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53-726: In ancient times, Kodari, the Nepalese village on the other side, was the starting point of a trans-Himalayan caravan route. Newar traders headed north from Kodari and after crossing Kuti pass turned east to continue their journey across the Tibetan Plateau to Lhasa . The construction of the 115 kilometres (71 mi) Kathmandu-Kodari Road occurred during the 1963–67 period. It was named China National Highway 318 in China and Araniko Highway in Nepal. China has long planned and discussed building

106-508: A city for the Chinese princess, and a palace for her within its walls. According to Chinese sources, "As the princess disliked their custom of painting their faces red, Lungstan (Songtsen Gampo) ordered his people to put a stop to the practice, and it was no longer done. He also discarded his felt and skins, put on brocade and silk, and gradually copied Chinese civilization. He also sent the children of his chiefs and rich men to request admittance into

159-409: A dispute with his younger brother Tsensong ( Wylie : brtsan srong ), the younger brother was burnt to death by his own minister, Khasek ( Wylie : mkha' sregs ), possibly at the behest of the emperor. The Old Book of Tang records that when the king of 泥婆羅, Nipoluo (" Nepal "), the father of Licchavi king Naling Deva (or Narendradeva), died, an uncle, Yu.sna kug.ti , Vishnagupta ) usurped

212-505: A ghost town as trading could not return to previous levels. When the crossing was still closed, traffic began diverting to the border crossing at Gyirong Town and (on the Nepalese side) past Rasuwa Fort further west along the border. Chinese and Nepali officials met in December 2016 to discuss potential reopening of Zhangmu port in 2017, which was blocked by progress of road construction. The checkpoint finally reopened on 29 May 2019. Zhangmu

265-663: A minor when he succeeded to the throne." The current head of the Royal House of Tibet and king in exile is a direct descendant of the Dharma kings and has been crowned King of Tibet by Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama . His Majesty King Lhagyari Trichen Namgyal Wangchuk lives in the United States and travels the world speaking out for the human and religious rights of the Tibetan people, under

318-490: A railway connecting Lhasa with Zhangmu on the Nepal-China border, from 2008 onwards. It would be an extension of the 1,956 kilometres (1,215 mi) Qinghai-Tibet Railway . However, as of late 2018, its quite clear China is waiting for Nepalese government to actually seriously commit to a railway from there to Kathmandu through mountainous terrain, which is anticipated to take at least nine years to build. (The Chinese side of

371-739: A time. Lhasa, as a center on the Silk Road, attracted merchant caravans from across Central Asia with whom the Lhasa Newars engaged in trade. A few business houses also maintained shops in Leh , Ladakh which lies on the caravan route to Kashgar in Chinese Central Asia. Kolkata was a center of wholesale trade. Lhasa Newar artisans created statues, painted paubhas and frescoes and built temples in Tibet and other parts of Central Asia, and were instrumental in

424-516: A younger brother bTzan-srong who was betrayed and died in a fire, c.  641 . According to one partially damaged scroll from Dunhuang, there was hostility between Sa-tha-ma-kar and bTzan-srong, who was then forced to settle in gNyal (southeast of the Yarlung River and across the 5,090 metres (16,700 ft) Yartö Tra Pass, which borders on modern Bhutan , and Arunachal Pradesh in India). When

477-578: Is believed that he was a manifestation of Avalokiteśvara , of whom the Dalai Lamas are similarly believed to be a manifestation. His identification as a cakravartin and incarnation of Avalokiteśvara began in earnest in the indigenous Buddhist literary histories of the 11th century. Songtsen Gampo's mother, the queen, is identified as a member of the Tsépong clan ( Wylie : tshe spong , Tibetan Annals Wylie : tshes pong ), which played an important part in

530-476: Is commemorated in inscriptions at Rajagrha - modern Rajgir – and Bodhgaya . Wang Xuanze made a second journey in 648, but he was badly treated by Harsha's usurper, his minister Arjuna, and Harsha's mission plundered. This elicited a response from Tibetan and Nepalese (Licchavi) troops who, together, soundly defeated Arjuna's forces. In 649, the King of Xihai Jun was conferred upon Songtsen Gampo by Tang Gaozong ,

583-584: Is just north of and above the Friendship Bridge border crossing where China National Highway 318 becomes Araniko Highway and immediately passes Kodari village in Sindhupalchok District en route to Kathmandu . Before the earthquake, tourists traveling between Nepal and the Tibet made substantial use of this crossing, and there was also substantial trans-border trade. Chinese trucks traveling on

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636-657: Is said to have been the mother of Gungsong Gungtsen . Other notable wives include a noble woman of the Western Xia known as Minyakza ("Western Xia wife", Wylie : mi nyag bza' ), and a noble woman from Zhangzhung . Well-known even today are his two foreign wives: the Nepali princess Bhrikuti ("the great lady, the Nepalese wife", Wylie : bal mo bza' khri btsun ma ) as well as the Chinese Princess Wencheng ("Chinese Wife", Wylie : rgya mo bza' ). Songtsen sponsored

689-481: Is said to have only ruled for these five years and died at eighteen. Songtsen Gampo, returned to the throne. Gungsong Gungtsen is said to have been buried at Donkhorda, the site of the royal tombs, to the left of the tomb of his grandfather Namri Songtsen (gNam-ri Srong-btsan). According to Tibetan tradition, Songtsen Gampo was enthroned while still a minor as the thirty-third king of the Yarlung dynasty after his father

742-504: Is they who construct for the Buddhist temples those fine roofs of gilt plates, which resist all the inclemencies of the seasons and always retain a marvellous freshness and glitter. They are so skilful at this class of work that they are sent to the very interior of Tartary to decorate the Lamaseries. Newar artists gained importance after the destruction of Indian Buddhism in 1203 as they were

795-549: The Bailang , and Qiang tribes. The Bailan people were bounded on the east by the Tanguts and on the west by the Domi . They had been subject to the Chinese since 624. After a successful campaign against China in the frontier province of Songzhou in 635–36 ( OTA l. 607), the Chinese emperor agreed to send a Chinese princess for Songtsen Gampo to marry. Around 639, after Songtsen Gampo had

848-497: The Goddess of Compassion , the female aspect of Chenrezig , where "Dolma, or Drolma ( Sanskrit means Tara ). As Sarat Chaundra explains, the two wives of Emperor Srong-btsan gambo are venerated under this name. The Chinese princess is called Dol-kar, of 'the white Dolma,' and the Nepalese princess Dol-jang, or 'the green Dolma.' The latter is prayed to by women for fecundity." The Jiu Tangshu adds that Songtsen Gampo thereupon built

901-595: The Jokhang in Lhasa , the city in which he is credited in one tradition with founding and establishing as his capital, and Tradruk Temple in Nêdong . During his reign, the translation of Buddhist texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan began. Songtsen Gampo is considered to be the first of the three Dharma Kings ( Wylie : chos rgyal ) — Songtsen Gampo, Trisong Detsen , and Ralpacan — who established Buddhism in Tibet. The inscription on

954-588: The Tibetan Annals say the mother was the btsan mo (Princess Wencheng) of Songtsen while the Genealogy says it was Mangmoje Trikar Wylie : mang mo rje khri skar ). It is unlikely that the mother was the btsan mo because the Annals did not use the honorific kinship term yum (mother) for her. Tibetan Empire-era documents found at Dunhuang say that Songsten Gampo also had a sister Sad-mar-kar (or Sa-tha-ma-kar) and

1007-478: The Tibetan script and Classical Tibetan , the first literary and spoken language of Tibet. His mother, the queen, is identified as Driza Thökar ( Tibetan : འབྲི་བཟའ་ཐོད་དཀར་ , Wylie : ' bri bza' thod dkar , ZYPY : Zhisa Tögar ). The exact date of his birth and his enthronement are not certain, and in Tibetan accounts it is generally accepted that he was born in an Ox year of the Tibetan calendar . He ascended

1060-580: The Tibetan script . He then presented the script to the court and taught the king. Songsten Gampo then retired for four years to learn the written language, after which he translated twenty-one tantric texts on Avalokiteshvara, and the Mani Kumbum . Songtsen Gampo moved the seat of his newly unified kingdom from the Yarlung Valley to the Kyichu Valley, site of the future city of Lhasa . The site itself

1113-567: The Uray , Bajracharya , Shakya and Dhakhwa. There were also many Shresthas and Maharjans among them. Newar traders exported finished products from Nepal and India to Tibet and brought back goods from Tibet and other parts of Central Asia . Metal utensils, sacred statues and rice from Nepal, and textiles and other factory products from India were the main exports to Tibet. The Lhasa Newars brought back gold dust, wool, musk pods, pelts and yak tails which were forwarded to Kolkata. The older generation in

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1166-414: The 8th Zhenguan year, or 634 CE. Tang dynasty chronicles describe this as a tribute mission, but it brought an ultimatum demanding a marriage alliance, not subservient rituals. After this demand was refused, Tibet launched victorious military attacks against Tang affiliates in 637 and 638. There is some confusion as to whether Central Tibet conquered Zhangzhung during the reign of Songtsen Gampo or in

1219-544: The Chinese Emperor, Gaozong , a devout Buddhist, gave him the title variously written Binwang , "Guest King" or Zongwang , "Cloth-tribute King" and 3,000 rolls of multicoloured silk in 649 and granted the Tibetan king's request for "silkworms' eggs, mortars and presses for making wine, and workmen to manufacture paper and ink." Traditional accounts say that, during the reign of Songtsen Gampo, examples of handicrafts and astrological systems were imported from China and

1272-573: The Chinese and that the Tang emperor delivered a bride under threat of force. Early Tibetan accounts say that the Tibetan king and the king of Zhangzhung had married each other's sisters in a political alliance. However, the Tibetan wife of the king of the Zhangzhung complained of poor treatment by the king's principal wife. War ensued, and, through the treachery of the Tibetan princess, "King Ligmikya of Zhangzhung, while on his way to Sum-ba ( Amdo province)

1325-466: The Chinese) more than 200,000 men (100,000 according to Tibetan sources). He then sent an envoy with gifts of gold and silk to the Chinese emperor to ask for a Chinese princess in marriage and, when refused, attacked Songzhou. According to the Tang annals, he finally retreated and apologised, and, later, the emperor granted his request, but the histories written in Tibet all say that the Tibetan army defeated

1378-466: The Lhasa Newars officially dates from the seventh century with the marriage of Nepalese Princess Bhrikuti with Tibetan King Songtsän Gampo . The traders and artisans who accompanied Bhrikuti to Lhasa as part of her retinue established commercial and cultural ties between Nepal and Tibet. In the 1640s, a treaty was negotiated under which Newar merchants were allowed to establish 32 business houses in Lhasa. It

1431-521: The Skar cung Pillar (erected by Ralpacan, who ruled c. 800–815) reports that during Songtsen Gampo's reign, "shrines of the Three Jewels were established by building the temple of Ra-sa [Lhasa] and so on." The first edict of Trisong Detsen mentions a community of monks at this vihara . Songtsen Gampo was adept at diplomacy as well as on the field of battle. The king's minister, Nyang Mangpoje Shangnang , with

1484-536: The Tibet-Nepal Friendship Highway offload goods at Zhangmu and transfer them to Nepalese trucks. Even though the drive between Zhangmu and Kathmandu is only 5 hours, the sourcing logistics and bureaucracy of cross-border trade takes around 2 weeks, as such in 2013 it takes each Nepalese truck almost half a month for a round trip. Lhasa Newar (trans-Himalayan traders) Lhasa Newar (alternate name: Lhasa Newah ) ( Newar : ल्हासा नेवा ) refers to

1537-752: The Western Xia; the dharma and the art of writing came from India; material wealth and treasures from the Nepalis and the lands of the Mongols , while model laws and administration were imported from the Uyghurs of the Second Turkic Khaganate to the North. Songtsen Gampo is traditionally credited with being the first to bring Buddhism to the Tibetan people . He is also said to have built many Buddhist temples, including

1590-448: The aid of troops from Zhangzhung, defeated the Sumpa in northeastern Tibet circa 627 ( Tibetan Annals [ OTA ] l. 2). Six years later (c. 632/633), Myang Mang-po-rje Zhang-shang was accused of treason and executed ( OTA l. 4–5, Richardson 1965). Minister Mgar-srong-rtsan succeeded him. The Jiu Tangshu records that the first ever embassy from Tibet arrived in China from Songtsen Gampo in

1643-673: The artistic styles of Tibet, Bhutan, China and Mongolia. Lhasa Newars have been the subject of ballads, epic poetry and novels in Nepal Bhasa and other languages, mostly on the theme of loneliness and couples forced to endure long periods of separation. Songts%C3%A4n Gampo Samding Dorje Phagmo Songtsen Gampo (Classical Tibetan: [sroŋpt͡san zɡampo] , pronounced [sɔ́ŋt͡sɛ̃ ɡʌ̀mpo] ) ( Tibetan : སྲོང་བཙན་སྒམ་པོ , Wylie : srong btsan sgam po , ZYPY : Songzän Gambo ; 569–649/650), also Songzan Ganbu ( Chinese : 松贊干布 ; pinyin : Sōngzàn Gānbù ),

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1696-447: The building of two temples to house the images of Buddha brought by his Nepalese and Chinese wives, however he showed little interest in propagating Buddhism otherwise, and was buried according to pre-Buddhist protocols and rituals when he died. Songtsen Gampo's heir, Gungsong Gungtsen , died before his father, so his younger son Mangsong Mangtsen inherited the throne. Two Dunhuang sources give different mothers for Mangsong Mangtsen:

1749-554: The exchange of art styles across the Himalaya . The thousand-year-old Lhasa Newar tradition came to an end after the caravan route linking India and Tibet through Sikkim was shut down by the Sino-Indian War in 1962. Subsequently, the merchants and craftsmen based in Tibet closed up shop and returned home to Nepal for the last time. According to folklore, Singha Sartha Aju was the first merchant to travel to Tibet. The history of

1802-597: The expatriate Newar traders and artisans who traveled between the Kathmandu Valley and Tibet from centuries ago. These Nepalese merchants conducted trade between Nepal , Tibet and Bengal , India over the Silk Road , and acted as a bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between South Asia and Central Asia . Along with the merchants, there were colonies of artisans in various parts of Tibet who were engaged in creating Buddhist art. They were major players in

1855-600: The king refused to consummate the marriage, she then helped Songtsen Gampo to defeat Lig myi-rhya and incorporate the Zhangzhung of Western Tibet into the Tibetan Empire in 645, thus gaining control of most, if not all, of the Tibetan plateau. Following the visit by the famous Chinese pilgrim monk Xuanzang to the court of Harsha , the king ruling Magadha , Harsha sent a mission to China which, in turn, responded by sending an embassy consisting of Li Yibiao and Wang Xuance , who probably travelled through Tibet and whose journey

1908-404: The national school to be taught the classics, and invited learned scholars from China to compose his official reports to the emperor." However, according to Tibetologist John Powers, such accounts of Tibet embracing Chinese culture through Wencheng are not corroborated by Tibetan histories. Songtsen Gampo's sister Sad-mar-kar was sent to marry Lig-myi-rhya, the king of Zhangzhung. However, when

1961-607: The north of Kathmandu to travel to Lhasa. From the 1930s, a new caravan route over the lower Nathu La and Jelep La passes on the border between Sikkim and Tibet became more popular. These passes were approached through Gangtok in Sikkim and Kalimpong in West Bengal , India. The Lhasa Newars lived in Lhasa , Shigatse and Gyantse in Tibet and in Kolkata and Kalimpong in India for years at

2014-457: The occupation of the People's Republic of China . Songtsen Gampo sent his minister Thonmi Sambhota and other young Tibetans to India to devise a script for Classical Tibetan , which led to the creation of the first Tibetan literary works and translations, court records and a constitution . After Thonmi Sambhota returned from India, he stayed in retreat at Kukhamaru Palace in Lhasa while creating

2067-524: The only remaining experts in traditional Buddhist art. Tibetan artists thus turned to them for inspiration and learned the Newar style, or Beri as it is now known. The style prevailed for more than four centuries, and reached its peak from 1360 to 1460 when it was adopted as Tibet's universal painting style. The period from the 14th to the 16th centuries is considered a golden age of Nepalese art. During this time, Newar artists travelled widely and left their mark on

2120-431: The prince Gungsong Gungtsen reached the age of thirteen (twelve by Western reckoning), his father, Songtsen Gampo, retired, and the prince ruled for five years, which could have corresponded to the period when Songtsen Gampo was working on a new Tibetan constitution. Gungsong Gungtsen is also said to have married 'A-zha Mang-mo-rje when he was thirteen, and they had a son, Mangsong Mangtsen (r. 650–676 CE). Gungsong Gungtsen

2173-460: The reign of Trisong Detsen (r. 755 until 797 or 804 CE). The Old Book of Tang do seems to place these events clearly in the reign of Songtsen Gampo, for they say that in 634, Yangtong (Zhangzhung) and various Qiang peoples "altogether submitted to him." Following this, he united with the country of Yangtong to defeat the 'Azha, or Tuyuhun , and then conquered two more tribes of Qiang before threatening Songzhou with an army of (according to

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2226-417: The route, 500 km, is essentially unpopulated) Therefore, any railway connecting the current terminus at Xigaze to Kathmandu would be unlikely before 2030. In 2012, China signed agreement with Nepal to make this one of six ports of entries between Nepal and China. Zhangmu was evacuated after being damaged by the 2015 earthquakes, which also closed the route between Nepal and China (TAS region). It became

2279-624: The spread and development of Buddhist art throughout the region. The Jokhang Temple in Lhasa and the Kumbum Stupa in Gyantse are examples of their artistic legacy in Tibet. The White Dagoba in Beijing , China , built by Arniko in the 13th century, is another specimen of the artistry of the Lhasa Newars. Newar artists were the most sought after among the foreign artists living in Tibet. French missionary traveller Évariste Régis Huc has written that it

2332-612: The throne after emperor Harshavardhan's death around 647 CE, the Licchavi king came to their aid. Songtsen Gampo married Princess Bhrikuti , the daughter of King Licchavi. The Chinese Princess Wencheng , niece of the Emperor Taizong of Tang , left China in 640 to marry Songtsen Gampo, arriving the next year. Peace between China and Tibet prevailed for the remainder of Songtsen Gampo's reign. Both wives are considered to have been incarnations of Tara (Standard Tibetan: Drolma ),

2385-511: The throne at age thirteen, circa 618. There are difficulties with the ascension dates, and several earlier dates for the birth of Songtsen Gampo have been suggested, including 569, 593 or 605. It is said that Songtsen Gampo was born at Gyama in Meldro , a region to the northeast of modern Lhasa , the son of the Yarlung king Namri Songtsen . The book The Holder of the White Lotus says that it

2438-521: The throne. "The Tibetans gave him refuge and reestablished him on his throne [in 641]; that is how he became subject to Tibet." Sometime later, but still within the Zhenguan period (627–650 CE), the Tibetans sent an envoy to present day Nepal, where the king received him "joyfully", and, later, when a Tibetan mission was attacked in present-day India by then minister of emperor Harshavardhan who had usurped

2491-549: The unification of Tibet. Her name is recorded variously but is identified as Driza Tökar ("the Bri Wife named White Skull Woman", Wylie : ' bri bza' thod dkar , Tibetan Annals Wylie : bring ma tog dgos ). Songtsen Gampo had six consort queens, of whom four were Tibetan and two were foreign born. The highest-ranking consort was Pogong Mongza Tricham ( Wylie : pho gong mong bza' khri lcam , also called Mongza , "the Mong clan wife", who

2544-569: The village of Sankhu also regularly play Mahjong brought from Tibet. Mule, donkey and yak caravans transported the trade goods over the Himalaya and across the Tibetan Plateau. In Nepal, porters carried the loads over the mountains on their backs. The trade route connecting India and Tibet goes over the Himalaya. The Lhasa Newars used the Gyirong (Kyirong, Nepali : केरुङ , kerung ) and Kuti ( Nepali : कुती ) ( Nyalam Tong La ) passes to

2597-940: Was also agreed that Nepal would mint coins for Tibet. By this time, the number of traders had risen considerably. Eighteenth-century traveller Ippolito Desideri noted that merchants of Nepal were "numerous" in Lhasá. The Newars were also organized into "pala" ( Newar : पाला ) societies which arranged the celebration of festivals and provided a place for get-togethers. The merchants celebrated Mohani and other feasts like they did in Kathmandu. There were 10 "palas" originally in Lhasa, and seven remained active until recent times—Chyatangya, Chhusingsyar, Ghorasyar, Jhwala, Lhakam, Kun and Tarunsyar. The Newars in Shigatse and other places in Tibet had their own "palas". Returning merchants and craftsmen were called "Lhasa Newars". Most of them were Buddhist Newars like

2650-455: Was ambushed and killed by King Srongtsen Gampo's soldiers. As a consequence, The Zhangzhung kingdom was annexed to Bod [Central Tibet]. Thereafter the new kingdom born of the unification of Zhangzhung and Bod was known as Bod rGyal-khab." R. A. Stein places the conquest of Zhangzhung in 645. He next attacked and defeated the Tangut people who later formed the Western Xia state in 942 CE),

2703-521: Was originally a herding ground called Rasa ("the place of goats") but the name was changed to Lhasa ("the place of gods") on the king's founding of the Jokhang Temple. The name Lhasa itself originally referred simply to the temple precincts. He is also credited with bringing many new cultural and technological advances to Tibet. The Jiu Tangshu , or Old Book of Tang , states that after the defeat in 648 of an Indian army in support of Chinese envoys,

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2756-484: Was poisoned circa 618. He is said to have been born in an unspecified Ox year and was 13 years old (12 by Western reckoning) when he took the throne. This accords with the tradition that the Yarlung kings took the throne when they were 13, and supposedly old enough to ride a horse and rule the kingdom. If these traditions are correct, he was probably born in the Ox year 605 CE. The Old Book of Tang notes that he "was still

2809-606: Was the 33rd Tibetan king of the Yarlung dynasty and the founder of the Tibetan Empire . The first of three Dharma Kings of Tibet, he formally introduced Buddhism to Tibet and built the Jokhang with the influence of his Nepali queen Bhrikuti , of Nepal 's Licchavi dynasty . He unified several Tibetan kingdoms, conquered lands adjacent to Tibet, and moved the capital to the Red Fort in Lhasa . His minister Thonmi Sambhota created

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