inequalities, since much of the discrimination that occurs in Brazil is class-based, and Brazilian judges and police often ignore laws that are intended to benefit non-elites. In October 2012, Lise Morjé Howard introduced the terms mono-ethnocracy and poly-ethnocracy . Mono-ethnocracy is a type of regime where one ethnic group dominates, which conforms with
9045-421: The Western Transvaal. Consequently, Smuts was left with a small force of 300 men, while another 100 men followed him. By January 1902 the British scorched-earth policy left little grazing land. One hundred of the cavalry that had joined Smuts were therefore too weak to continue and so Smuts had to leave these men with General Kritzinger . Intelligence indicated that at this time Smuts had about 3,000 men. To end
9180-437: The Western Transvaal. Smuts excelled at hit-and-run warfare , and the unit evaded and harassed a British army forty times its size. President Paul Kruger and the deputation in Europe thought that there was good hope for their cause in the Cape Colony . They decided to send General de la Rey there to assume supreme command, but then decided to act more cautiously when they realised that General de la Rey could hardly be spared in
9315-406: The army. US Army General Douglas MacArthur was the first and only field marshal in the history of the Philippine Army , a position he held while also acting as the Military Advisor to the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines with a rank of major general. President Quezon conferred the rank of field marshal on 24 August 1936 and MacArthur's duty included the supervision of the creation of
9450-404: The book that "personality is the highest form of holism" (p. 292). Recognition from Adler Adler later wrote a letter, dated 31 January 1931, where he stated that he recommended Smuts's book to his students and followers. He referred to it as "the best preparation for the science of Individual Psychology". After Smuts gave permission for the translation and publication of his book in Germany, it
9585-474: The concept of holism has been discussed by many, the term holism in academic terminology was first introduced and publicly shared in print by Smuts in the early twentieth century. Smuts was acknowledged for his contribution by getting the honour to write the first entry about the concept for the Encyclopaedia Britannica 1929 edition. The Austrian medical doctor, founder of the school of Individual Psychology, and psychotherapist, Alfred Adler (1870–1937), also showed
9720-523: The conflict, Smuts sought to take a major target, the copper-mining town of Okiep in the present-day Northern Cape Province (April–May 1902). With a full assault impossible, Smuts packed a train full of explosives, and tried to push it downhill, into the town, in order to bring the enemy garrison to its knees. Although this failed, Smuts had proved his point: that he would stop at nothing to defeat his enemies. Norman Kemp Smith wrote that General Smuts read from Immanuel Kant 's Critique of Pure Reason on
9855-534: The consociational model. Northern Ireland has been described as an ethnocracy by numerous scholars. Wendy Pullan describes gerrymandering of electoral districts to ensure Unionist domination and informal policies that led to the police force being overwhelmingly Protestant as features of the Unionist ethnocracy. Other elements included discriminatory housing and policies designed to encourage Catholic emigration. Ian Shuttleworth, Myles Gould and Paul Barr agree that
9990-622: The coveted George Long prize in Roman Law and Jurisprudence. One of his tutors, Professor Maitland , a leading figure among English legal historians, described Smuts as the most brilliant student he had ever met. Lord Todd , the Master of Christ's College, said in 1970 that "in 500 years of the College's history, of all its members, past and present, three had been truly outstanding: John Milton , Charles Darwin and Jan Smuts." In December 1894, Smuts passed
10125-598: The death of the former American President Woodrow Wilson , Smuts was quoted as saying that: "Not Wilson, but humanity failed at Paris." While in Britain for an Imperial Conference in June 1921 , Smuts went to Ireland and met Éamon de Valera to help broker an armistice and peace deal between the warring British and Irish nationalists. Smuts attempted to sell the concept of Ireland receiving Dominion status similar to that of Australia and South Africa. During his first premiership Smuts
10260-406: The distribution of power are ultimately subordinated to this basic intention. Ethnocracies are characterized by their control system – the legal, institutional, and physical instruments of power deemed necessary to secure ethnic dominance. The degree of system discrimination will tend to vary greatly from case to case and from situation to situation. If the dominant group (whose interests the system
10395-496: The evening before the raid. Smith contended that this showed how Kant's critique can be a solace and a refuge, as well as a means to sharpen the wit. Combined with the British failure to pacify the Transvaal, Smuts's success left the United Kingdom with no choice but to offer a ceasefire and a peace conference, to be held at Vereeniging . Before the conference, Smuts met Lord Kitchener at Kroonstad station, where they discussed
10530-683: The examinations for the Inns of Court , entering the Middle Temple . His old Cambridge college, Christ's College, offered him a fellowship in Law. Smuts turned his back on a potentially distinguished legal future. By June 1895, he had returned to the Cape Colony, determined to make his future there. Smuts began to practise law in Cape Town , but his abrasive nature made him few friends. Finding little financial success in
10665-570: The fact that the Boers had been defeated. Lord Milner had full control of all South African affairs, and established an Anglophone elite, known as Milner's Kindergarten . As an Afrikaner, Smuts was excluded. Defeated but not deterred, in January 1905, he decided to join with the other former Transvaal generals to form a political party, Het Volk ('The People'), to fight for the Afrikaner cause. Louis Botha
10800-550: The field on 1 January 1917. Smuts's chief intelligence officer, Colonel Richard Meinertzhagen , wrote very critically of his conduct of the campaign. He believed Horace Smith-Dorrien (who had saved the British Army during the retreat from Mons and was the original choice as commander in 1916) would have quickly defeated the Germans. In particular, Meinertzhagen thought that frontal attacks would have been decisive, and less costly than
10935-519: The flanking movements preferred by Smuts, which took longer, so that thousands of Imperial troops died of disease in the field. He wrote: "Smuts has cost Britain many hundreds of lives and many millions of pounds by his caution... Smuts was not an astute soldier; a brilliant statesman and politician but no soldier." Meinertzhagen wrote these comments in October/November 1916, in the weeks after being relieved by Smuts due to symptoms of depression, and he
11070-471: The fleet " for the equivalent rank. The traditional attribute distinguishing a field marshal is a baton . The baton nowadays is purely ornamental, and as such may be richly decorated. That said, it is not necessary for the insignia to be a baton (Such is the case in Russia post-1991 and the former Soviet Union, which use a jewelled star referred to as a Marshal's star ). Sardar Shah Wali Khan (died 1977), of
11205-638: The government side at Bulhoek amounted to one trooper wounded and one horse killed. Once again, there were charges of the unnecessary use of overwhelming force. However, no commission of enquiry was appointed. The third was the Bondelswarts Rebellion , in which Smuts supported the actions of the South African Administration in attacking the Bondelswarts in South West Africa . The mandatory administration moved to crush what they called
11340-451: The hands of state organs. Ethnocracy can also be a political regime instituted on the basis of qualified rights to citizenship, with ethnic affiliation (defined in terms of race, descent, religion, or language) as the distinguishing principle. Generally, the raison d'être of an ethnocratic government is to secure the most important instruments of state power in the hands of a specific ethnic collectivity. All other considerations concerning
11475-534: The head of a pro-interventionist faction. He was appointed field marshal in 1941 and in 1945 signed the UN Charter , the only signer of the Treaty of Versailles to do so. His second term in office ended with the victory of his political opponents, the reconstituted National Party at the 1948 general election , with the new government beginning the implementation of apartheid . Smuts was an internationalist who played
11610-559: The identity of the other, leading to persecution of and codified discrimination against minorities. Research shows that several spheres of control are vital for ethnocratic regimes, including of the armed forces, police, land administration, immigration and economic development. These powerful government instruments may ensure domination by the leading ethnic groups and the stratification of society into 'ethnoclasses' (exacerbated by 20th century capitalism 's typically neo-liberal policies). Ethnocracies often manage to contain ethnic conflict in
11745-496: The institutionalization of structural discrimination (such as apartheid ). In ethnocratic states, the government is typically representative of a particular ethnic group, which holds a disproportionately large number of posts. The dominant ethnic group (or groups) uses them to advance the position of their particular ethnic group(s) to the detriment of others. Other ethnic groups are systematically discriminated against and may face repression or violations of their human rights at
11880-420: The key to securing power and resources. An ethnocratic society facilitates the ethnicization of the state by the dominant group, through the expansion of control likely accompanied by conflict with minorities or neighbouring states. The theory of ethnocratic regimes was initially developed by critical geographer Oren Yiftachel in 1997. Scholars have since argued both for and against the general utility of
12015-463: The late 19th century, was ultimately disappointed with the League awarding South-West Africa only a mandate status, as he had looked forward to formally incorporating the territory to South Africa. Smuts returned to South African politics after the conference. When Botha died in 1919, Smuts was elected prime minister, serving until a shocking defeat in 1924 at the hands of the National Party . After
12150-616: The law, he began to devote more and more of his time to politics and journalism, writing for the Cape Times . Smuts was intrigued by the prospect of a united South Africa, and joined the Afrikaner Bond . By good fortune, Smuts's father knew the leader of the group, Jan Hofmeyr . Hofmeyr in turn recommended Jan to Cecil Rhodes , who owned the De Beers mining company. In 1895, Smuts became an advocate and supporter of Rhodes. When Rhodes launched
12285-499: The legal-institutional dimension are singularism (power centralised according to membership in a specific group), pluralism (power distribution among defined groups according to relative numerical strength), and universalism (power distribution without any group-specific qualifications). On the territorial dimension are the unitary state, "intermediate restructuring" (within one formal sovereignty), and partition (creating separate political entities). Lijphart had argued strongly in favour of
12420-672: The model and its specific applicability to Israel and other states. In the 20th century, a few states passed (or attempted to pass) nationality laws through efforts that share certain similarities. All took place in countries with at least one national minority that sought full equality in the state or in a territory that had become part of the state and in which it had lived for generations. Nationality laws were passed in societies that felt threatened by these minorities' aspirations of integration and demands for equality, resulting in regimes that turned xenophobia into major tropes. These laws were grounded in one ethnic identity, defined in contrast to
12555-450: The peculiar status of Russian-speakers as stemming from being at once partly transients, partly immigrants and partly natives. British researcher Neil Melvin concludes that Estonia is moving towards a genuinely pluralist democratic society through its liberalization of citizenship and actively drawing of leaders of the Russian settler communities into the political process. James Hughes, in
12690-600: The proposed terms of surrender. Smuts then took a leading role in the negotiations between the representatives from all of the commandos from the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (15–31 May 1902). Although he admitted that, from a purely military perspective, the war could continue, he stressed the importance of not sacrificing the Afrikaner people for that independence. He was very conscious that "more than 20,000 women and children have already died in
12825-601: The rank has remained defunct. The last Chinese marshal, Nie Rongzhen, died in 1993. On 8 January 2022, General Birhanu Jula , the Chief of General Staff of the Ethiopian National Defence Force , was promoted to the rank of Field Marshal (or Field Marshal General, depending on source). The rank was introduced to the Ethiopian National Defence Force with this promotion. The rank of Field Marshal
12960-590: The rank in history of the Republic: Kemal Atatürk , the founder of modern Turkey , and his Chief of Staff Fevzi Çakmak , both for their successes in the Turkish War of Independence . Field Marshal Idi Amin was the military dictator and third president of Uganda from 1971 to 1979. Amin joined the British colonial regiment, the King's African Rifles in 1946, serving in Somalia and Kenya. Eventually, Amin held
13095-474: The rank of general de brigada (brigade general). This last rank still exists today in the Brazilian Army, but corresponds to the present rank of major-general (major-general) in the Portuguese Army. Today, the rank of Marechal is the maximum rank available but only awarded during wartime. The Brazilian Air Force has the similar rank of air marshal . On the 11 August 2020, Chadian president Idris Déby
13230-458: The rank of Vojvoda, most notably Radomir Putnik . Later Yugoslav People's Army had the rank of Marshal of Yugoslavia used only by Josip Broz Tito as the supreme commander. This would actually be one rank above the rank of Field marshal and the equivalent of a six-star general , but it was essentially an honorific title with political connotations that became Tito's best-known nickname. South African statesman and prime minister Jan Smuts
13365-558: The rank of major general in the post-colonial Ugandan Army and became its commander before seizing power in the military coup of January 1971, deposing Milton Obote . He later promoted himself to field marshal while he was the head of state. Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington , was promoted to the rank of a field marshal (of multiple armies) in 1813. Nine of his field marshal batons are on display in Apsley House (see Batons of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington ). No branch of
13500-606: The rank, and was the first and so far only Australian-born and Australian Army substantive (not honorary) field marshal. He was promoted to the rank on the insistence of Sir Robert Menzies , the Prime Minister of Australia , in June 1950. His field marshal's baton is on display in the Second World War galleries at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra . The third appointment was Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh , who
13635-452: The rank. Field Marshal ( Arabic : فريق ) is the highest rank within the Syrian Army which is a ceremonial and honorary military rank, the only holder to-date is incumbent President Bashar al-Assad who was promoted from Colonel. Its insignia is unique amongst Arab states, as the majority of Arab militaries that has a Field Marshal rank, the insignias has the national coat of arms or
13770-525: The rank. He was promoted to the position on 22 March 2015. In Sweden, a total of 75 field marshals have been appointed, from 1609 to 1824. Since 1972, the rank has not been used in Sweden, and it had long been decided to only be used in wartime. The title denoted the commander of the mounted part of the army. During the Thirty Years' War , the field marshal was subordinate to the country's lieutenant general. In
13905-690: The ranks of Field Marshal in the New Zealand Army, Admiral of the Fleet in the Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) and Marshal of the RNZAF . The King's late father, the Duke of Edinburgh (1921–2021), also held these three ranks during his lifetime. Ayub Khan (1907–1974) was the only field marshal in the history of Pakistan. He was the second president of Pakistan and the first native commander in chief of
14040-611: The republic's delegation to the Bloemfontein Conference and served as an officer in a commando unit following the outbreak of war in 1899. In 1902, he played a key role in negotiating the Treaty of Vereeniging , which ended the war and resulted in the annexation of the South African Republic and Orange Free State into the British Empire. He subsequently helped negotiate self-government for the Transvaal Colony , becoming
14175-567: The sense of "commander-in-chief". In modern Greek usage, it has been used to translate the rank of field marshal. In this sense, the rank was borne by the kings of Greece since 1939, and has been awarded only once in modern Greek history to a professional officer: Alexandros Papagos in 1949 for his leadership in the Greek victory against Fascist Italy in World War II and against the Communist forces in
14310-478: The short term by effective control over minorities and by effectively using the 'thin' procedural democratic façade. However, they tend to become unstable in the longer term, suffering from repeated conflict and crisis, which are resolved by either substantive democratization, partition, or regime devolution into consociational arrangements. Alternatively, ethnocracies that do not resolve their internal conflict may deteriorate into periods of long-term internal strife and
14445-476: The showman Botha, Smuts won a comfortable victory in the Wonderboom constituency, near Pretoria. His victory was one of many, with Het Volk winning in a landslide and Botha forming the government. To reward his loyalty and efforts, Smuts was given two key cabinet positions: Colonial Secretary and Education Secretary. Smuts proved to be an effective leader, if unpopular. As Education Secretary, he had fights with
14580-400: The situation personally. Facing down threats to their own lives, they negotiated a cease-fire. But the cease-fire did not hold, and in 1914, a railway strike turned into a general strike . Threats of a revolution caused Smuts to declare martial law . He acted ruthlessly, deporting union leaders without trial and using Parliament to absolve him and the government of any blame retroactively. That
14715-740: The systematic bias against Catholics and Irish nationalists fit the criteria for describing Northern Ireland as an ethnocracy from the time of the partition of Ireland until at least 1972, but argue that after the suspension of the Stormont Parliament, and even more so after the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, ethnocracy was weakened, and that Northern Ireland cannot be plausibly described as an ethnocracy today. Uganda under dictator Idi Amin Dada has also been described as an ethnocracy favouring certain indigenous groups over others, as well as for
14850-455: The term dates to the early Middle Ages , originally meaning the keeper of the king's horses (from Old German Marh-scalc , lit. ' horse-servant ' ), from the time of the early Frankish kings; words originally meaning "servant" were sometimes used to mean "subordinate official" or similar. The German Holy Roman Empire and the kingdom of France had officers named Feldmarschall and Maréchal de camp respectively as far back as
14985-549: The traditional understanding of ethnocracy. Poly-ethnocracy is a type of regime where more than one ethnic group governs the state. Both mono- and poly-ethnocracy are types of ethnocracy. Ethnocracy is founded on the assumptions that ethnic groups are primordial, ethnicity is the basis of political identity, and citizens rarely sustain multiple ethnic identities. Israel has been labeled an ethnocracy by scholars such as Alexandre Kedar, Shlomo Sand , Oren Yiftachel , Asaad Ghanem, Haim Yakobi, Nur Masalha and Hannah Naveh. It
15120-493: Was a keen mountaineer and supporter of mountaineering. One of his favourite rambles was up Table Mountain along a route now known as Smuts' Track. In February 1923 he unveiled a memorial to members of the Mountain Club who had been killed in the First World War. Field Marshal Field marshal (or field-marshal , abbreviated as FM ) is the most senior military rank , senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it
15255-529: Was abolished in 1848 (although in theory it is not an actual rank but a "state dignity"). Generalfeldmarschall ('general field marshal, field marshal general, or field marshal', abbreviated to Feldmarschall ) was the most senior general officer rank in the armies of several German states, including Saxony, Brandenburg-Prussia, Prussia, the German Empire, and lastly, Germany (from 1918). In the Habsburg monarchy ,
15390-595: Was appointed a field marshal of the British Army on 24 May 1941. During the 2010s, the South Korean government tried to promote Paik Sun-yup to the rank of field marshal. However, the attempt failed because of his past service in the Manchukuo Imperial Army . Field Marshal is the highest rank in the Sri Lanka Army . It is a ceremonial rank. Sarath Fonseka is the first and only Sri Lankan officer to hold
15525-546: Was below lieutenant-general , which in 1793 became divisional-general . In the title maréchal de camp and the English "field marshal", there is an etymological confusion in the French camp between the English words "camp" and "field". The French rank of field marshal should not be confused with the rank of Marshal of France , which has been the highest rank of the French Army since the higher dignity of Marshal General of France
15660-520: Was born to Afrikaner parents in the British Cape Colony . He was educated at Victoria College , Stellenbosch before reading law at Christ's College, Cambridge on a scholarship. He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1894 but returned home the following year. In the leadup to the Second Boer War , Smuts practised law in Pretoria , the capital of the South African Republic . He led
15795-463: Was born, and the Afrikaners held the key to political power, as the majority of the increasingly whites-only electorate. Although Botha was appointed prime minister of the new country, Smuts was given three key ministries: Interior, Mines, and Defence. Undeniably, Smuts was the second most powerful man in South Africa. To solidify their dominance of South African politics, the Afrikaners united to form
15930-614: Was elected leader, and Smuts his deputy. When his term of office expired, Milner was replaced as High Commissioner by the more conciliatory Lord Selborne . Smuts saw an opportunity and pounced, urging Botha to persuade the Liberals to support Het Volk's cause. When the Conservative government under Arthur Balfour collapsed, in December 1905, the decision paid off. Smuts joined Botha in London, and sought to negotiate full self-government for
16065-636: Was in the wake of issues around the neutral zone the Entente dictated in the Vix Note . Smuts arrived on 4 April 1919, and negotiations started the next day. He offered a neutral zone more favorable to Hungary (shifted 25 km east), though making sure its western border passes west of the final border proposal worked in the Commission on Romanian and Yugoslav Affairs, that the Hungarian leaders were unaware of. Smuts reassured
16200-494: Was invalided back to England shortly thereafter. Early in 1917, Smuts left Africa and went to London, as he had been invited to join the Imperial War Cabinet and the War Policy Committee by David Lloyd George . Smuts initially recommended renewed Western Front attacks and a policy of attrition, lest with Russian commitment to the war wavering, France or Italy would be tempted to make a separate peace. Lloyd George wanted
16335-572: Was involved in a number of controversies. The first was the Rand Revolt of March 1921, where aeroplanes were used to bomb white miners who were striking in opposition to proposals to allow non-whites to do more skilled and semi-skilled work previously reserved to whites only. Smuts was accused of siding with the Rand Lords who wanted the removal of the colour bar in the hope that it would lower wage costs. The white miners perpetrated acts of violence across
16470-615: Was last used in Ethiopia during the Ethiopian Empire in the 20th century, when Emperor Haile Selassie was head of the Imperial Ethiopian Army . The formal ceremonial uniform matched that of its British counterpart, with the exception of headgear, which was a Bicorne adorned with a golden lion's mane. Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim was promoted to Field Marshal in 1933. In 1942 he was promoted to Marshal of Finland, which really
16605-431: Was no merit in any further advance. He worked with Smuts to draw up plans, using three reinforcement divisions from Mesopotamia , to reach Haifa by June and Damascus by the autumn, the speed of the advance limited by the need to lay fresh rail track. This was the foundation of Allenby's successful offensive later in the year. Like most British Empire political and military leaders in the First World War, Smuts thought
16740-639: Was promoted to the rank of Marshal for his efforts against terrorism in West Africa. He would die the following year. During Imperial rule in China, different dynasties gave different titles to generals. A very similar title is "司馬" ( sima ) in the Eastern Han dynasty, which literally means "master of horse", and later became a two-character surname too. "司馬" is one of the Three Excellencies in Eastern Han, who
16875-616: Was promoted to the rank on 1 April 1954. The fourth and latest appointment was to King Charles III in October 2024. When Brazil became independent from Portugal in 1822, the Portuguese system of ranks was maintained by the Brazilian Army , including the rank of marechal de campo . In the second half of the 19th century, the rank of marechal de campo was replaced, both in Portugal and Brazil, by
17010-684: Was restored, an equivalent rank Marshal of the Soviet Union was introduced in place of the Imperial Russian Army Field Marshal. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the rank was replaced by the Marshal of the Russian Federation. However, as of 2024, there has only been one Marshal of the Russian Federation. In Serbian, field marshal can be literally translated as Бојни Маршал , Bojni Maršal . The closest equivalent of
17145-893: Was sent to school in his place. Jan attended the school in nearby Riebeek West . He made excellent progress despite his late start, and caught up with his contemporaries within four years. He was admitted to Victoria College , Stellenbosch , in 1886, at the age of sixteen. At Stellenbosch, he learned High Dutch , German , and Ancient Greek , and immersed himself in literature, the classics , and Bible studies . His deeply traditional upbringing and serious outlook led to social isolation from his peers. He made outstanding academic progress, graduating in 1891 with double first-class honours in Literature and Science. During his last years at Stellenbosch, Smuts began to cast off some of his shyness and reserve. At this time he met Isie Krige , whom he later married. On graduation from Victoria College, Smuts won
17280-675: Was shaken by Third Ypres . In 1917, following the German Gotha Raids , and lobbying by Viscount French , Smuts wrote a review of the British Air Services, which came to be called the Smuts Report. He was helped in large part in this by General Sir David Henderson who was seconded to him. This report led to the treatment of air as a separate force, which eventually became the Royal Air Force . By mid-January 1918, Lloyd George
17415-483: Was signed by General Likulia Bolongo . Ethnocracy#South Africa An ethnocracy is a type of political structure in which the state apparatus is controlled by a dominant ethnic group (or groups) to further that group's interests, power, dominance, and resources. Ethnocratic regimes in the modern era typically display a 'thin' democratic façade covering a more profound ethnic structure, in which ethnicity (race, religion, language, etc.)—and not citizenship—is
17550-439: Was tarnished. Ruth First, a South African anti-apartheid activist and scholar, describes the Bondelswarts shooting as "the Sharpeville of the 1920s". As a botanist, Smuts collected plants extensively over southern Africa. He went on several botanical expeditions in the 1920s and 1930s with John Hutchinson , former botanist-in-charge of the African section of the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens and taxonomist of note. Smuts
17685-414: Was the Bulhoek Massacre of 24 May 1921, when at Bulhoek in the eastern Cape eight hundred South African policemen and soldiers armed with maxim machine guns and two field artillery guns killed 163 and wounded 129 members of an indigenous religious sect known as "Israelites" who had been armed with knobkerries, assegais and swords and who had refused to vacate land they regarded as holy to them. Casualties on
17820-401: Was too much for the Old Boers, who set up their own National Party to fight the all-powerful Botha-Smuts partnership. During the First World War , Smuts formed the Union Defence Force (UDF). His first task was to suppress the Maritz Rebellion , which was accomplished by November 1914. Next he and Louis Botha led the South African army into German South-West Africa and conquered it (see
17955-583: Was toying with the idea of appointing Smuts Commander-in-Chief of all land and sea forces facing the Ottoman Empire , reporting directly to the War Cabinet rather than to Robertson. Early in 1918, Smuts was sent to Egypt to confer with Allenby and Marshall , and prepare for major efforts in that theatre. Before his departure, alienated by Robertson's exaggerated estimates of the required reinforcements, he urged Robertson's removal. Allenby told Smuts of Robertson's private instructions (sent by hand of Walter Kirke , appointed by Robertson as Smuts's adviser) that there
18090-433: Was translated by H. Minkowski and eventually published in 1938. During the Second World War, the books were destroyed after the Nazi government had removed it from circulation. Adler and Smuts, however, continued their correspondence. In one of Adler’s letters dated 14 June 1931, he invited Smuts to be one of three judges of the best book on the history of wholeness with a reference to Individual Psychology. On 11 October 1899
18225-424: Was up against a hard-talking Orange River Colony delegation, who refused every one of Smuts's demands. Smuts had successfully predicted this opposition, and their objections, and tailored his own ambitions appropriately. He allowed compromise on the location of the capital, on the official language, and on suffrage, but he refused to budge on the fundamental structure of government. As the convention drew into autumn,
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