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132-564: The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Chengzu of Ming , personal name Zhu Di , was the third emperor of the Ming dynasty , reigning from 1402 to 1424. He was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor , the founder and first emperor of the dynasty. In 1370, he was granted the title of Prince of Yan. By 1380, he had relocated to Beijing and

264-529: A city located southwest of Beiping. However, by the end of the month, they were defeated. In response, the court appointed a new commander, Li Jinglong , who then led a new army to besiege Beiping on 12 November. Zhu Di, who had been gathering troops in the northeast, swiftly returned and defeated the surprised Li army. The soldiers from the south, who were not accustomed to the cold weather, were forced to retreat to Dezhou in Shandong. In 1400, there were battles in

396-638: A creation of new societal groups involving inter-marriage among communities and small groups moving to communities and small groups moving to new areas. After their movements from their original homeland in West Africa , Bantus also encountered in central east Africa peoples of Cushitic origin. As cattle terminology in use amongst the few modern Bantu pastoralist groups suggests, the Bantu migrants would acquire cattle from their new Cushitic neighbors. Linguistic evidence also indicates that Bantus most likely borrowed

528-708: A distinct geopolitical entity within East Africa. The East African Community , an economic and political bloc, currently includes the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Somalia, Burundi , Kenya, Rwanda , South Sudan , Uganda and Tanzania. Notably, the African Great Lakes region overlaps significantly with these countries. Inside of Somalia there are two unrecognised states; Somaliland and Puntland, although Puntland still wants to join back with Somalia, for now it

660-463: A foray into eastern Mongolia and defeated the Mongol khan Tögüs Temür , capturing many prisoners and horses. However, both generals were accused of mistreating captives and misappropriating booty, which was reported to the emperor by the prince. In January 1390, the emperor entrusted his sons with independent command for the first time. The princes of Jin (Zhu Gang), Yan (Zhu Di), and Qi (Zhu Fu) were given

792-448: A larger area of Africa than previously thought. East Africa is one of the earliest regions where Homo sapiens are believed to have lived. Evidence was found in 2018, dating to about 320,000 years ago, at the Kenyan site of Olorgesailie , of the early emergence of modern behaviors associated with Homo sapiens , including: long-distance trade networks (involving goods such as obsidian),

924-519: A millennia-long series of migrations eastward from their homeland around southern Cameroon. This Bantu expansion introduced agriculture into much of the African Great Lakes region. During the following fifteen centuries, the Bantu slowly intensified farming and grazing over all suitable regions of East Africa, in the process making contact with Austronesian - and Arabic -speaking settlers on southern coastal areas. The latter also spread Islam to

1056-535: A new hereditary military nobility. While their income from the state treasury (2200–2500 shi of grain for dukes, 1500–800 for marquises, and 1000 for counts; with 1 shi being equivalent to 107 liters) was not particularly high, the prestige associated with their titles was more significant. They commanded armies in the emperor's name, without competition from the princes who had been stripped of their influence. The nobility also held immunity from punishment by local authorities. However, there were notable differences from

1188-451: A result, ministers held their posts for longer periods of time, leading to a more professional and stable state administration. However, it was not just officials who enjoyed the emperor's favor and support. He ruled the empire primarily "from horseback", traveling between the two capitals, similar to the Yuan emperors. He also frequently led military campaigns into Mongolia. However, this behavior

1320-521: A target for European exploration , exploitation and colonialization in the nineteenth century. Today, tourism is an important part of the economies of Kenya, Tanzania, Seychelles, and Uganda. The easternmost point of the continent, that is Ras Hafun in Somalia, is of archaeological , historical and economical importance. According to the CIA, as of 2017, the countries in the eastern Africa region have

1452-448: A total population of around 537.9 million inhabitants. Eastern Africa had an estimated population of 260 million in 2000. This was projected to reach 890 million by 2050, with an average growth rate of 2.5% per annum. The 2000 population is expected to quintuple over the course of the 21st century, to 1.6 billion as of 2100 (UN estimates as of 2017). In Ethiopia , there is an estimated population of 102 million as of 2016. In

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1584-694: A vast territory, stretching from Liaodong to the bend of the Yellow River. He was not afraid to take risks, as demonstrated by his defeat of the Mongols led by Polin Temür at Daning in the summer of 1396. He also went on a raid with the Prince of Jin several hundred kilometers north of the Great Wall, which earned them a sharp reprimand from the emperor. In April 1398, Zhu Di's elder brother, the Prince of Jin, died, leaving Zhu Di as

1716-423: Is an adjective, chosen to reflect the circumstances of the monarch's reign. The vocabulary may overlap with that of the posthumous names' adjectives; however, for one sovereign, the temple name's adjective character usually does not repeat as one of the many adjective characters in his posthumous name. The last character is either "祖" or "宗": East Africa East Africa , also known as Eastern Africa or

1848-556: Is commonly known by his era name as the Hongwu Emperor. After taking the throne, Zhu Di claimed to be the son of Zhu Yuanzhang's primary wife, Lady Ma , who had been empress since 1368. However, other sources suggest that his real mother was a concubine of the Hongwu Emperor with the title Consort Gong, who was either Mongolian (from the Khongirad tribe) or possibly Korean. After becoming emperor, Zhu Di attempted to present himself as

1980-528: Is independent. Adjacent to these mainland territories are island nations and territories such as Socotra , Comoros , Mauritius , Seychelles , Réunion , Mayotte , and the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean . Regions including portions of Mozambique and Madagascar , often aligned with Southern Africa , share significant historical and cultural connections with East Africa, particularly through

2112-548: Is now southern Tanzania . In March 1505, having received from Manuel I of Portugal the appointment of viceroy of the newly conquered territory in India , he set sail from Lisbon in command of a large and powerful fleet, and arrived in July at Quiloa ( Kilwa ), which yielded to him almost without a struggle. A much more vigorous resistance was offered by the Moors of Mombasa. However, the town

2244-477: The Abyei Area , and Abyei and South Kordofan's Nuba Hills both remained sources of tension between Juba and Khartoum as of 2011 . Some parts of East Africa have been renowned for their concentrations of wild animals, such as the " big five ": the elephant , buffalo , lion , black rhinoceros , and leopard , though populations have been declining under increased stress in recent times, particularly those of

2376-654: The East of Africa , is a region at the eastern edge of the African continent , distinguished by its geographical, historical, and cultural landscape. Defined in varying scopes, the region is recognized in the United Nations Statistics Division scheme as encompassing 18 sovereign states and 4 territories. East Africa is acknowledged as the cradle of early modern humans , who first emerged around 200,000 to 300,000 years ago before spreading globally though Madagascar

2508-519: The Grand Canal , which was crucial for supplying the capital and the armies in the north. The emperor was a strong supporter of both Confucianism and Buddhism. He supported the compilation of the massive Yongle Encyclopedia by employing two thousand scholars. This encyclopedia surpassed all previous ones, including the Four Great Books of Song from the 11th century. He also ordered the texts of

2640-629: The Horn of Africa and Nile Valley , Afroasiatic languages predominate, including languages of the family's Cushitic (such as Beja , Oromo and Somali ), Semitic (such as Amharic , Arabic and Tigrinya ), and Omotic (such as Wolaytta ) branches. In the African Great Lakes region, Niger-Congo languages of the Bantu branch are most widely spoken. Among these languages are Kikuyu , Luhya , Kinyarwanda , Kirundi , Kisukuma , Luganda and many others. Swahili , with at least 80 million speakers as

2772-458: The Kingdom of Madagascar , which it initiated after persuading Britain to relinquish its interests in the island in exchange for control of Zanzibar off the coast of Tanganyika , an important island hub of the spices trade. The British also held a number of island colonies in the region, including the extended archipelago of Seychelles and the rich farming island of Mauritius , previously under

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2904-682: The Orthodox Empire of Ethiopia . By 1896, the war had become a total disaster for the Italians and Ethiopia was able to retain its independence. Ethiopia remained independent until 1936 when, after the Second Italo-Abyssinian War , it became part of Italian East Africa . The Italian occupation of Ethiopia ended in 1941 during World War II as part of the East African Campaign . The French also staked out an East African outpost on

3036-460: The Ottoman Turks , Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by da Gama to break the once Venetian trading monopoly. Portuguese rule in the African Great Lakes region focused mainly on a coastal strip centered around Mombasa. The Portuguese presence in the area officially began after 1505, when flagships under the command of Don Francisco de Almeida conquered Kilwa , an island located in what

3168-730: The Philippines , and the Timurid Empire in Central Asia. Zheng He's famous voyages even reached the shores of Southeast Asia , India , Persia , and East Africa . A major threat to the security of the empire was posed by the Mongols, who were divided into three groups—the Uriankhai in the southeast were mostly loyal, while the eastern Mongols and western Oirats were problematic. Ming China alternately supported and opposed them. The Yongle Emperor personally led five campaigns into Mongolia, and

3300-576: The Puntland and Somaliland regions of Somalia, have seen relative stability. South Sudan peacefully seceded from Sudan in 2011, six and a half years after a peace agreement ended the Second Sudanese Civil War . South Sudanese independence was nearly derailed by the South Kordofan conflict , particularly, South Sudanese independence was nearly derailed by a dispute over the status of

3432-512: The United Republic of Tanzania by creating a union between the mainland, and the island chain of Zanzibar. Zanzibar is now a semi-autonomous state in a union with the mainland which is collectively and commonly referred to as Tanzania . German East Africa, though very extensive, was not of such strategic importance as the British Crown's colonies to the north: the inhabitation of these lands

3564-699: The Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty was originally honored as Taizong by the Hongxi Emperor , but his temple name was later amended to Chengzu by the Jiajing Emperor . There were also instances of individuals ruling as the sovereign of a particular realm but being accorded a temple name by another realm, as was the case for Möngke of the Mongol Empire , who was later honored as Xianzong by Emperor Shizu of

3696-602: The Yuan dynasties, Korean rulers of the Goryeo (until AD 1274) and Joseon dynasties, and Vietnamese rulers of the Lý , Trần , and Later Lê dynasties (with the Hồ and Later Trần dynasties as exceptions). Numerous individuals who did not rule as monarch during their lifetime were posthumously elevated to the position of monarch by their descendants and honored with temple names. For example, Cao Cao

3828-516: The Yuan dynasty . The "temple" in "temple name" (廟號) refers to the grand temples (太廟) built by each dynasty for the purpose of ancestor worship. The temple name of each monarch was recorded on their respective ancestral tablet placed within the grand temple. Temple names trace their origins to the Shang dynasty of China. In earlier times, temple names were exclusively assigned to competent rulers after their death. The temple name system established during

3960-485: The attempted coup d'état in 1982 and the 2007 election riots . Tanzania has known stable government since independence although there are significant political and religious tensions resulting from the political union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. Zanzibar is a semi-autonomous state in the United Republic of Tanzania . Tanzania and Uganda fought the Uganda–Tanzania War in 1978–1979, which led to

4092-506: The slave trade and relocation of the Omani capital to Zanzibar in 1839 by Seyyid Said had the effect of consolidating the Omani power in the region. Arab governance of all the major ports along the Swahili coast continued until British interests aimed particularly at ending the slave trade and creation of a wage-labour system began to put pressure on Omani rule. By the late nineteenth century,

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4224-511: The tsetse fly , however, prevented the donkey and agriculture from spreading southwards. Only in quite recent times has agriculture spread to the more humid regions south of the equator, through the spread of cattle , sheep and crops such as millet . Language distributions suggest that this most likely occurred from Sudan into the African Great Lakes region, since the Nilotic languages spoken by these pre-Bantu farmers have their closest relatives in

4356-616: The "Out of Africa" theory probably occurred in East Africa through the Bab-el-Mandeb . Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (19 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. Some of the earliest hominin skeletal remains have been found in

4488-620: The 1880s. Between the 19th and 20th century, East Africa became a theatre of competition between the major imperialistic European nations of the time. The three main colors of the African country were beige, red, and blue. The red stood for the English, blue stood for the French, and the beige stood for Germany during the period of colonialism. During the period of the Scramble for Africa , almost every country in

4620-524: The 1975 independence of Mozambique. Omani Arab colonization of the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts brought the once independent city-states under closer foreign scrutiny and domination than was experienced during the Portuguese period. Like their predecessors, the Omani Arabs were primarily able only to control the coastal areas, not the interior. However, the creation of clove plantations , intensification of

4752-651: The British colony of Aden on the Arabian Peninsula . With these territories secured, Britain was able to serve as gatekeeper of the sea lane leading to British India . In 1890, beginning with the purchase of the small port town of Asseb from a local sultan in Eritrea , the Italians colonized all of Eritrea. In 1895, from bases in Somalia and Eritrea, the Italians launched the First Italo–Ethiopian War against

4884-584: The East Asian cultural sphere|Sinosphere, including those based on the Korean Peninsula and in Vietnam. Japan, while having adopted both posthumous names and era names from China, did not assign temple names to its monarchs. Most temple names consist of two Chinese characters, unlike the more elaborate posthumous names. In extremely rare cases, temple names could consist of three characters. The first character

5016-502: The French sovereignty . The German Empire gained control of a large area named German East Africa , comprising present-day Rwanda , Burundi and the mainland part of Tanzania named Tanganyika. In 1922, the British gained a League of Nations mandate over Tanganyika which it administered until Independence was granted to Tanganyika in 1961. Following the Zanzibar Revolution of 1965, the independent state of Tanganyika formed

5148-615: The Grand Secretaries quickly gained dominance in the civil administration. The Grand Secretariat was established in August 1402, when the emperor began to address current administrative issues during a working dinner with Huang Huai and Xie Jin after the evening audience. In September 1402, he appointed five additional Grand Secretaries. These Grand Secretaries were all from the south or southeast and were highly educated and skilled in administration, having previously served in lower positions in

5280-714: The Great Lakes region during the 17th century. The Omani Arabs posed the most direct challenge to Portuguese influence in the African Great Lakes region. By this time, the Portuguese Empire had already lost its interest on the spice trade sea route due to the decreasing profitability of that business. The Arabs reclaimed much of the Indian Ocean trade , forcing the Portuguese to retreat south where they remained in Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique) as sole rulers until

5412-495: The Han era that other adjectives aside from the four listed above began appearing in temple names. Numerous Han emperors had their temple names removed by Emperor Xian of Han, Liu Xie, in AD 190. Initially, in deciding whether a monarch should be honored as "祖" ( zǔ ; "progenitor") or "宗" ( zōng ; "ancestor"), a principle was strictly adhered to: "祖" was to be given to accomplished rulers while "宗"

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5544-553: The Hongwu Emperor's legitimate successor by declaring himself and his fifth son, Zhu Su , as the only sons of Empress Ma in the 1403 edition of the official Veritable Records of Emperor Taizu . This was clearly absurd, as it was unlikely that a son of the empress would not be named as successor during the Hongwu Emperor's lifetime. Therefore, in the later version of 1418, all five of the Hongwu Emperor's sons were recognized as her descendants. Zhu Di spent his childhood in Nanjing, where he

5676-506: The Hongwu Emperor. Due to this, the government treated him with caution and limited his power. They replaced military commanders in the northeast with generals loyal to the Jianwen Emperor and transferred Zhu Di's personal guard outside of Beiping. Despite this, Zhu Di managed to convince the emperor of his loyalty. He even asked for mercy for his friend Zhu Su and begged for permission to return his sons, who had been staying in Nanjing since

5808-524: The Hongwu Emperor. However, even as late as the summer of 1402, the new emperor was still dealing with the followers of the Jianwen Emperor. These followers denied the legitimacy of Zhu Di's rule and he responded by erasing the Jianwen Emperor's reign from history. This included abolishing the Jianwen era and extending the Hongwu era until the end of 1402. In addition, Zhu Di abolished the reforms and laws implemented by

5940-555: The Hongwu era. During that time, the generals, who were former comrades-in-arms of the emperor, held a higher status, had their own followers, and wielded considerable power in their assigned areas. This eventually posed a threat to the emperor, leading to their elimination. Under the Yongle Emperor, members of the nobility did not participate in regional or civil administration, nor were they assigned permanent military units. Instead, they were given ad hoc assembled armies. Additionally,

6072-531: The Indian Ocean's maritime networks. Sudan is also sometimes included due in part because it is a member of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) free trade area. According to the theory of the recent African origin of modern humans , the predominantly held belief among most archaeologists, East Africa in the area of the African Great Lakes is where anatomically modern humans first appeared. There are differing theories on whether there

6204-411: The Jianwen Emperor administration. Despite their relatively low status (at most fifth rank), they were given high titles in the crown prince's household. Over time, they evolved from subordinate assistants responsible for organizing correspondence and formulating responses to becoming influential politicians who proposed solutions to problems. Their close proximity to the emperor gave them an advantage over

6336-522: The Jianwen government, restored the titles and privileges of the princes, and destroyed government archives (with the exception of financial and military records). He also attempted to involve respected supporters of the Jianwen Emperor, such as Fang Xiaoru and Liu Jing ( 劉璟 ), in his administration. However, they refused and were subsequently executed. Similarly, Huang Zicheng and Qi Tai were executed, along with their family members, teachers, students, and followers. Many others were imprisoned or deported to

6468-462: The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty , Beiping served as the capital of China. After being conquered by the Ming dynasty in 1368, it became a crucial stronghold for the troops guarding the northern border of China and was also designated as the capital of the province with the same name. At that time, Zhu Di was given his own household, with adviser Hua Yunlong and tutor Gao Xian at its head. Gao Xian spent

6600-488: The Mongols repeatedly and with great success. In 1392, the emperor's eldest son and crown prince, Zhu Biao , died. The court then discussed who would succeed him, and ultimately, the primogeniture viewpoint, advocated by scholars from the Hanlin Academy and high officials, prevailed. As a result, Zhu Biao's son, Zhu Yunwen , was appointed as the new successor. Generals Feng Sheng, Fu Youde, and Lan Yu (who were related to

6732-456: The Nanjing government's larger number of armies and greater material resources, Zhu Di's soldiers were of higher quality and he possessed a strong Mongol cavalry. Most importantly, his military leadership skills were superior to the indecisiveness and lack of coordination displayed by the government's generals. In September 1399, a government army of 130,000 soldiers, led by the experienced veteran general Geng Bingwen , marched towards Zhending ,

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6864-557: The Neo-Confucians to be organized and used as textbooks for training future officials. The civil service examinations , held in a three-year cycle, produced qualified graduates who filled positions in the state apparatus. The emperor was known for his strict punishments for failures, but also for quickly promoting successful servants. While he, like his father, was not afraid to use violence against opponents when necessary, he differed from his father in his abandonment of frequent purges. As

6996-452: The Portuguese built forts, and adopted measures to secure the Portuguese supremacy. Portugal's main goal on the Swahili coast was to take control of the spice trade from the Arabs . At this stage, the Portuguese presence in East Africa served the purposes of controlling trade within the Indian Ocean and securing the sea routes linking Europe to Asia. Portuguese naval vessels were very disruptive to

7128-408: The Shang period utilized only four adjectives: Chinese monarchs of the Zhou dynasty were given posthumous names but not temple names. During the Qin dynasty , the practices both of assigning temple names and posthumous names was abandoned. The Han dynasty reintroduced both titles, although temple names were assigned sporadically and remained more exclusive than posthumous names. It was also during

7260-401: The Yongle Emperor's reign, four out of the six ministries ( Personnel , Revenue , Rites , and Works ) were headed by the same minister. This continuity of leadership continued even after the emperor's death, with many ministers remaining in their positions. Temple name Modern academia usually refers to the following rulers by their temple names: Chinese monarchs from the Tang to

7392-432: The acquisition and transportation of materials and supplies for warfare. It was during this period that his organizational skills began to emerge, which he later utilized effectively in his battles. He also took the opportunity to disguise himself as a regular soldier and immerse himself in the lives of ordinary people. Looking back, he considered his time in Fengyang to be the happiest days of his life. In 1376, Li Wenzhong,

7524-415: The border, resulting in a purge that affected tens of thousands of people. After Zhu Di ascended to the imperial throne, the Veritable Records of Emperor Taizu were rewritten. The original version, created in 1402 at the court of the Jianwen Emperor, was deemed unacceptable by the new regime. In late 1402, the authors of the original version began to revise their work, completing it in July 1403. However,

7656-422: The city, a decision that would have consequences during the civil war when his son, Li Jinglong , unsuccessfully attempted to besiege Beiping in 1399. In April 1380, at the age of twenty, he moved to Beiping. He encountered a strong Mongolian influence, which the government tried to suppress by banning Mongolian customs, clothing, and names. The city had recovered from the famine and wars of the 1350s and 1360s and

7788-446: The civilian administration, gaining the support of officials who had often served under the previous government. He restored the administrative structure of the Hongwu era, while also making some changes. First and foremost, in 1402, the Grand Secretariat was created to act as an intermediary between the emperor and the government, partially replacing the Central Secretariat that had been abolished in 1380. Despite their informal position,

7920-403: The coastal belt, but most Bantu remained African Traditional Religion adherents. Over a period of many centuries, most hunting-foraging peoples were displaced and absorbed by incoming Bantu communities, as well as by later Nilotic communities. The Bantu expansion was a long series of physical migrations, a diffusion of language and knowledge out into and in from neighboring populations, and

8052-402: The commerce of Portugal's enemies within the western Indian Ocean and were able to demand high tariffs on items transported through the sea due to their strategic control of ports and shipping lanes. The construction of Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1593 was meant to solidify Portuguese hegemony in the region, but their influence was clipped by the British , Dutch and Omani Arab incursions into

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8184-415: The cultivation of cash crops like coffee and tea , as well as for animal husbandry with products produced from cattle and goats, such as goat meat , beef and milk . Moreover, this area had the potential for a significant residential expansion, being suitable for the relocation of a large number of British nationals to the region. Prevailing climatic conditions and the regions' geomorphology allowed

8316-465: The custom of milking cattle directly from Cushitic peoples in the area. On the coastal section of the African Great Lakes region, another mixed Bantu community developed through contact with Muslim Arab and Persian traders, leading to the development of the mixed Arab, Persian and African Swahili City States . The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do

8448-819: The daughter of Xu Da , who was ranked first among all of the early Ming generals. She was two years younger than him. Lady Xu was known for her intelligence, decisiveness, and energy. The couple welcomed their first son, Zhu Gaochi , on 16 August 1378, followed by their second son, Zhu Gaoxu , in 1380. Their third son, Zhu Gaosui , was born three years later. A few weeks after the wedding, he traveled to Fengyang (then known as Zhongdu—the Central Capital) where he underwent seven months of military training alongside his elder brothers, Zhu Shuang and Zhu Gang. Two years later, he returned to Fengyang with his younger brothers, Zhu Su, Zhu Zhen, and Zhu Fu, and stayed for an additional two years. During this time, he not only trained in command and combat, but also gained knowledge in logistics and

8580-410: The decision to elevate Beijing to the capital in 1403, reducing the significance of Nanjing . The construction of the new capital, which took place from 1407 to 1420, employed hundreds of thousands of workers daily. At the heart of Beijing was the official Imperial City, with the Forbidden City serving as the palace residence for the emperor and his family. The emperor also oversaw the reconstruction of

8712-399: The decision to move the capital from Nanjing to Beijing was motivated by the need to keep a close eye on the restless northern neighbors. The Yongle Emperor was a skilled military leader and placed great emphasis on the strength of his army. However, his wars were ultimately unsuccessful. The war in Jiaozhi (present-day northern Vietnam ), which began with an invasion in 1407, lasted until

8844-444: The description of contemporary humans with the subspecies name Homo sapiens sapiens . Because of their early dating and unique physical characteristics idaltu and kibish represent the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans as suggested by the Out-of-Africa theory. In 2017 finds of modern human remains, dating to ca 300,000 years ago in Jebel Irhoud in Morocco, suggested that modern humans arose earlier and possibly in

8976-452: The dignitaries who had defected to his side before the fall of Nanjing—Li Jinglong, Chen Xuan ( 陳瑄 ), Ru Chang ( 茹瑺 ), and Wang Zuo ( 王佐 ). In June 1403, an additional nine generals from the civil war were appointed as marquises or counts. In the following years, meritorious military leaders from the campaign against the Mongols were also granted titles of dukes, marquises, and counts, including those of Mongolian origin. The emperor established

9108-429: The economy, the emperor first had to suppress any resistance. He purged the state administration of supporters of the Jianwen Emperor as well as corrupt and disloyal officials. The government also took action against secret societies and bandits. To boost the economy, the emperor promoted food and textile production and utilized uncultivated land, particularly in the prosperous Yangtze Delta region. Additionally, he made

9240-407: The education of his sons, enlisting the help of prominent scholars from the empire. Initially, Song Lian was appointed as the teacher for the crown prince, and also gave lectures to the other princes. Song Lian's successor, Kong Keren ( 孔克仁 ), had a significant influence on Zhu Di, teaching him philosophy and ethics. However, Zhu Di's favorite subject was the history of the Han dynasty , particularly

9372-440: The emergence of Homo sapiens . In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260 CT scans , of a virtual skull shape of the last common human ancestor to modern humans / H. sapiens , representative of the earliest Homo sapiens , and suggested that Homo sapiens arose between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago through a merging of populations in South and East Africa. The migration route of

9504-403: The emperor often personally led campaigns accompanied by the nobility, strengthening their personal relationships. As a result, the military nobility was closely tied to the emperor and remained loyal. There was no need for purges, and any isolated cases of punishment were due to the failures and shortcomings of those involved. Overall, the nobility elevated the emperor's prestige and contributed to

9636-401: The emperor ultimately prevailed and Fang Bin committed suicide, while Wu Zhong and Xia Yuanji were imprisoned. However, after the Yongle Emperor's death, they were exonerated and returned to their positions of authority. Other notable ministers who served for many years included Jian Yi ( 蹇義 ), Song Li ( 宋禮 ), Liu Quan ( 劉觀 ), and Zhao Hong, who held various ministerial positions. During most of

9768-449: The emperor was dissatisfied with the revised version and in 1411, he ordered a new version to be prepared. This new version was completed in June 1418, and changes focused primarily on Zhu Di's claim to the throne. It included claims that he was the son of Empress Ma, that the Hongwu Emperor had considered appointing him as successor, that he was to be the regent of the Jianwen Emperor, and that he

9900-464: The emperor's uncles, who were his own younger brothers. He justified his actions as necessary self-defense, not against the emperor himself, but against his corrupt ministers. He referred to these actions as the Jingnan campaign , a campaign to clear away disorders. At the start of the war, Zhu Di commanded a force of 100,000 soldiers and only held control over the immediate area surrounding Beiping. Despite

10032-463: The emperors Gaozu and Wudi . In fact, he often referenced examples from the life of Qin Shi Huang in his decrees. On 22 April 1370, the emperor's sons, with the exception of the crown prince, were granted princely titles. Zhu Di was bestowed with the title of Prince of Yan. Yan was a region located in the northeast of China, with its most significant city being Beiping (present-day Beijing ). During

10164-455: The end of his reign, the princes had lost much of their political influence. One of the Yongle Emperor's first actions upon assuming the throne was to reorganize the military command. He promoted loyal generals and granted them titles and ranks. In October 1402, he appointed two dukes ( gong ; 公 )— Qiu Fu and Zhu Neng ( 朱能 ), thirteen marquises ( hou ; 侯 ), and nine counts ( bo ; 伯 ). Among these appointments were one duke and three counts from

10296-467: The end of his reign. Four years after his death, the Ming army was forced to retreat back to China. Despite his efforts, the Yongle Emperor's Mongol campaigns did not significantly alter the balance of power or ensure the security of the northern border. The Yongle Emperor died in 1424 and was buried in the Chang Mausoleum, the largest of the tombs of the Ming emperors located near Beijing. Zhu Di

10428-548: The establishment of flourishing European style settlements like Nairobi , Vila Pery , Vila Junqueiro , Porto Amélia , Lourenço Marques and Entebbe . The French settled the largest island of the Indian Ocean (and the fourth-largest globally), Madagascar , along with a group of smaller islands nearby, namely Réunion and the Comoros . Madagascar became part of the French colonial empire following two military campaigns against

10560-421: The execution of his generals Nayur Buqa and Alu Temür, who were accused of treason. He also exercised caution in diplomatic relations, such as when he welcomed Korean delegations passing through Beiping, to avoid any indication of disrespect towards the emperor's authority. Out of the six princes responsible for guarding the northern border, Zhu Di was the second oldest but also the most capable. He had operated in

10692-457: The field when he joined Xu Da's campaign against the Mongols, led by Nayur Buqa. In the 1380s, Zhu Di served in border defense under the leadership of his father-in-law, Xu Da. After Su's death in 1385, Fu Youde , Xu's deputy, took over leadership. In 1387, Zhu Di participated in a successful attack on the Mongols in Liaodong, led by Feng Sheng . The following year, a Ming army led by Lan Yu made

10824-434: The funeral of the Hongwu Emperor. This was done by the government as a precaution, effectively holding them as hostages. However, in June 1399, the emperor's adviser, Huang Zicheng , convinced the emperor that releasing Zhu Di's sons would help calm the situation. Unfortunately, the result was the exact opposite. In early August 1399, Zhu Di used the arrest of two of his officials as a pretext for rebellion. He claimed that he

10956-473: The government to appoint Sheng Yong as the new commander of the counterinsurgency army. In 1401, Zhu Di attempted to weaken the enemy by attacking smaller units, which disrupted the supply of government troops. Both sides then focused on breaking through along the Grand Canal . In January, Zhu Di suffered a defeat at Dongchang, but in April he was victorious at Jia River. The front continued to move back and forth for

11088-432: The judiciary, and routine tasks. As a result, the atomization of administration that was characteristic of the Hongwu Emperor's rule diminished, allowing the emperor to focus less on routine details. The political influence of the bureaucratic apparatus gradually increased, and under the Yongle Emperor's rule, ministers were able to challenge the emperor, even at the cost of their freedom or lives. The most significant change

11220-400: The larger region to varying degrees became part of a European colonial empire. Portugal had first established a strong presence in southern Mozambique and the Indian Ocean since the 15th century, while during this period their possessions increasingly grew including parts from the present northern Mozambique country, up to Mombasa in present-day Kenya. At Lake Malawi , they finally met

11352-402: The latter half of his reign, the Yongle Emperor accused many of these princes of committing crimes and punished them by removing their personal guards. Interestingly, he had previously condemned the same actions when they were carried out by the Jianwen Emperor. In order to reduce political threats, the Yongle Emperor relocated several border princes from the north to central and southern China. By

11484-579: The many Afro-Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people . With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of Tanzania (particularly Zanzibar ) and Kenya —a seaboard referred to as the Swahili Coast —the Bantu Swahili language contains many Arabic loan-words as a consequence of these interactions. Its important to note that Kiswahili grammar and structure are purely African and Bantu even if its vocabulary has non African influence in

11616-546: The middle Nile basin. Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and the Red Sea coast of Sudan are considered the most likely location of the land known to the Ancient Egyptians as Punt . The old kingdom's first mention dates to the 25th century BCE. The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut . The Kingdom of Aksum

11748-503: The military successes of his reign. Grand Secretaries during the reign of the Yongle Emperor, from 1402–1424. The first two were appointed in August 1402, while the rest were appointed a month later. At the head of the Grand Secretariat stood briefly in 1402 Huang Huai, followed by Xie Jin, and from 1407 by Hu Guang until his death in 1418, when Yang Rong took over until the end of the Yongle Emperor's reign. The emperor reorganized

11880-408: The ministers. The emperor kept his Grand Secretaries with him, and some even accompanied him on his Mongol campaigns. During this period, the empire was governed by the crown prince with the assistance of other Grand Secretaries and selected ministers. The crown prince developed a close relationship with the Grand Secretaries and became the de facto representative of the officials. The Yongle Emperor

12012-552: The name for Tanzania . These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach central east Africa during their migration. Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large African Great Lakes kingdoms and states emerged, such as the Buganda and Karagwe kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to explore the region of current-day Kenya , Tanzania , and Mozambique by sea. Vasco da Gama visited Mombasa in 1498. Da Gama's voyage

12144-456: The nephew and adopted son of the Hongwu Emperor, who was responsible for defending the north, was given the responsibility of preparing the prince's palace in Beijing. He utilized the former palaces of the Yuan emperors, providing Zhu Di with a larger and more fortified residence compared to his brothers, some of whom resided in converted temples or county offices. General Li also focused on fortifying

12276-558: The next four to five years lecturing him on Confucian classics, history, agriculture, and irrigation. He also trained the prince in poetry and prose writing, and explained the rules of governance and the selection of subordinates. After Hua's death and Gao's dismissal, Fei Yu, Qiu Guang, Wang Wuban, and Zhu Fu took over Zhu Di's education. Despite receiving a comprehensive education from esteemed teachers, Zhu Di's true passion always lay in military pursuits rather than scholarly pursuits and palace discussions. In early 1376, he married Lady Xu ,

12408-416: The rebel army to cross the river without resistance and advance on Nanjing. Due to the betrayal of Li Jinglong and Zhu Hui, Zhu Di's younger brother, the capital city was captured on 13 July 1402, with little resistance. During the clashes, the palace was set on fire, resulting in the deaths of the emperor, his empress, and his son. On 17 July 1402, Zhu Di ascended the throne, officially succeeding his father,

12540-486: The recently created British Protectorate of Nyasaland (nowadays Malawi ), which surrounded the homonymous lake on three sides, leaving the Portuguese the control of lake's eastern coast. The British Empire set foot in the region's most exploitable and promising lands acquiring what is today Uganda , and Kenya . The Protectorate of Uganda and the Colony of Kenya were located in a rich farmland area mostly appropriate for

12672-477: The region. The government also transported food supplies to the city. Zhu Di's interest in the military was put into practice when he personally trained his own guard. He used his detachments as a means of balancing the power of the provincial commander, who was unable to mobilize troops without authorization from the emperor and approval from the prince. Meanwhile, the prince had the freedom to train and deploy his own guard. In 1381, Zhu Di had his first experience in

12804-400: The removal of Uganda's despotic leader Idi Amin . Burundi , Rwanda , and Uganda have each faced instability and ethnic conflict since independence, most notably, they experienced the 1994 Rwandan genocide and the 1993 Burundi genocide and the subsequent Burundian Civil War . Rwanda and Uganda continue to be involved in related conflicts outside the region. Djibouti , as well as

12936-513: The rest of the year. In 1402, instead of launching another attack along the Grand Canal, Zhu Di advanced further west and bypassed Dezhou. He then conquered Xuzhou in early March. The government troops retreated south to Zhili and were repeatedly defeated. In July, the rebels reached the north bank of the Yangtze River . The commander of the government fleet defected to Zhu Di's side, allowing

13068-586: The rhino and elephant. The geography of East Africa is often stunning and scenic. Shaped by global plate tectonic forces that have created the East African Rift , East Africa is the site of Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya , the two tallest peaks in Africa. It also includes the world's second largest freshwater lake, Lake Victoria , and the world's second deepest lake, Lake Tanganyika . The unique geography and apparent suitability for farming made East Africa

13200-446: The route to French Indochina . Starting in the 1850s, the small protectorate of Djibouti became French Somaliland in 1897. Since the end of colonialism, several East African countries have been riven with military coups, ethnic violence and oppressive dictators. The region has endured the following post-colonial conflicts: Kenya has enjoyed relatively stable governance. However, its politics have been turbulent at times, including

13332-474: The same way English remains a Germanic language regardless of its vocabulary being heavily influenced by Latin and French among other languages. The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the east coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of Rhapta , Azania and Menouthias referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE, ultimately giving rise to

13464-612: The slave trade on the open seas had been completely outlawed by the British and the Omani Arabs had little ability to resist the British navy's ability to enforce the directive. The Omani presence continued in Zanzibar and Pemba until the Zanzibar Revolution in 1964. However, the official Omani Arab presence in Kenya was checked by German and British seizure of key ports and creation of crucial trade alliances with influential local leaders in

13596-416: The sons of the Hongwu Emperor and served as the emperor's support and controlled a significant portion of the military power during his reign. The government employed various methods to remove the five princes, including exile, house arrest, and even driving them to suicide. Zhu Di was considered the most dangerous of all the princes. He was an experienced military leader and the oldest surviving descendant of

13728-506: The southern part of Beiping province and northwestern Shandong , with varying levels of success. In the spring, Zhu Di led a successful attack into Datong , defeating Li Jinglong near Baoding in May and outside Dezhou in June. However, due to concerns about potential enemy reinforcements, Zhu Di ended the siege of Jinan in September and retreated to Beiping. Li Jinglong's lackluster performance led

13860-450: The strained relations between his remaining sons and the heir, made the decision to revise the rules governing the imperial family for the fourth time. The new edition significantly limited the rights of the princes. However, these changes had little impact on Zhu Di's status as they did not affect his main area of expertise—the military. Furthermore, the prince was cautious not to give any reason for criticism. For example, he did not object to

13992-482: The successor by blood) were chosen as his tutors and teachers. However, due to a recommendation from Zhu Di, the Hongwu Emperor began to suspect the three generals of treason. It is worth noting that Zhu Di did not have a good relationship with Lan Yu, and according to historian Wang Shizhen ( 王世貞 ; 1526–1590), he was responsible for Lan Yu's execution in March 1393. The other two generals also died under unclear circumstances at

14124-455: The task of leading a punitive expedition against the Mongol commanders Nayur Buqa and Alu Temür, who were threatening Shanxi and Gansu . Zhu Di demonstrated excellent command skills when he defeated and captured both Mongol commanders in battle. They then served under him with their troops. The emperor himself appreciated Zhu Di's success, which contrasted with the hesitancy of the Prince of Jin. Zhu Di continued to lead armies into battle against

14256-434: The throne, he adopted the era name Yongle, which means "perpetual happiness". His reign is often referred to as the "second founding" of the Ming dynasty, as he made significant changes to his father's political policies. Upon ascending the throne, he faced the aftermath of a civil war that had devastated the rural areas of northern China and weakened the economy due to a lack of manpower. In order to stabilize and strengthen

14388-432: The throne. However, as the eldest living son of the deceased emperor, he felt a duty to restore the laws and order that had been dismantled by the new government. He explained that this was out of respect for his late father. He also accused the current emperor and his advisors of withholding information about his father's illness and preventing him from attending the funeral. Furthermore, he condemned their unjust treatment of

14520-527: The time ruled by Zoskales , who also governed the port of Adulis . The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency . The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian Peninsula , eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom . Between 2500 and 3000 years ago, Bantu -speaking peoples began

14652-498: The turn of 1394 and 1395. In their place, princes were appointed. For example, in 1393, the Prince of Jin was given command of all the troops in Shanxi province, and the Prince of Yan was given command in Beiping province. Additionally, Zhu Shuang, Prince of Qin, was in charge of Shaanxi , but he died in 1395. The Hongwu Emperor, who was deeply affected by the death of his two eldest sons and

14784-399: The undisputed leader of the northern border defense. Two months later, Zhu Di's father, the Hongwu Emperor, also died. After the death of the Hongwu Emperor, Zhu Yunwen ascended the throne as the Jianwen Emperor. His closest advisers immediately began reviewing the Hongwu Emperor's reforms, with the most significant change being an attempt to limit and eventually eliminate the princes who were

14916-403: The use of pigments, and the possible making of projectile points. It is observed by the authors of three 2018 studies on the site, that the evidence of these behaviors is approximately contemporary to the earliest known Homo sapiens fossil remains from Africa (such as at Jebel Irhoud and Florisbad ), and they suggest that complex and modern behaviors had already begun in Africa around the time of

15048-652: The wider region, including fossils discovered in the Awash Valley of Ethiopia, as well as in the Koobi Fora in Kenya and Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The southern part of East Africa was occupied until recent times by Khoisan hunter-gatherers , whereas in the Ethiopian Highlands the donkey and such crop plants as teff allowed the beginning of agriculture around 7,000 BCE. Lowland barriers and diseases carried by

15180-670: Was a single exodus or several; a multiple dispersal model involves the Southern Dispersal theory. Some researchers have suggested that North Africa was the region of Africa from which modern humans who first trekked out of the continent. According to both genetic and fossil evidence, it has been posited that archaic Homo sapiens evolved into anatomically modern humans in the Horn of Africa around 200,000 years ago and dispersed from there. The recognition of Homo sapiens idaltu and Omo Kibish as anatomically modern humans would justify

15312-506: Was a trading empire centered Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100–940 CE, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period c.  4th century BCE to achieve prominence by the 1st century CE. The kingdom is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for ivory , which was exported throughout the ancient world. Aksum was at

15444-489: Was an exceptionally talented military leader who was highly favored by his father. In contrast to the frequent changes in offices during the Hongwu Emperor's reign, the high levels of the Yongle Emperor's administration remained stable. While the emperor did occasionally imprison a minister, the mass purges seen in the Hongwu era did not occur again. The most significant political matters were overseen by eunuchs and generals, while officials were responsible for managing finances,

15576-599: Was born on 2 May 1360, as the fourth son of Zhu Yuanzhang . At the time, Zhu Yuanzhang was based in Nanjing and was an independent general of the Han Song dynasty. This dynasty was one of the states formed during the Red Turban Rebellion , which was a rebellion against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty that controlled China. In the 1360s, Zhu Yuanzhang conquered China, established the Ming dynasty , and declared himself emperor. He

15708-411: Was difficult and thus limited, mainly due to climatic conditions and the local geomorphology. Italy gained control of various parts of Somalia in the 1880s. The southern three-fourths of Somalia became an Italian protectorate ( Italian Somaliland ). Meanwhile, in 1884, a narrow coastal strip of Somaliland came under British control ( British Somaliland ). This Somaliland protectorate was just opposite

15840-487: Was experiencing growth. Along with the hundreds of thousands of soldiers stationed in the region, the city was also home to officials administering the province, as well as artisans and laborers from all over the country. The main concern of the local authorities was providing enough food for the population. Peasants were relocated to the north, soldiers and convicts were sent to cultivate the land, and merchants were granted licenses to trade salt in exchange for bringing grain to

15972-482: Was meticulous in his selection of the top officials for the state apparatus, including the members of the Grand Secretariat and the ministers. He placed particular trust in those who had served him during the civil war, such as Jin Zhong ( 金忠 ), Guo Zi, Lü Zhen ( 呂震 ), and Wu Zhong ( 吳中 ). These ministers came from all over China, but were all highly educated and capable administrators. Among them, Minister of Revenue Xia Yuanji

16104-644: Was only settled 3000 years ago. In a narrow sense, particularly in English-speaking contexts, East Africa refers to the area comprising Kenya , Tanzania , and Uganda , largely due to their shared history under the Omani Empire and as parts of the British East Africa Protectorate and German East Africa . Further extending East Africa's definition, the Horn of Africa —comprising Djibouti , Eritrea , Ethiopia , and Somalia —stands out as

16236-532: Was opposed by officials who felt threatened by the growing influence of eunuchs and military elites. These groups relied on imperial favor for their power. The emperor also made significant efforts to strengthen and consolidate the empire's hegemonic position in East Asia through foreign policy. Diplomatic messages and military expeditions were sent to "all four corners of the world". Missions were sent to countries near and far, including Manchuria , Korea , Japan ,

16368-617: Was posthumously honored as an emperor and given the temple name Taizu by Cao Pi of the Cao Wei dynasty . Meanwhile, several individuals who were initially assigned temple names had their titles revoked, as was the case for Emperor Huan , whose temple name, Weizong , was abolished by Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han dynasty . In other cases, numerous individuals were honored with more than one temple name by intentional changes or being accorded different titles by different individuals. For instance,

16500-502: Was raised with a strong emphasis on discipline and modesty, along with the other children of Zhu Yuanzhang. Out of all his siblings, he had a special fondness for Princess Ningguo ( 寧國公主 ), Zhu Fu ( 朱榑 ), and Zhu Su, who was only 15 months younger. Despite their contrasting personalities, Zhu Di and Zhu Su became the closest of friends. While Zhu Di enjoyed activities such as archery and horseback riding, Zhu Su preferred studying literature and tending to plants. The emperor took great care in

16632-544: Was responsible for protecting the northeastern borderlands. In the 1380s and 1390s, he proved himself to be a skilled military leader, gaining popularity among soldiers and achieving success as a statesman. In 1399, he rebelled against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor , and launched a civil war known as the Jingnan campaign , or the campaign to clear away disorders. After three years of intense fighting, he emerged victorious and declared himself emperor in 1402. After ascending

16764-427: Was rising up to protect the emperor from the corrupt court officials. With the support of Beijing dignitaries, he gained control of the city's garrison and occupied the surrounding prefectures and counties. He attempted to justify his actions through letters sent to the court in August and December 1399, as well as through a public statement. In his letters and statements, he repeatedly asserted that he had no desire for

16896-593: Was successful in reaching India , which permitted the Portuguese to trade with the Far East directly by sea. This in turn challenged the older trading networks of mixed land and sea routes, such as the spice trade routes which utilized the Persian Gulf , Red Sea , and camel caravans to reach the eastern Mediterranean. The Republic of Venice had gained control over much of the trade routes between Europe and Asia. After traditional land routes to India had been closed by

17028-466: Was taken and destroyed, and its large treasures went to strengthen the resources of Almeida. Attacks followed on Hoja (now known as Ungwana, located at the mouth of the Tana River ), Barawa , Angoche , Pate and other coastal towns until the western Indian Ocean was a safe haven for Portuguese commercial interests. At other places on his way, such as the island of Angediva , near Goa , and Cannanore ,

17160-465: Was the emergence of the Grand Secretariat , which played a crucial role in the politics of the Yongle Emperor's successors. Led by the Grand Secretaries, officials gained control of the government. The emperor restored the titles of the princes of Zhou, Qi, and Min, which had been abolished by the Jianwen Emperor. However, these titles did not come with the same power and authority as before. During

17292-429: Was the most trusted by the emperor. Xia advocated for moderation in spending and using resources for the benefit of the population, which earned him the respect of the Yongle Emperor for his honesty and transparency. Xia held this position for nineteen years until 1421, when he, along with Minister of Justice Wu Zhong and Minister of War Fang Bin, protested against the costly campaign into Mongolia. Despite their objections,

17424-632: Was to be assigned to virtuous rulers. However, this principle was effectively abandoned during the Sixteen Kingdoms era with the ubiquitous usage of "祖" by various non- Han regimes. Temple names became widespread from the Tang dynasty onwards. Apart from the final ruler of a dynasty, monarchs who died prematurely, or monarchs who were deposed, most Chinese monarchs were given temple names by their descendants. The practice of honoring rulers with temple names had since been adopted by other dynastic regimes within

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