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101-597: The Zambian Defence Force had its roots in the Northern Rhodesia Regiment , a multi-ethnic military unit which was raised by the British colonial government and had served with distinction during World War II . In 1960, the constituent colonies of Northern Rhodesia , Southern Rhodesia , and Nyasaland were amalgamated into a self-governing British dependency known as the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland . When

202-572: A coup d'état with the support of an exiled Congolese insurgent movement, the Front for Congolese National Liberation (FLNC). The plot involved arming the FLNC with ZNDF weaponry and later providing that movement with rear operating bases in Zambia as a reward for their efforts if the coup succeeded. The ZNDF and the police apprehended the conspirators before they had opportunity to set the coup in motion and later raided

303-522: A hackle of green and red ostrich feathers in 1941 though it is not recorded how they were worn. The NRR were eventually separated into nine battalions. The 1st Battalion was raised in 1939 and were sent to guard the Northern Rhodesian border with the Belgian Congo following a false report there was an invasion force preparing to pass through Portuguese Angola . They then moved to fight against

404-586: A 2004 article, Robert R. Tomes spoke of four elements that "typically encompass an insurgency": Tomes' is an example of a definition that does not cover all insurgencies. For example, the French Revolution had no cell system, and in the American Revolution , little to no attempt was made to terrorize civilians. In consecutive coups in 1977 and 1999 in Pakistan, the initial actions focused internally on

505-412: A British Secret Intelligence Service definition as "a generalized intention to ( emphasis added ) " overthrow or undermine parliamentary democracy by political, industrial or violent means." While insurgents do not necessarily use terror, it is hard to imagine any insurgency meeting its goals without undermining aspects of the legitimacy or power of the government or faction it opposes. Rosenau mentions

606-455: A basic part of his first part of the three phases of revolutionary warfare. Several insurgency models recognize that completed acts of terrorism widen the security gap ; the Marxist guerrilla theoretician Carlos Marighella specifically recommended acts of terror, as a means of accomplishing something that fits the concept of opening the security gap. Mao considered terrorism to be part of forming

707-665: A campaign developed in balance along three "pillars": security, political, and economical. "Obviously enough, you cannot command what you do not control. Therefore, unity of command (between agencies or among government and non-government actors) means little in this environment." Unity of command is one of the axioms of military doctrine that change with the use of swarming:. In Edwards' swarming model, as in Kilcullen's mode, unity of command becomes " unity of effort at best, and collaboration or deconfliction at least." As in swarming, in Kilcullen's view unity of effort "depends less on

808-530: A clear advantage over rebels in coercive capacity." In this kind of conflicts, rebel groups can reintegrate into the civilian population after an attack if the civilians are willing to silently accept them. Some of the most recent examples include the conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq. As the European countries intervenes in the conflicts, creating asymmetry between the government forces and rebels, asymmetric conflict

909-526: A common structure for 9 contemporary insurgent wars, supported on statistical data of more than 50,000 insurgent attacks. The model explains the recurrent statistical pattern found in the distribution of deaths in insurgent and terrorist events. Kilcullen describes a framework for counterinsurgency. He gives a visual overview of the actors in his model of conflicts, which he represents as a box containing an "ecosystem" defined by geographic, ethnic, economic, social, cultural, and religious characteristics. Inside

1010-530: A country. The Iraq insurgency is one example of a recognized government versus multiple groups of insurgents. Other historic insurgencies, such as the Russian Civil War , have been multipolar rather than a straightforward model made up of two sides. During the Angolan Civil War there were two main sides: MPLA and UNITA . At the same time, there was another separatist movement for the independence of

1111-441: A guerrilla movement. While not every insurgency involves terror, most involve an equally hard to define tactic, subversion. "When a country is being subverted it is not being outfought; it is being out-administered. Subversion is literally administration with a minus sign in front." The exceptional cases of insurgency without subversion are those where there is no accepted government that is providing administrative services. While

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1212-470: A more recent definition that suggests subversion includes measures short of violence, which still serve the purposes of insurgents. Rarely, subversion alone can change a government; this arguably happened in the liberalization of Eastern Europe. To the Communist government of Poland , Solidarity appeared subversive but not violent. In arguing against the term Global War on Terror , Francis Fukuyama said

1313-569: A mutiny which became known as the "Shipanga Affair". The army was forced to marshal several battalions to subdue the dissidents. In response to Zambia's increasingly open support for PLAN, South Africa sponsored a force of Kaonde -speaking dissidents under Adamson Mushala , known as the Zambian Democratic Supreme Council (DSC). The DSC maintained a low level insurgency in Zambia's North-Western and Western Provinces. Mushala's guerrillas sabotaged infrastructure, skirmished with

1414-432: A political or ideological (whether secular or religious) purpose. Terrorism is a criminal act, but it is more than mere criminality. To overcome the problem of terrorism it is necessary to understand its political nature as well as its basic criminality and psychology. The United Nations needs to address both sides of this equation. Yet another conflict of definitions involves insurgency versus terrorism. The winning essay of

1515-405: A rationalist explanation behind them, which explains why leaders prefer to gamble in wars and avoid peaceful bargains. Fearon states that intermediate bargains can be a problem because countries cannot easily trade territories with the spread of nationalism. Furthermore, wars can take the form of civil wars . In her article Why Bad Governance Leads to Civil Wars, Barbara F. Walter has presented

1616-654: A revolt takes the form of armed rebellion, it may not be viewed as an insurgency if a state of belligerency exists between one or more sovereign states and rebel forces. For example, during the American Civil War , the Confederate States of America was not recognized as a sovereign state, but it was recognized as a belligerent power, and thus Confederate warships were given the same rights as United States warships in foreign ports. Sometimes there may be two or more simultaneous insurgencies (multipolar) occurring in

1717-555: A shared command and control hierarchy, and more on a shared diagnosis of the problem (i.e., the distributed knowledge of swarms), platforms for collaboration, information sharing and deconfliction. Each player must understand the others' strengths, weaknesses, capabilities and objectives, and inter-agency teams must be structured for versatility (the ability to perform a wide variety of tasks) and agility (the ability to transition rapidly and smoothly between tasks)." Insurgencies, according to Stuart Eizenstat grow out of "gaps". To be viable,

1818-427: A state must be able to close three "gaps", of which the first is most important: Note the similarity between Eizenstat's gaps and Kilcullen's three pillars. In the table below, do not assume that a problematic state is unable to assist less developed states while closing its own gaps. McCormick's model is designed as a tool for counterinsurgency (COIN), but develops a symmetrical view of the required actions for both

1919-512: A sufficient threat that an Italian mineral survey team had to be evacuated from Northwestern Province in 1984 after being targeted by the guerrillas. Nevertheless, the erosion of South African support ensured that its forces remained small and poorly armed. Mushala and later Saimbwende turned to ivory poaching to sustain their war effort against the ZNDF. As the Mozambican Civil War intensified,

2020-502: A theory that explains the role of strong institutions in preventing insurgencies that can result in civil wars. Walter believes that institutions can contribute to four goals. Institutions are responsible for checking the government, creating multiple peaceful routes to help the government solve problems, making the government committed to political terms that entails preserving peace, and creating an atmosphere where rebels do not need to form militias. Furthermore, Walter adds that if there

2121-401: A war not specifically on the tactic of terror but in co-ordination among multiple national or regional insurgencies. It may be politically infeasible to refer to a conflict as an "insurgency" rather than by some more charged term, but military analysts, when concepts associated with insurgency fit, should not ignore those ideas in their planning. Additionally, the recommendations can be applied to

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2222-435: A worldwide view of terror: Social scientists, soldiers, and sources of change have been modeling insurgency for nearly a century if one starts with Mao. Counterinsurgency models, not mutually exclusive from one another, come from Kilcullen, McCormick, Barnett and Eizenstat. Kilcullen describes the "pillars" of a stable society, while Eizenstat addresses the "gaps" that form cracks in societal stability. McCormick's model shows

2323-410: Is a conflict between the government and the insurgents in the form of a civil war, that can bring about a new government that is accountable to a wider range of people, who have to commit to a compromise in political bargains. According to Walter, the presence of strong influential institutions can be beneficial to prevent the repetition of civil wars, but autocratic governments are less likely to accept

2424-578: Is its asymmetric nature: small irregular forces face a large, well-equipped, regular military force state adversary. Due to this asymmetry, insurgents avoid large-scale direct battles, opting instead to blend in with the civilian population (often in rural areas ) where they gradually expand territorial control and military forces. Insurgency frequently hinges on control of and collaboration with local populations. An insurgency can be fought via counter-insurgency warfare, as well as other political, economic and social actions of various kinds. Due to

2525-945: Is the most common form of subnational conflicts and the most civil conflicts where the western countries are likely to be involved. Such interventions and their impacts can be seen in the NATO operation in Libya in 2011 and the French-led intervention in Mali in 2013 . Berman and Matanock suggested an information-centric framework to describe asymmetric conflicts on a local level. Three parties are involved in framework: government forces, rebels and civilians. Government forces and rebels attack each other and may inadvertently harm civilians whereas civilians can anonymously share local information with government forces, which would allow government forces to effectively use their asymmetric advantage to target rebels. Taking

2626-447: Is well to understand that counterterrorism, as used by Cordesman, does not mean using terrorism against the terrorism, but an entire spectrum of activities, nonviolent and violent, to disrupt an opposing terrorist organization. The French general, Joseph Gallieni, observed, while a colonial administrator in 1898, A country is not conquered and pacified when a military operation has decimated its inhabitants and made all heads bow in terror;

2727-864: The Cabinda region headed up by FLEC . Multipolarity extends the definition of insurgency to situations where there is no recognized authority, as in the Somali Civil War , especially the period from 1998 to 2006 , where it broke into quasi-autonomous smaller states, fighting among one another in changing alliances. James Fearon and David Laitin define insurgency as "a technology of military conflict characterized by small, lightly armed bands practicing guerrilla warfare from rural base areas." Austin Long defines insurgency as "the use of political and military means by irregular forces to change an existing political order. These forces typically mingle with civilians in order to hide from

2828-723: The East Africa campaign , the 7th served in French Madagascar and the 8th served in Somaliland and the Ethiopian Empire . There was also an Independent Company set up to protect the headquarters of the East Africa Command . Insurgency An insurgency is a violent, armed rebellion by small, lightly armed bands who practice guerrilla warfare against a larger authority . The key descriptive feature of insurgency

2929-768: The First World War being recognised and compensated as couriers by the British. The NRR fought in the Second World War in Somaliland , Madagascar , the Middle East, Ceylon and Burma . The 1st Battalion fought in the Kabaw Valley offensive in 1944, as part of the 11th East African Division, in late 1944. This was their last campaign and they returned to Africa in January 1946. The 1st Battalion served with distinction in

3030-536: The Italian conquest of British Somaliland and then onto Ceylon and Burma via Aden . The 2nd Battalion was established in 1940 and shot 40 rioters during the 1940 Copperbelt strike . As a result, they were split and served out the rest of the war carrying out internal security and garrison duties. The 3rd, 4th and 5th Battalions were also raised for garrison duties. The 6th were sent to fight in Italian Somaliland in

3131-622: The Malayan Emergency from 1953 to 1955. Between 1953 and 1963, during federation with Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland , it made up part of the Federal armed forces. On Northern Rhodesia's independence as Zambia in 1964, the NRR was renamed the Zambia Regiment and integrated into the new Zambian Defence Force . The Northern Rhodesia Regiment (NRR) was founded in 1933 when the military arm of

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3232-514: The US South ran high risks of bodily harm in challenging the long-standing practices of racial exclusion in Mississippi ." There are many selective incentives that encourage insurgency and violent movements against autocratic political regimes. For example, the supply of safety as a material good can be provided by the insurgents, which abolishes the exploitation of the government and thus forms one of

3333-733: The Zambezi River . In January 1973, Zambian troops fired on a South African police patrol boat on the Zambezi. Shortly afterwards, Defence Minister Grey Zulu ordered that the ZDF return to the border in force. Later in the month Kaunda brought the first of several complaints before the United Nations Security Council charging that Rhodesian security forces were violating Zambia's sovereignty and territorial integrity with South African support. Tensions flared again when Zambian troops fired across

3434-683: The 1970s, Zambia began providing sanctuary for a number of revolutionary and militant political movements dedicated to overthrowing colonial and white minority rule elsewhere on the African continent. Guerrilla armies based in exile in Zambia included the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). These movements ultimately embroiled the ZDF in their own internal power struggles as well as direct clashes with foreign troops carrying out preemptive strikes. In 1968,

3535-499: The 24th Annual United States Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Strategic Essay Contest, by Michael F. Morris, said [A pure terrorist group] "may pursue political, even revolutionary, goals, but their violence replaces rather than complements a political program." Morris made the point that the use, or non-use, of terrorism does not define insurgency, "but that organizational traits have traditionally provided another means to tell

3636-759: The British Empire, the black soldiers received more technical training. In 1935, the Northern Rhodesia Regiment were called up to support the Northern Rhodesia Police during the Copperbelt strike of 1935 along with members of the British South Africa Police from Southern Rhodesia. During the strike, the Northern Rhodesia Police lost control in the face of stones being thrown by black strikers and fired at them killing six which led to

3737-457: The FLNC's base camp, detaining most of the insurgents. Due in part to the extreme secrecy surrounding the ZNDF's budget and the refusal of the UNIP to allow parliamentary debate on the topic, a number of problems concerning military funding were covered up rather than addressed. For example, the facilities at ZNS training camps were so inadequate that typhoid outbreaks became common among recruits. This

3838-498: The Insurgent and COIN forces to achieve success. In this way the counterinsurgency model can demonstrate how both the insurgent and COIN forces succeed or fail. The model's strategies and principle apply to both forces, therefore the degree the forces follow the model should have a direct correlation to the success or failure of either the Insurgent or COIN force. The model depicts four key elements or players: All of these interact, and

3939-770: The Kitwe ZNS training camp. Zambia has been an active participant in several UN peacekeeping operations, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. Zambian personnel have been fated to be caught up in some of the more dramatic incidents of recent UN Peacekeeping in Africa: witnessing the Kibeho Massacre in Rwanda during April 1995; having large numbers of Zambian peacekeepers taken hostage by rebels in Sierra Leone during 2000; and with troops caught up in fighting between Sudanese and South Sudanese forces in

4040-713: The Northern Rhodesia Police were split off as an independent body. Unlike most black majority regiments for an unknown reason, it was kept independent from the King's African Rifles (KAR) similar to Southern Rhodesia 's Rhodesian African Rifles . Though it was still run in a similar fashion to the King's African Rifles with officers being seconded from the British Army until 1938 when two reserve units for African and European soldiers were set up in preparation for local officers to eventually take over. Compared with many other colonial regiments in

4141-497: The Northern Rhodesian Air Wing, which formed the basis for the new Zambian Army and Zambian Air Force, respectively. Relations almost immediately soured between Zambia and Southern Rhodesia, now known simply as Rhodesia , which had issued its own unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) in 1965. Reports that Rhodesian security forces had occupied Kariba Dam prompted Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda to mobilise

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4242-474: The Northern Rhodesian Police. The regiment retained the colours of red and white they inherited from the Northern Rhodesia Police but also added a green stripe to commemorate the predecessor North-Eastern Rhodesia Constabulary . Officers wore Wolseley helmets whilst the ranks wore field service caps , both of which had the regimental colours on as a tactical recognition flash. The regiment adopted

4343-693: The Policy Working Group on the United Nations and Terrorism. Reporting to the Secretary-General in 2002, the Working Group stated the following: Without attempting a comprehensive definition of terrorism, it would be useful to delineate some broad characteristics of the phenomenon. Terrorism is, in most cases, essentially a political act. It is meant to inflict dramatic and deadly injury on civilians and to create an atmosphere of fear, generally for

4444-569: The Soviet Union. The Soviets provided the Zambian Army with tanks, wheeled armored vehicles, and technical instruction on especially generous terms; the Zambian Air Force received its first fighter aircraft in the form of a Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 squadron at the same time. In October 1980, two ZNDF officers, Brigadier Godfrey Miyanda and Colonel Patrick Mkandawire were arrested for planning

4545-489: The US and its allies need to focus on specific radical groups rather than clash with global Islam. Fukuyama argued that political means, rather than direct military measures, are the most effective ways to defeat that insurgency. David Kilcullen wrote "We must distinguish Al Qa'eda and the broader militant movements it symbolises – entities that use terrorism – from the tactic of terrorism itself." There may be utility in examining

4646-490: The United States for equipment for the Zambian Army, including long-range missile systems, but was rebuffed. More successful were Zambia's attempts to acquire its first combat aircraft, a number of Aermacchi MB-326 and SIAI-Marchetti SF.260s sourced from Italy; the first black Zambian Air Force pilots were trained by Italian instructors between 1966 and 1969. Italy also sold the ZDF helicopters and towed artillery. During

4747-550: The United States was not fighting terrorism generically, as in Chechnya or Palestine . Rather, he said the slogan "war on terror" is directed at "radical Islamism, a movement that makes use of culture for political objectives." He suggested it might be deeper than the ideological conflict of the Cold War, but it should not be confused with Samuel Huntington 's "clash of civilizations." Addressing Huntington's thesis, Fukuyama stressed that

4848-620: The ZDF and hijacked an army payroll. As a result of the new challenges posed by the Mushala insurgency and the presence of foreign militants, the ZDF underwent an extensive reorganisation and adopted a new unified command structure. It was renamed the Zambian National Defence Force (ZNDF) in 1976. A prevailing feature of the new ZNDF was its adoption of a third branch known as the Zambian National Service. The objective of

4949-414: The ZDF for the first time and deploy troops to the border. The ZDF was withdrawn when Kaunda received a guarantee that Zambia's supply of Kariba power would not be interrupted. Nevertheless, military tension between the two nations remained high, and border incidents resulting in civilian deaths occurred. In November 1966, Rhodesian troops fired across the border and killed a Zambian woman on the north bank of

5050-513: The ZDF skirmished with Portuguese troops which had pursued a number of Angolan or Mozambican insurgents into Zambia. In September 1975, Zambian troops became locked in a firefight with insurgents of the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA). The ZDF killed eleven ZANLA insurgents and later expelled that movement from Zambian soil. A year later, nearly two thousand disaffected PLAN insurgents in Zambia launched

5151-557: The ZDF, and collected intelligence on PLAN movements inside Zambia. They were trained by South African special forces and instructors recruited from the Portuguese Directorate-General of Security . In 1973, an army unit killed a hundred of the guerrillas by ambushing them as they attempted to cross the Zambezi near the Caprivi Strip. Mushala was largely inactive until early 1976, when his guerrillas skirmished twice with

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5252-417: The ZNDF by Kaunda was also abandoned. A general demobilisation programme was instituted in the army, and parliament gained the ability to debate defence expenditure. The Chiluba government immediately formed a Public Accounts Committee to reduce financial irregularities in the ZNDF, most of which were linked to corruption and abuse of the ministerial tender system. Zambia's 1991 constitution formally reinstated

5353-547: The ZNDF had to contend with a number of armed incursions by Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO) insurgents, who raided Zambian border towns in search of food and other supplies. The ZNDF made it a policy to pursue RENAMO into neighbouring Mozambique in hot pursuit if necessary. In 1988, a second coup d'état attempt was planned, this time by Lieutenant General Christian Tembo and at least three other senior army officers. The conspirators were detained before they could carry it out, but this temporarily jeopardised relations between

5454-432: The ZNDF was not subject to public audit or parliamentary oversight. This was justified under the pretext that the ZNDF's development was tied to the exigencies of wartime. Between 1977 and 1980 military tension with South Africa and Rhodesia continued to escalate, resulting in a renewed spate of border incidents. In 1977, the ZNDF bombarded Rhodesian positions near Victoria Falls with rocket and mortar fire. The reasons for

5555-585: The Zambia Air Force received two Xian MA60 and five Yakovlev Yak-12 transport aircraft from China. During March 2012 a further eight K-8 were received. Four Harbin Z-9 helicopters were delivered in June 2012, with a further four delivered by March 2013 (when one of the new aircraft was lost in an accident, see below). In April 2014 six Hongdu L-15 Falcon supersonic lead-in fighter/trainer jets were ordered from China,

5656-450: The Zambian National Service was to provide basic military instruction to all Zambian citizens in the event they needed to be mobilised as reservists during wartime. The ZNDF became increasingly politicised, with the ruling United National Independence Party (UNIP) forming party branches in the barracks and introducing a number of political education programs for military personnel. Under the UNIP,

5757-767: The Zambian government and the army. The end of the Cold War brought a number of changes to the Zambian political situation and the ZNDF. The ZNDF remained heavily in debt with the former Soviet bloc for military equipment it had purchased in the 1980s, as well as interest accrued. The army in particular was badly affected by the collapse of its Soviet technical training program, which left much of its heavy weapons unserviceable. Following mass protests over President Kaunda's decision to cut subsidies for maize meal and double maize prices in 1990, Captain Mwamba Luchembe single-handedly seized

5858-445: The [insurgents' intended] overthrow of the established authority in a country and its replacement by another regime." Steven Metz observes that past models of insurgency do not perfectly fit modern insurgency, in that current instances are far more likely to have a multinational or transnational character than those of the past. Several insurgencies may belong to more complex conflicts, involving "third forces (armed groups which affect

5959-490: The attack were disputed but the Zambian government maintained that the troops involved had been deliberately provoked by Rhodesian forces into firing. Around March 1978, the ZNDF claimed to have been involved in repelling a Rhodesian raid on a ZIPRA training camp. It also assisted PLAN insurgents during a raid on a South African military base in the Caprivi Strip . South Africa retaliated by shelling several ZNDF positions near

6060-543: The blending of insurgents with the civilian population, insurgencies tend to involve considerable violence against civilians (by the state and the insurgents). State attempts to quell insurgencies frequently lead to the infliction of indiscriminate violence, whereas rebel control of territory frequently involves violence against the civilian population. Insurgency sets itself apart from terrorism by aiming for political control rather than resorting to indiscriminate violence, however, it may incorporate terrorist tactics. Where

6161-638: The border and killed two Canadian tourists on the Rhodesian side of Victoria Falls in May 1973. The increasing prospect of war with Rhodesia posed several unique security dilemmas for the ZDF. Firstly, Zambia lacked the manpower or conventional hardware necessary to provide a suitable deterrent to a Rhodesian incursion. It also remained dependent on a relatively small pool of white senior officers and technical personnel. After 1967 Kaunda's government began replacing them with foreign officers on contract, ostensibly to minimise

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6262-449: The border, and Rhodesia began targeting ZNDF outposts. Growing Zambian war weariness was a significant factor in Kaunda's influencing the guerrilla movements in Rhodesia to seek peace, resulting in a negotiated end to that conflict. Kaunda also bowed to South African pressure and ordered PLAN to close its rear base facilities in Zambia by 1979. At the same time, the ZNDF embarked on a 70 million kwacha modernisation program with assistance from

6363-399: The box are, among others, governments, counterinsurgent forces, insurgent leaders, insurgent forces, and the general population, which is made up of three groups: Often, but not always, states or groups that aid one side or the other are outside the box. Outside-the-box intervention has dynamics of its own. The counterinsurgency strategy can be described as efforts to end the insurgency by

6464-408: The contested Abyei area during May 2011. Despite these crises Zambian forces have generally performed well and earned a reputation as effective peacekeepers. UN missions which have seen the deployment of battalions of Zambian troops, or other significant contingents, include the following. UNAVEM III (United Nations Angola Verification Mission III, February 1995 to June 1997) A Zambian battalion

6565-495: The different elements have to assess their best options in a set of actions: In Thomas Barnett's paradigm, the world is divided into a "connected core" of nations enjoying a high level of communications among their organizations and individuals, and those nations that are disconnected internally and externally. In a reasonably peaceful situation, he describes a "system administrator" force, often multinational, which does what some call "nation-building", but, most importantly, connects

6666-419: The discussion of failed states below.) Metz suggests that contemporary insurgencies have far more complex and shifting participation than traditional wars, where discrete belligerents seek a clear strategic victory. Many insurgencies include terrorism. While there is no accepted definition of terrorism in international law, United Nations -sponsored working definitions include one drafted by Alex P. Schmid for

6767-403: The emergence of strong institutions because of their resulting constraint of governmental corruption and privileges. In her book, Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in Salvador , Elisabeth Jean Wood explains that participants in high-risk activism are very aware of the costs and benefits of engaging in civil wars. Wood suggests that "participants in the 1964 Freedom Summer campaign in

6868-424: The federation was dissolved three years later, the assets and personnel of its armed forces were integrated with those of its successor states, including Northern Rhodesia, which subsequently gained independence as Zambia. For example, Zambia received half the federal armoured car squadron as well as some light patrol aircraft. Zambia also inherited the command structures of the Northern Rhodesia Regiment as well as

6969-401: The ferments of revolt will germinate in the mass and the rancours accumulated by the brutal action of force will make them grow again Both Kilcullen and Eizenstat define a more abstract goal than does Cordesman. Kilcullen's security pillar is roughly equivalent to Eizenstat's security gap: This pillar most engages military commanders' attention, but of course military means are applied across

7070-468: The first arriving in December 2015. Around the same time orders were placed for six SIAI-Marchetti SF.260TW trainer aircraft, one Alenia C-27J Spartan transport aircraft, and a number of Russian-made Mil Mi-17 helicopters. These orders were expected to be delivered during 2016. The Zambia National Service is a defence wing that is mandated to train citizens to serve the republic, develop infrastructure and enhance national food security and contribute to

7171-427: The following units: The Zambia Air Force is a small air force that developed from the Northern Rhodesian Air Wing as well as the former Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland Air Force. In recent years the aircraft inventory has largely been updated with Chinese aircraft reflecting the increasing closeness between the Zambian Defence Force and China. During 1999 eight Karakorum-8 jet trainers were delivered and in 2006

7272-443: The forces defending the political order." According to Matthew Adam Kocher, Thomas Pepinsky and Stathis Kalyvas, a central objective in insurgencies is to achieve control over civilians. To exercise control armed groups apply a variety of practices, including different types of violence, dispute resolution, taxation, regulation of movement, access to aid and services, and social strictures. According to James D. Fearon , wars have

7373-478: The government rather than on seeking broad support. While Tomes' definition fits well with Mao's Phase I, it does not deal well with larger civil wars. Mao does assume terrorism is usually part of the early phases, but it is not always present in revolutionary insurgency. Tomes offers an indirect definition of insurgency, drawn from Trinquier 's definition of counterinsurgency: "an interlocking system of actions—political, economic, psychological, military—that aims at

7474-755: The groupings in Samuel P. Huntington 's idea of the clash of civilizations , but, rather assuming the civilizations must clash, these civilizations simply can be recognized as actors in a multinational world. In the case of Iraq, Cordesman observes that the burden is on the Islamic civilization, not unilaterally the West, if for no other reason that the civilization to which the problematic nation belongs will have cultural and linguistic context that Western civilization cannot hope to equal. The heart of strengthening weak nations must come from within, and that heart will fail if they deny that

7575-623: The independence of South Sudan and before an outbreak of fighting when the Zambians were criticised for not better protecting civilians. MINUSCA (United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic) During 2017 Warrant Officer 2 Boyd Chibuye died whilst deployed in the Central African Republic. Northern Rhodesia Regiment The Northern Rhodesia Regiment ( NRR )

7676-539: The interplay among the actors: insurgents, government, population and external organizations. Barnett discusses the relationship of the country with the outside world, and Cordesman focuses on the specifics of providing security. Recent studies have tried to model the conceptual architecture of insurgent warfare using computational and mathematical modelling. A recent study by Juan Camilo Bohorquez, Sean Gourley, Alexander R. Dixon, Michael Spagat, and Neil F. Johnson entitled "Common Ecology Quantifies Human Insurgency", suggests

7777-438: The main incentives. The revolutionary power can help manifest a social-political network that in return provides access to political opportunities to diverse candidates, who share a collective identity and cultural homogeneity. Also, civil wars and insurgencies can provide employment and access to services and resources that were once taken over by the autocratic regimes. Insurgencies differ in their use of tactics and methods. In

7878-476: The model, not just in the security domain, while civilian activity is critically important in the security pillar also ... all three pillars must develop in parallel and stay in balance, while being firmly based in an effective information campaign. Anthony Cordesman, while speaking of the specific situation in Iraq, makes some points that can be generalized to other nations in turmoil. Cordesman recognizes some value in

7979-405: The nation to the core and empowers the natives to communicate—that communication can be likened to swarm coordination. If the state is occupied, or in civil war, another paradigm comes into play: the leviathan, a first-world military force that takes down the opposition regular forces. Leviathan is not constituted to fight local insurgencies, but major forces. Leviathan may use extensive swarming at

8080-536: The national radio station and announced a coup d'état. Luchembe held the radio station for only two hours before being arrested. Kaunda's unpopularity led to demonstrations in support of Luchembe, however, and the same day the president announced he would seek a referendum on democratic multi-party elections. Kaunda granted a blanket amnesty to his political opponents as he prepared to accept the return of multi-party elections, which would shortly thereafter end his term of almost three decades. Among those who received amnesty

8181-402: The outcome, such as militias) and fourth forces (unarmed groups which affect the outcome, such as international media), who may be distinct from the core insurgents and the recognized government. While overt state sponsorship becomes less common, sponsorship by transnational groups is more common. "The nesting of insurgency within complex conflicts associated with state weakness or failure..." (See

8282-474: The potential for conflicts of loyalty. Between 1967 and 1970 the majority of officers in the ZDF were seconded from the British Army . In 1971, the ZDF was finally prepared to appoint its first black army and air force commanders. Due to the white community's close ties with Rhodesia and South Africa, white Zambians were subsequently barred from voluntary enlistment and granted a blanket exemption from conscription. Around September 1967, Kaunda made two requests to

8383-428: The radio station, capturing Lungu and five other coup plotters. In early August 2022, the government announced that it would recruit up to 5,000 military personnel by October of the same year. In 1976 Zambia adopted a unified command system, in which the three Service Chiefs reported to a Commander of the 'Zambian National Defence Force' (ZNDF). The Commander of Zambia Air Force at the time, Air Commodore Peter Zuze,

8484-488: The real issue is the future of their civilization, if they tolerate religious, cultural or separatist violence and terrorism when it strikes at unpopular targets, or if they continue to try to export the blame for their own failures to other nations, religions, and cultures. Asymmetric conflicts (or irregular conflicts ), as the emerging type of insurgencies in recent history, is described by Berman and Matanock in their review as conflicts where "the government forces have

8585-682: The role of civilians in this framework into consideration, the government and rebels will divert resources to provide services to civilians so as to influence their decision about sharing information with the government. The framework is based on several assumptions: This framework leads to five major implications for counterinsurgency strategies: These implications are tested by empirical evidences from conflicts in Afghanistan, Iraq and several other subnational conflicts. Further research on governance , rule of law , attitudes, dynamics and agency between allies are needed to better understand asymmetric conflicts and to have better informed decisions made at

8686-435: The security gap begins with training, sometimes in specialized areas such as intelligence. More direct, but still noncombat support, includes intelligence, planning, logistics and communications. Anthony Cordesman notes that security requirements differ by region and state in region. Writing on the Middle East, he identified different security needs for specific areas, as well as the US interest in security in those areas. It

8787-464: The social economic development. Zambia National Service (ZNS) personnel have been included in peacekeeping contingents deployed by Zambia to the United Nation's MINUSCA mission in the Central African Republic. Six months of training for 400 youths was planned for 2016. This was to include 200 males to be trained at Chiwoko ZNS Training Centre, Katete, Eastern Province, and 200 females to be trained at

8888-415: The strategic campaign, even if it is politically unfeasible to use precise terminology. Insurgent groups often struggle to maintain coherency and authority due to their decentralized nature, and thus rely heavily upon ethnic, religious, or ideological bounds to avoid splintering. While it may be reasonable to consider transnational insurgency, Anthony Cordesman points out some of the myths in trying to have

8989-498: The strikers surrendering. However a report into the incident found no wrongdoing on the part of the NRR. During the Second World War , though blacks were exempt from conscription as they were "British protected persons" in Northern Rhodesia, thousands of black Northern Rhodesians signed up as volunteers. The Regiment were then incorporated as a part of the 27th (N Rhodesia) Infantry Brigade but never fought as one unit during

9090-399: The tactical level, but its dispatch is a strategic decision that may be made unilaterally, or by an established group of the core such as NATO or ASEAN . Other than brief "Leviathan" takedowns, security building appears to need to be regional, with logistical and other technical support from more developed countries and alliances (e.g., ASEAN, NATO). Noncombat military assistance in closing

9191-669: The tactical, strategic and public policy levels. Before one counters an insurgency, one must understand what one is countering. Typically the most successful counter-insurgencies have been the British in the Malay Emergency and the Filipino government's countering of the Huk Rebellion . In the Philippine–American War , U.S. forces successfully quelled the Filipino insurgents by 1902, albeit with tactics considered unacceptable by

9292-474: The term "subversion" is less commonly used by current U.S. spokesmen, that may be due to the hyperbolic way it was used in the past, in a specifically anticommunist context. U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk did in April 1962, when he declared that urgent action was required before the "enemy's subversive politico-military teams find fertile spawning grounds for their fish eggs." In a Western context, Rosenau cites

9393-473: The title Zambian Defence Force for the armed forces. In October 1997, Captain Steven Lungu seized control of the national radio station and announced a coup d'état . Lungu dismissed the chiefs of the army and police and announced that he was forming a new Government of National Redemption. He gave President Chiluba an ultimatum of three hours to surrender or face death. Loyal ZDF troops responded by storming

9494-457: The two apart. Insurgencies normally field fighting forces orders of magnitude larger than those of terrorist organizations." Insurgencies have a political purpose, and may provide social services and have an overt, even legal, political wing. Their covert wing carries out attacks on military forces with tactics such as raids and ambushes , as well as acts of terror such as attacks that cause deliberate civilian casualties. Mao considered terrorism

9595-525: The war due to the risk of high casualties in the small regiment. In 1953, when Northern Rhodesia joined Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland , the Northern Rhodesia Regiment were amalgamated with the other constituent forces into the King's African Rifles . In 1963 following the breakup of the Federation, the Rhodesian Special Air Service (SAS) which

9696-503: Was Alexander Saimbwende, who surrendered to the government and ended the DSC insurgency. The 1991 general elections brought Frederick Chiluba and his opposition Movement for Multi-Party Democracy to power and ushered in a period of reforms for the ZNDF. The Chiluba government dismantled the ZNDF's unified command structure and allowed the army, ZNS, and air force to revert to independent commands. The system of political patronage introduced to

9797-573: Was a British Colonial Auxiliary Forces regiment raised from the protectorate of Northern Rhodesia . It was formed in 1933 from elements of the Northern Rhodesia Police , which had been formed during Company rule in 1912. Made up of black other ranks and white officers, its motto was "Different in Race, Equal in Fidelity". This motto may have been adopted following native African porters during

9898-464: Was based in Northern Rhodesia, split and the regiment was given over to Southern Rhodesia. The soldiers were offered the chance to take a golden handshake , move to Southern Rhodesia or remain and join the Northern Rhodesia Regiment. In 1964, Northern Rhodesia gained independence as Zambia and the regiment was renamed the Zambia Regiment as a result. The NRR's cap badge was based upon the badge of

9999-640: Was deployed to southern Angola, based in the town of Menongue. Seven Zambian peacekeepers died during the UNAVEM III deployment. UNAMIR (United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda) Three Zambian fatalities. UNAMSIL (United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone) Thirty-four Zambian fatalities. UNMIS (United Nations Mission in the Sudan) Three Zambian fatalities. Four Zambian peacekeepers were wounded on 10 May 2011, shortly before

10100-438: Was due to lack of funds to filter the camps' drinking water. After a particularly serious typhoid outbreak between 1980 and 1981, the government was forced to suspend and later stop the compulsory national service programme. In November 1982, the ZNDF killed Adamson Mushala in an ambush outside Solwezi, although his followers continued to carry out operations under the leadership of Alexander Saimbwende. The DSC continued to pose

10201-1342: Was promoted to Lieutenant-General and appointed as Deputy Commander of the ZNDF. However, the Zambia Air Force and Zambia National Service resented this system because Army officers filled most senior appointments in the ZNDF and the system was ended in 1980. The country then reverted to the command system inherited at independence where Service Chiefs report to the Head of State through a Minister of Defence. The current (2021) Command is: - President and Commander-in-Chief: Hakainde Hichilema (from 24 August 2021) - Defence Minister: Ambrose Lwiji Lufuma (from 27 August 2021) - Permanent Secretary for Defence: Norman Chipakupaku - Commander Zambia Army: Lieut.-General Dennis Sitali Alibuzwi (from 29 August 2021) - Deputy Commander Zambia Army: Major-General Geoffrey Zyeele (from 29 August 2021) - Commander Zambia Air Force: Lieut.-General Collins Barry (from 29 August 2021) - Deputy Commander Zambia Air Force: Major General Oscar Nyoni - Commandant Zambia National Service: Lieut.-General Patrick Kayombo Solochi - Deputy Commandant Zambia National Service: Major-General Reuben Mwewa - Commandant Defence Services and Staff Training College: Brigadier General Benson Musonda. The current Army organisation is: Three infantry brigades - With

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