The Khatso people ( Chinese : 喀卓人 ), commonly known as the " Mongols in Yunnan ", is a Mongolic ethnic group , mainly distributed in Tonghai County in the Yunnan Province of southwestern China. The Khatso people are descendants of the army personnel of the Yuan dynasty .
140-668: Before the mid-13th century, Yunnan was held by many war-like independent states such as the Nanchao and Dali Kingdoms . The Mongol Empire under Möngke Khan conquered the Dali Kingdom in 1253. Until 1273, a Chinggisid prince received viceroyalty over the area. Kublai Khan appointed the first governor, Turkmen Sayid Ajall, in Yunnan in 1273. Yunnan and Hunan were the main bases for Mongol military operations in Indo-China . The Yuan gave
280-629: A Japanese puppet state and was re-colonised by France , until it won autonomy in 1949. It gained independence in 1953 as the Kingdom of Laos , with a constitutional monarchy under Sisavang Vong . A civil war began in 1959, which saw the communist Pathet Lao , supported by North Vietnam and the Soviet Union , fight against the Royal Lao Armed Forces , supported by the United States . After
420-618: A constitutional monarchy . The First Indochina War took place across French Indochina and eventually led to French defeat and the signing of a peace accord for Laos at the Geneva Conference of 1954 . In 1960, amidst a series of rebellions in the Kingdom of Laos , fighting broke out between the Royal Lao Army (RLA) and the communist North Vietnamese and Soviet Union -backed Pathet Lao guerillas. A second Provisional Government of National Unity formed by Prince Souvanna Phouma in 1962
560-554: A re-education camp . Between 20,000 and 62,000 Laotians died during the civil war. On 2 December 1975, after taking control of the country, the Pathet Lao government under Kaysone Phomvihane renamed the country as the Lao People's Democratic Republic and signed agreements giving Vietnam the right to station armed forces and to appoint advisers to assist in overseeing the country. The ties between Laos and Vietnam were formalised via
700-582: A "land-linked" nation, as evidenced by the construction of 4 railways connecting Laos and neighbours. Laos has been referred to as one of Southeast Asia and Pacific's fastest growing economies by the World Bank with annual GDP growth averaging 7.4% since 2009, while being classified as a least developed country by the United Nations . Laos is a member of the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement ,
840-488: A British observer as having been "transformed into slave-hunting raids on a large scale". In the 19th century, Luang Prabang was ransacked by the Chinese Black Flag Army . France rescued King Oun Kham and added Luang Phrabang to the protectorate of French Indochina . The Kingdom of Champasak and the territory of Vientiane were added to the protectorate. King Sisavangvong of Luang Phrabang became ruler of
980-623: A Yi-dominated polity. In Weishan Yi and Hui Autonomous County , the Yi people claim direct descent from Xinuluo, the founder of Mengshe (Nanzhao). ... the ethnic identity of the Nanzhao rulers is still a matter for lively discussion (see Qi 1987), and the Yunnan origin of the Yi is disputed by those who think they came from the Northwest. With regard to the latter issue, a recent article by Chen Tianjun (1985) demonstrates even more clearly than Ma Changshou's book
1120-565: A battle that Pyusawhti may have participated in. Almost nothing is known about pre-Buddhist religion in Nanzhao. According to Yuan dynasty sources, the Bai people practiced an indigenous religion called Benzhuism that worshiped local lords and deities. The Benzhu lords are spirits of people that died under special circumstances and are not hierarchically organized. Archaeological findings in Yunnan suggest that animal and human sacrifices were offered to
1260-548: A bloody end when the chief minister ( buxie ), Zheng Maisi, murdered the royal family and usurped the throne, renaming it to Dachanghe (大長和, 902–928). In 928, a White Mywa noble, Yang Ganzhen (Jianchuan Jiedushi), aided the chief minister, Zhao Shanzheng, in overthrowing the Zheng family and establishing Datianxing (大天興, 928–929). The new regime lasted only a year before Zhao was killed by Yang, who created Dayining (大義寧, 929–937). Finally Duan Siping seized power in 937 and established
1400-500: A century. In 1520, Photisarath came to the throne and moved the capital from Luang Prabang to Vientiane to avoid a Burmese invasion. Setthathirath became king in 1548, after his father was killed, and ordered the construction of That Luang . Settathirath disappeared in the mountains on his way back from a military expedition into Cambodia , and Lan Xang fell into more than 70 years of "instability", involving Burmese invasion and civil war. In 1637, when Sourigna Vongsa ascended
1540-667: A comprehensive report that includes summaries of refugee claims, which was submitted to the UN in May 2006. The European Union , UNHCHR, and international groups have since spoken out about the forced repatriation. The Thai foreign ministry has said that it will halt deportation of Hmong refugees held in Detention Centres in Nong Khai , while talks are underway to resettle them in Australia, Canada,
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#17328555115331680-466: A contingent of Tibetan and Abbasid slave soldiers. More than 10,000 Tibetan/Arabs soldiers were killed and some 6,000 captured. Nanzhao captured seven Tibetan cities and five military garrisons while more than a hundred fortifications were destroyed. This defeat shifted the balance of power in favor of the Tang and Nanzhao. During the reign of Quanlongcheng (r.809-816), the ruler behaved without constraint, and
1820-448: A counteroffensive. Tangled fighting broke out in the morning and lasted into dusk. Nanzhao’s action also puzzled Zhixiang. He questioned Shilong’s envoy: “The Son of Heaven has decreed that Nanzhao make peace [with China], but your soldiers have just raided Chengdu. Why?” He then requested withdrawal of the Nanzhao soldiers as the prerequisite for his visit to Shilong. Zhixiang eventually canceled his visit. His subordinates convinced him that
1960-573: A general who had made his reputation fighting the Türks and the Tanguts in the north. In September 865, Gao's 5,000 troops surprised a Nanzhao army of 50,000 while they were collecting rice from the villages and routed them. Gao captured large quantities of rice, which he used to feed his army. A jealous governor, Li Weizhou, accused Gao of stalling to meet the enemy, and reported him to the throne. The court sent another general named Wang Yanqian to replace Gao. In
2100-551: A large Tibetan attack on the Tang dynasty. However the burden of having to support every single Tibetan military campaign against the Tang soon weighed on him. In 794, he severed ties with Tibet and switched sides to the Tang. In 795, Yimouxun attacked a Tibetan stronghold in Kunming . The Tibetans retaliated in 799 but were repelled by a joint Tang-Nanzhao force. In 801 Nanzhao and Tang in Battle of Dulu , Chinese and Nanzhao's forces defeated
2240-541: A line of Lao kings that traced back to Khoun Boulom. He made Theravada Buddhism the state religion. His ministers, unable to tolerate his ruthlessness, forced him into exile to what is later the Thai province of Nan in 1373, where he died. Fa Ngum's eldest son, Oun Heuan, ascended to the throne under the name Samsenethai and reigned for 43 years. Lan Xang became a trade centre during Samsenthai's reign, and after his death in 1421 it collapsed into warring factions for nearly
2380-447: A native chieftain named Zhu Daogu (朱道古) was attacked by a local commander, who rammed their vessels and sank 30 boats, drowning them. In total, the invasion destroyed Chinese armies in Annan numbering over 150,000. Although initially welcomed by the locals in ousting Tang control, Nanzhao turned on them, ravaging the local population and countryside. Both Chinese and Vietnamese sources note that
2520-401: A novel weapon waiting for them. They filled jars with human waste and threw them at the attackers. The foul smell made the cage an impossible place to hide and work. Jars filled with molten iron then fell on the cage, turning it into a giant furnace. The invaders, however, refused to give up. They escalated their operations by night attacks. In response, the Tang soldiers lit up the city wall with
2660-511: A pig or sheep at the doorway to maintain relationship with the deceased spirit. Buddhism practiced in Nanzhao and the Dali Kingdom was known as Azhali (Acharya), founded around 821-824 by a monk from India called Li Xian Maishun. More monks from India arrived in 825 and 828 and built a temple in Heqing . In 839, an acharya named Candragupta entered Nanzhao. Quanfengyou appointed him as a state mentor and married his sister Yueying to Candragupta. It
2800-455: A rainy season from May to October, followed by a dry season from November to April. Local tradition holds that there are 3 seasons (rainy, cool and hot) as the latter 2 months of the climatologically defined dry season are hotter than the earlier 4 months. Laos is divided into 17 provinces ( khoueng ) and one prefecture ( kampheng nakhon ), which includes the capital city Vientiane ( Nakhon Louang Viangchan ). A province, Xaisomboun province ,
2940-471: A thousand torches, thus effectively foiling the enemy’s plan. Fierce battles in Chengdu had now lasted over a month. Zhixiang, the Tang envoy, believed that it was time to send a messenger to contact Shilong and let him know that peace was in the interest of both parties. He instructed Lu Dan to stop new initiatives against the enemy so that a peace talk with Nanzhao could proceed. Shilong responded positively to
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#17328555115333080-602: A treaty signed in 1977, which has since provided direction for Lao foreign policy, and provides the basis for Vietnamese involvement at levels of Lao political and economic life. Laos was requested in 1979 by Vietnam to end relations with the People's Republic of China , leading to isolation in trade by China , the United States , and other countries. In 1979, there were 50,000 PAVN troops stationed in Laos and as many as 6,000 civilian Vietnamese officials including 1,000 directly attached to
3220-547: A unified Laos, and Vientiane once again became the capital. Laos produced tin , rubber, and coffee, and never accounted for more than 1% of French Indochina's exports. By 1940, around 600 French citizens lived in Laos. Under French rule, the Vietnamese were encouraged to migrate to Laos, which was seen by the French colonists as a rational solution to a labour shortage within the confines of an Indochina-wide colonial space. By 1943,
3360-508: Is 1 of 4 in the opium poppy growing region known as the " Golden Triangle ". According to the October 2007 UNODC fact book Opium Poppy Cultivation in South East Asia , the poppy cultivation area was 15 square kilometres (5.8 sq mi), down from 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi) in 2006. The climate is mostly tropical savanna and influenced by the monsoon pattern. There is
3500-793: Is a multinational state and is committed to equality between ethnic groups. The constitution contains provisions for gender equality , freedom of religion , freedom of speech , and freedom of press and assembly. On 25 September 2009, Laos ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , 9 years after signing the treaty. The stated policy objectives of the Lao government and international donors remain focused upon achieving sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction. An organisation raised concerns in relation to freedom of expression, prison conditions, restrictions on freedom of religions, protection of refugees and asylum-seekers, and
3640-496: Is an industry, and the government hopes to attract foreign investment to develop the deposits of coal , gold , bauxite , tin , copper , and other metals. The mining industry of Laos has received attention with foreign direct investments. More than 540 mineral deposits of gold, copper, zinc , lead and other minerals have been identified, explored and mined. The country's water resources and mountainous terrain enable it to produce and export quantities of hydroelectric energy. Of
3780-581: Is indefinite ). A local official named Liang Ke was related to them, and defected as a result. On 28 January, a Nanzhao Buddhist monk , possibly from the Indian continent , was wounded by an arrow while strutting to and fro naked outside the southern walls. On 14 February, Cai Xi shot down 200 Puzi and over 30 horses using a mounted crossbow from the walls. By 28 February, most of Cai Xi's followers had perished, and he himself had been wounded several times by arrows and stones. The Nanzhao commander, Yang Sijin, penetrated
3920-622: Is not clear. Both the Yi people and Bai people in modern Yunnan claim descent from Nanzhao's rulers. In the histories of the Period of Division (311–589), as well as the Cuan kingdoms of the Sui-Tang period (581–907), are thought to have been ruled by the ancestors of today’s Yi, and at least one faction in an ongoing debate considers the Nanzhao kingdom, which ruled Yunnan and surrounding areas after 740, to have been
4060-538: Is south of 14°), and longitudes 100° and 108°E . Its forested landscape consists mostly of mountains, the highest of which is Phou Bia at 2,818 metres (9,245 ft), with some plains and plateaus. The Mekong River forms a part of the western boundary with Thailand, where the mountains of the Annamite Range form most of the eastern border with Vietnam and the Luang Prabang Range the northwestern border with
4200-668: The ASEAN , East Asia Summit , La Francophonie , and the World Trade Organization . The word Laos was coined by the French , who united the 3 Lao kingdoms in French Indochina in 1893. The name of the country is spelled the same as the plural of the most common ethnic group, the Lao people . In English, the "s" in the name of the country is pronounced, and not silent. A human skull
4340-703: The Bamar people (Burmese people), who originally lived in present-day Qinghai and Gansu . The Bamar would form the Pagan Kingdom in medieval Myanmar . In 849, a fortified settlement was established along the Irrawaddy River , possibly to help Nanzhao pacify the area. It was situated at the confluence of the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin tributary to the west of an irrigated rice plain. According to Burmese chronicles, after
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4480-490: The Chinese folk religion , and also worshiped gods of nature: fire, hills, trees, rocks, water, earth, sky, wind and forests. Bimoists also worship dragons, believed to be protectors from bad spirits that cause illness, poor harvests and other misfortunes. Bimoists believe in multiple souls. At death, one soul remains to watch the grave while the other is eventually reincarnated into some living form. After someone dies they sacrifice
4620-540: The Dali Kingdom . Nanzhao had an elite vanguard unit called the Luojuzi, which means tiger sons, that served as full-time soldiers. For every hundred soldiers, the strongest one was chosen for service in the Luojuzi. They were outfitted with red helmets, leather armour, and bronze shields, but went barefoot. Only wounds to the front were allowed and if they suffered any wounds to their back, they were executed. Their commander
4760-656: The Ho Chi Minh Trail to attack US forces in South Vietnam . Between 1964 and 1973, the US dropped 2 million tons of bombs on Laos, nearly equal to the 2.1 million tons of bombs the US dropped on Europe and Asia during all of World War II, making Laos the most heavily bombed country in history relative to the size of its population; The New York Times notes this was "nearly a ton for every person in Laos". Some 80 million bombs failed to explode and remain scattered throughout
4900-468: The Katso language , a Loloish language , to communicate with each other, and use Southwestern Mandarin with outsiders. Nanchao Nanzhao ( Chinese : 南詔 , also spelled Nanchao , lit. ' Southern Zhao ' , Yi language : ꂷꏂꌅ, Mashynzy ) was a dynastic kingdom that flourished in what is now southwestern China and northern Southeast Asia during the 8th and 9th centuries, during
5040-458: The Lao People's Democratic Republic ( LPDR ), is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia . It is bordered by Myanmar and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the southeast, and Thailand to the west and southwest. Its capital and most populous city is Vientiane . Laos traces its historic and cultural identity to Lan Xang , a kingdom which existed from
5180-691: The Obama administration in the US declared Laos was no longer a Marxist–Leninist state and lifted bans on Laotian companies receiving financing from the US Export-Import Bank . In 2016, China was the biggest foreign investor in the Laotian economy, having invested US$ 5.395 billion since 1989, according to the Laos Ministry of Planning and Investment's 1989–2014 report. Thailand (invested US$ 4.489 billion) and Vietnam (invested US$ 3.108 billion) are
5320-541: The Sui dynasty in 593 and were destroyed by a retaliatory expedition in 602. The Cuan split into two groups known as the Black and White Mywa. The White Mywa (Baiman) tribes, who are considered the predecessors of the Bai people, settled on the fertile land of western Yunnan around the alpine fault lake Erhai . The Black Mywa (Wuman), considered to be predecessors of the Yi people , settled in
5460-568: The Tang dynasty 's protection. The Tang emperor appointed Xinuluo as prefect of Weizhou, sent him an embroidered official robe, and sent troops to defeat rebellious tribes in 672, thus enhancing Xinuluou's position. Xinuluo was succeeded by his son, Luoshengyan, who travelled to Chang'an to make tribute to the Tang. In 704, the Tibetan Empire made the White Mywa tribes into tributaries, whilst subjugating
5600-611: The Thai highlands . There are 2 plateaus, the Xiangkhoang in the north and the Bolaven Plateau at the southern end. Laos can be considered to consist of 3 geographical areas: north, central, and south. Laos had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.59/10, ranking it 98th globally out of 172 countries. In 1993, the Laos government set aside 21% of the nation's land area for habitat conservation preservation. The country
5740-648: The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), with the support of the US government , instituted the Comprehensive Plan of Action , a programme to stem the tide of Indochinese refugees from Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia. Under the plan, refugee status was evaluated through a screening process. Recognised asylum seekers were given resettlement opportunities, while the remaining refugees were to be repatriated under guarantee of safety. After talks with
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5880-592: The Vietnam War ended in 1975, the Lao People's Revolutionary Party established a one-party socialist republic espousing Marxism-Leninism , ending the civil war and monarchy, and beginning a period of alignment with the Soviet Union until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Laos's strategies for development are based on generating electricity from rivers and selling the power to its neighbours, namely Thailand, China and Vietnam, and its initiative to become
6020-798: The Yi people . The religion is named after the Shaman - priests known as bimo , which means 'master of scriptures', who officiate at births, funerals, weddings and holidays. One can become bimo by patrilinial descent after a time of apprenticeship or formally acknowledging an old bimo as the teacher. A lesser priest known as suni is elected, but bimo are more revered and can read Yi scripts while suni cannot. Both can perform rituals, but only bimo can perform rituals linked to death. For most cases, suni only perform some exorcism to cure diseases. Generally, suni can only be from humble civil birth while bimo can be of both aristocratic and humble families. The Yi worshiped and deified their ancestors similar to
6160-526: The Yuan dynasty . A Bai script using Chinese characters was mentioned during the Ming dynasty . Scriptures dated to the Nanzhao period used the Bai language. According to Stevan Harrell, while the ethnic identity of Nanzhao's ruling elite is still disputed, the subsequent Yang and Duan dynasties were both definitely Bai. The Nanzhao king Yimouxun (r. 779-808) conducted forced resettlement of several ethnicities. Before
6300-425: The "White Man ") and the Yi people (then known as the "Black Man"), but that the elite spoke a variant of Nuosu (also called Yi ), a Northern Loloish language . Scriptures unearthed from Nanzhao were written in the Bai language . The Cuanman people came to power in Yunnan during Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign in 225. By the fourth century they had gained control of the region, but they rebelled against
6440-426: The 13th century to the 18th century. Because of its geographical location, the kingdom became a hub for overland trade. After a period of internal conflict, Lan Xang broke into the Kingdom of Luang Phrabang , the Kingdom of Vientiane and the Kingdom of Champasak . In 1893, the 3 kingdoms were united under a French protectorate . Laos was occupied by Japan during World War II and regained independence in 1945 as
6580-413: The 1950s show that it was written in the Bai language but Nanzhao does not seem to have ever attempted to standardize or popularize the script. Leading families around the Nanzhao capital adopted Chinese surnames such as Yang, Li, Zhao, Dong, and claimed Han Chinese ancestry; however, the rulers instead presented themselves as Ailao descendants from Yongchang . The ethnicity of Nanzhao's ruling elite
6720-464: The 36th hungriest nation in the world out of the list of the 52 nations with the worst hunger situation(s). In 2019, the UN Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights conducted an official visit to Laos and found that the country's top-down approach to economic growth and poverty alleviation "is all too often counterproductive, leading to impoverishment and jeopardising the rights of
6860-436: The 4th millennium BC. Burial jars and other kinds of sepulchers suggest a society in which bronze objects appeared around 1500 BC, and iron tools were known from 700 BC. The proto-historic period is characterised by contact with Chinese and Indian civilisations. According to linguistic and other historical evidence, Tai-speaking tribes migrated southwestward to the territories of Laos and Thailand from Guangxi sometime between
7000-501: The 8th and 10th centuries. Laos traces its history to the kingdom of Lan Xang ('million elephants'), which was founded in the 13th century by a Lao prince, Fa Ngum , whose father had his family exiled from the Khmer Empire . Fa Ngum, with 10,000 Khmer troops, conquered some Lao principalities in the Mekong river basin, culminating in the capture of Vientiane . Ngum was descended from
7140-535: The Annanese locals fled to the mountains to avoid destruction. A government-in-exile for the protectorate was established in Haimen (near modern-day Hạ Long ). Ten thousand soldiers from Shandong and all other armies of the Tang empire were called and concentrating at Halong Bay for reconquering Annan. A supply fleet of 1,000 ships from Fujian was organized. The Tang launched a counterattack in 864 under Gao Pian ,
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#17328555115337280-503: The Benzhu lords around a metal pillar with the aid of bronze drums in return for wealth and health. The use of iron pillars for rituals seems to have been retained into the Dali Kingdom . The Nanzhao tuzhuan shows offerings to heaven occurring around one. The Bai people have female shamans and share a worship of white stones similar to the Qiang people . Bimoism is the ethnic religion of
7420-463: The Black Mywa. In 713, Luoshengyan was succeeded by his son, Shengluopi, who was also on good terms with the Tang. He was succeeded by his son, Piluoge, in 733. Piluoge began expanding his realm in the early 730s. He first annexed the neighboring zhao of Mengsui, whose ruler, Zhaoyuan, was blind. Piluoge supported Zhaoyuan's son, Yuanluo, in his accession, and in turn weakened Mengsui. After Zhaoyuan
7560-626: The French Union, while educational, health and technical ties with the former colonial power persisted. The 1957 document was abrogated in December 1975, when a communist people's republic was proclaimed. A constitution was adopted in 1991 and enshrined a "leading role" for the LPRP. The foreign relations of Laos after the takeover by the Pathet Lao in December 1975 were characterised by a hostile posture toward
7700-418: The Kunmi River 昆彌河 (today’s Miju River 彌苴河 in Dengchuan) by Nanzhao King Yimouxun 異牟尋 (reigned 779–808). Beisheng originally formed part of the territory occupied by an ethnic group known to Chinese dynasties as the Shi barbarians (Shiman 施蠻). The Nanzhao King, Yimouxun 異牟尋 (reigned 779–808), opened the area during the Zhenyuan period (785 to 804) of the Tang and named it Beifang Dan 北方賧. Yimouxun forcibly moved
7840-406: The Nanzhao invasions, a semimythical warrior-king named Pyusawhti arose. He was a giant and an excellent archer who came to Pagan and defeated a great bird, a great boar, a great tiger, and a flying squirrel. Legendary accounts say he was born from the union of a prince of the sun and a dragon egg or that he was a scion of the Shakya lineage of Tagaung . It is speculated that he was connected to
7980-429: The Netherlands and the United States. Plans to resettle additional Hmong refugees in the United States were stalled by provisions of President George W. Bush 's Patriot Act and Real ID Act , under which Hmong veterans of the Secret War, who fought on the side of the United States, are classified as terrorists because of their historical involvement in armed conflict. In The Economist 's Democracy Index 2016 Laos
8120-402: The Siamese in 1826 . The rebellion failed, and Vientiane was ransacked. Anouvong was taken to Bangkok as a prisoner, where he died. In a time period where the acquisition of humans was a priority over the ownership of land, the warfare of pre-modern Southeast Asia revolved around the seizing of people and resources from its enemies. A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by
8260-428: The Tang court and beaten to death. The territory of Yuexi was bestowed to Piluoge. Bochong's son, Yuzeng, fled and resisted Nanzhao's expansion for some time before he was defeated by Piluoge's son, Geluofeng, and drowned in the Changjiang . Piluoge's step-grandson grew jealous of the preeminence of his step-father, Geluofeng, and sought to create his own zhao by allying with the Tibetan Empire. His plans leaked out and he
8400-421: The Tang dynasty and it is suspected that they might be the same name using different transcriptions; Bai and Bo were pronounced Baek and Bwok in the Tang period. The name Bo was first cited in the Lüshi Chunqiu (c. 241 and 238 BC) and appeared again in the Records of the Grand Historian (begun in 104 BC). The earliest references to "Bai people", or the "Bo", in connection to the people of Yunnan are from
8540-436: The Tang for a marriage alliance, which was agreed to in 880. The marriage alliance never came to fruition owing to the Huang Chao rebellion. By the end of 880 the rebels had taken Luoyang and seized the Tong Pass . Longshun did not give up on the marriage however. In 883 he sent a delegation to Chengdu to fetch the Princess of Anhua. They brought with them one hundred rugs and carpets as betrothal gifts. The Nanzhao delegation
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#17328555115338680-418: The Tang proposal and sent an envoy to fetch Zhixiang to Nanzhao for further negotiation. Unfortunately, a piece of misinformation derailed Zhixiang’s plan. The Tang soldiers believed that reinforcement had arrived at the suburbs of Chengdu to rescue them. They opened the city gate and dashed out to greet the relief troops. This sudden event puzzled the Nanzhao generals, who mistook it for a Tang attack and ordered
8820-586: The Tang reinforcement fast approaching Chengdu, Shilong knew that time was working against him. His soldiers intensified attacks on the city. Shilong was so desperate to complete the campaign that he risked his life and personally supervised operations on the front line. But it was too late. On the eighteenth day, the Tang rescue forces converged on Chengdu and engaged their enemy. That night, Shilong decided to abort his campaign. Nanzhao invaded again in 874 and reached within 70 km of Chengdu, seizing Qiongzhou , however they ultimately retreated, being unable to take
8960-427: The Tang. When Li Hu returned, he learned the Vietnamese rebels and Nanzhao had taken control over Annan out of his hand. In December 860, Songping fell to the rebels and Hu fled to Yongzhou . In summer 861, Li Hu retook Songping but Nanzhao forces moved around and seized Yongzhou. Hu was banished to Hainan island and was replaced by Wang Kuan. Shilong attacked Annan again in 863, occupying it for three years. With
9100-433: The Tibetans against the Tang that would last until 794. In the same year, Nanzhao gained control of the salt marshes of Yanyuan County , which it used to regulate the salt to its people, a practice that would continue during the reign of the Dali kingdom . Geluofeng accepted a Tibetan title and acted as part of the Tibetan Empire . His successor, Yimouxun, continued the pro-Tibetan policy. In 779, Yimouxun participated in
9240-575: The UNHCR and the Thai government, Laos agreed to repatriate the 60,000 Lao refugees living in Thailand, including several thousand Hmong people. Some of the Lao refugees were willing to return voluntarily. Pressure to resettle the refugees grew as the Thai government worked to close its remaining refugee camps. While some Hmong people returned to Laos voluntarily, with development assistance from UNHCR, allegations of forced repatriation surfaced. Of those Hmong who did return to Laos, some escaped back to Thailand, describing discrimination and brutal treatment at
9380-423: The United States were normalised in November 2004 through Congress approved legislation. Laos was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in July 1997 and acceded to the World Trade Organization in 2016. In 2005, it attended the inaugural East Asia Summit . Some Hmong groups fought as CIA -backed units on the royalist side in the Laotian Civil War . After the Pathet Lao took over
9520-409: The United States initiated a bombing campaign against the PAVN positions, supported regular and irregular anti-communist forces in Laos, and supported incursions into Laos by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . Aerial bombardments against the PAVN/ Pathet Lao forces were carried out by the United States to prevent the collapse of the Kingdom of Laos central government, and to deny the use of
9660-482: The United States, fled the camp to live elsewhere within Thailand where a sizeable Hmong population has been present since the 19th century. In 2004 and 2005, thousands of Hmong fled from the jungles of Laos to a temporary refugee camp in the Thai province of Phetchabun . Lending further support to earlier claims that the government of Laos was persecuting the Hmong, filmmaker Rebecca Sommer documented first-hand accounts in her documentary, Hunted Like Animals , and in
9800-519: The Vientiane Plain, Savannakhet region , and the Bolaven Plateau , which was derailed by the Japanese invasion of Indochina. Otherwise, according to Martin Stuart-Fox , the Lao might well have lost control over their own country. During World War II in Laos , Vichy France , Thailand , Imperial Japan and Free France occupied Laos. On 9 March 1945, a nationalist group declared Laos once more independent, with Luang Prabang as its capital, and on 7 April 1945 2 battalions of Japanese troops occupied
9940-419: The Vietnamese population stood at nearly 40,000, forming the majority in some cities of Laos and having the right to elect its own leaders. As a result, 53% of the population of Vientiane, 85% of Thakhek , and 62% of Pakse were Vietnamese, with the exception of Luang Prabang where the population was predominantly Lao. As late as 1945, the French drew up a plan to move a number of Vietnamese to 3 areas, i.e.,
10080-636: The Vue Mai incident, debate over the Hmong's planned repatriation to Laos intensified, including in the United States, where it drew opposition from American conservatives and some human rights advocates. In a 23 October 1995 National Review article, Michael Johns labelled the Hmong's repatriation a Clinton administration "betrayal", describing the Hmong as a people "who have spilled their blood in defence of American geopolitical interests". In their opposition of
10220-510: The Wat Tham Krabok Hmong refused to leave and the Lao government refused to accept them, claiming they were involved in the illegal drug trade and were of non-Lao origin. Following threats of forcible removal by the Thai government, the United States, in a victory for the Hmong, agreed to accept 15,000 of the refugees in 2003. Several thousand Hmong people, fearing forced repatriation to Laos if they were not accepted for resettlement in
10360-629: The West, with the government of the Lao PDR aligning itself with the Soviet Bloc , maintaining ties with the Soviet Union and depending on the Soviets for most of its foreign assistance. Laos's emergence from international isolation has been marked through expanded relations with other countries including Russia , China , Thailand , Australia , Germany , Italy , Japan and Switzerland . Trade relations with
10500-660: The White Barbarians (Baiman 白蠻) of the Mi River 瀰河 together with other peoples, such as the Luoluo 羅落 and Mosuo 麽些, to populate the region and then renamed it Chengji Dan 成偈賧 (later Shanju prefecture 善巨郡)... The Duan family 段氏 of the Dali kingdom changed the name to Chengji Zhen 成紀鎮 in 1048 (Qingli 8) and appointed Gao Dahui 高大惠 to govern... Nanzhao's invasions of the Pyu city-states brought with them
10640-417: The age 15 to join the army. Anti-Tang locals allied with highland people, who appealed to Nanzhao for help, and as a result invaded the area in 860, briefly taking Songping before being driven out by a Tang army the next year. Prior to Li Hu's arrival, Nanzhao had already seized Bozhou . When Li Hu led an army to retake Bozhou, the Đỗ family gathered 30,000 men, including contingents from Nanzhao to attack
10780-536: The aid of locals, Nanzhao invaded with an army of 50,000 and besieged Annan's capital Songping in mid-January. On 20 January, the defenders led by Cai Xi killed a hundred of the besiegers. Five days later, Cai Xi captured, tortured, and killed a group of besiegers known as the Púzǐ or Wangjuzi (according to some historians, the Puzi were ancestors of the Wa people . Description about them
10920-634: The arable land area used for growing rice. Approximately 77% of Lao farm households are self-sufficient in rice. Laos may have the greatest number of rice varieties in the Greater Mekong Subregion. The Lao government has been working with the International Rice Research Institute of the Philippines to collect seed samples of each of the thousands of rice varieties found in Laos. Laos imports petroleum and gas. Metallurgy
11060-467: The capital. Your ancestor once served the Tibetans as a slave. The Tibetans should be your foes. Instead you have turned yourself into a Tibetan subject. How could you not even differentiate kindness from enmity? As for the hall of the former Lord of Shu, it is a treasure from the previous dynasty, not a place suitable for occupancy by you remote barbarians. [Your aggression] has angered the deities as well as
11200-601: The city. The Japanese attempted to force Sisavang Vong (the king of Luang Phrabang) to declare Laotian independence, and on 8 April he instead declared an end to Laos's status as a French protectorate. The king then secretly sent Prince Kindavong to represent Laos to the Allied forces and Prince Sisavang as representative to the Japanese. When Japan surrendered, some Lao nationalists (including Prince Phetsarath ) declared Laotian independence, and by 1946, French troops had reoccupied
11340-502: The common people. Your days are numbered! In 875, Gao Pian was appointed by the Tang to lead defenses against Nanzhao. He ordered all the refugees in Chengdu to return home. Gao led a force of 5,000 and chased the remaining Nanzhao troops to the Dadu River where he defeated them in a decisive battle, captured their armored horses, and executed 50 tribal leaders. He proposed to the court an invasion of Nanzhao with 60,000 troops. His proposal
11480-745: The country and conferred autonomy on Laos. During the First Indochina War , the Indochinese Communist Party formed the Pathet Lao independence organisation. The Pathet Lao began a war against the French colonial forces with the aid of the Vietnamese independence organisation, the Viet Minh . In 1950, the French were forced to give Laos semi-autonomy as an "associated state" within the French Union . France remained in de facto control until 22 October 1953, when Laos gained full independence as
11620-541: The country in 1975, the conflict continued in isolated pockets. In 1977, a communist newspaper promised the party would hunt down the "American collaborators" and their families "to the last root". As many as 200,000 Hmong went into exile in Thailand , with some ending up in the US . Other Hmong fighters hid out in mountains in Xiangkhouang Province for years, with a remnant emerging from the jungle in 2003. In 1989,
11760-658: The country. Unexploded ordnance (UXO), including cluster munitions and mines, kill or maim approximately 50 Laotians every year. Due to the impact of cluster bombs during this war, Laos was an advocate of the Convention on Cluster Munitions to ban the weapons and was host to the First Meeting of States Parties to the convention in November 2010. In 1975, the Pathet Lao overthrew the royalist government, forcing King Savang Vatthana to abdicate on 2 December 1975. He later died in
11900-472: The deadline for the closure of Thai refugee camps approached, and under mounting political pressure, the United States agreed to resettle Hmong refugees who passed a screening process. Around 5,000 Hmong people who were not resettled at the time of the camp closures sought asylum at Wat Tham Krabok , a Buddhist monastery in central Thailand where more than 10,000 Hmong refugees had already been living. The Thai government attempted to repatriate these refugees, and
12040-440: The death penalty. Laos has been cited as an origin country for human trafficking. A number of citizens, primarily women and girls from ethnic groups and foreigners, have been victims of sex trafficking in Laos . The Lao economy depends on investment and trade with its neighbours, Thailand, Vietnam, and, especially in the north, China. Pakxe has experienced growth based on cross-border trade with Thailand and Vietnam. In 2009,
12180-529: The early Ming, northwest Yunnan was mainly populated by non-Han ethnic peoples. Ethnic peoples recorded as residing in mountainous or semimountainous parts of Beisheng sub-prefecture included the Boren 僰人, Mosuo man 摩些蠻, Lisuo 栗些, Xifan 西番, Baiman 白蠻, Luoluo 羅羅 and Echang 峨昌. In addition, reportedly, seven ethnic groups, i.e., the Baiman, Luoluo, Mosuo, Dongmen 冬門, Xunding 尋丁 and Echang, were forcibly moved here from
12320-450: The eleventh day of the second month, Yan’s troops arrived at Xindu (present-day Xindu County), which was some 22 kilometers north of the besieged Chengdu. Shilong hurriedly diverted some of his forces to intercept the Tang troops, but he suffered a crushing defeat. Some two thousand Nanzhao soldiers were killed. Two days later, another Tang force arrived to inflict even greater casualties on Shilong. Five thousand soldiers were exterminated, and
12460-401: The expansion of Nanzhao territory. Nanzhao expanded into Myanmar , conquering the Pyu city-states in the 820s and destroying the city of Halin in 832. They returned to Halin in 835 and carried off many prisoners. In 829, Wang Cuodian attacked Chengdu , but withdrew the following year. Wang Cuodian's invasion was not to take Sichuan but to push its territorial boundaries north and take
12600-456: The exports of timber, with an express aim to help control the country's high deforestation rates and boost the country's domestic wood production industry. On 3 December 2021, the 422-kilometre Boten-Vientiane railway , a flagship of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), was opened. Laos is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia , and it lies mostly between latitudes 14° and 23°N (an area
12740-572: The fort of Shihe, which, it will be recalled, was a little East of the present Xiaguan, at the Southern entrance to the Dali Plain. Shilang forces also occupied the fort of Shiqiao at the Southern end of the Tiancang Shan. While Yan Zhenghui and Geluofeng took Shihe and captured Shigepi, Piluoge himself struck at Shiqiao and prevented reinforcements from Shilang from interfering with what appear to have been
12880-413: The frontal attacks failed, the Nanzhao troops changed their tactics. They dismantled the bamboo fences of nearby residential houses, wet them with water, and shaped them into a huge cage that could ward off stones, arrows, and fire. They then put this “bamboo tank” on logs and rolled it near the foot of the city wall. Hiding themselves in the cage, they started digging a tunnel. But the Tang soldiers also had
13020-433: The frontiers] have exhausted the entire country. As the lion’s share of taxes did not reach the capital [but were diverted to the frontier troops], the [imperial] treasury and the palace storehouses were emptied. Soldiers died of tropical diseases. Poverty turned commoners into robbers and thieves. Land in central China lay waste. This is all due to the war with Nanzhao. Shilong's successor, Longshun, entered negotiations with
13160-612: The hands of Lao authorities. In 1993, Vue Mai, a former Hmong soldier and leader of the largest Hmong refugee camp in Thailand, who had been recruited by the US ;Embassy in Bangkok to return to Laos as proof of the repatriation programme's success, disappeared in Vientiane . According to the US Committee for Refugees, he was arrested by Lao security forces and was never seen again. Following
13300-530: The heart of the Erhai valley, the site was ideal: it could be easily defended against attack and it was in the midst of rich farmland. Under the reign of Piluoge, the White Mywa were removed from eastern Yunnan and resettled in the west. The Black and White Mywa were separated to create a more solidified caste system of ministers and warriors. During the Kaiyuan reign period (713–741), the ruler of Nanzhao, desired to annex
13440-450: The help of the Dongman tribe. The Dongman used to be an ally of the Tang during their wars against the Tibetan Empire in the 790s. Their service was rewarded with mistreatment by Yu Shizhen, the governor of Xizhou , who kidnapped Dongman tribesmen and sold them to other tribes. When the Nanzhao attacked Xizhou, the Dongman tribe opened the gates and welcomed them in. The battle for Chengdu
13580-570: The injustice done to my husband to Heaven (Shangdi 上帝).” Horrified by this, the ruler of Nanzhao repented, and extolled her city as the “source of virtue”. Piluoge died in 748, and was succeeded by his son Geluofeng (閣羅鳳). When the Chinese prefect of Yunnan attempted to rob Nanzhao envoys in 750, Geluofeng attacked, killing the prefect and seizing nearby Tang territory. In retaliation, the Tang governor of Jiannan (modern Sichuan ), Xianyu Zhongtong, attacked Nanzhao with an army of 80,000 soldiers in 751. He
13720-490: The inner city. Cai Xi tried to escape by boat, but it capsized midstream, drowning him. The 400 remaining defenders wanted to flee as well, but could not find any boats, so they chose to make a last stand at the eastern gate. Ambushing a group of Nanzhao cavalry, they killed over 2,000 Nanzhao troops and 300 horses before Yang sent reinforcements from the inner city. After taking Songping, Nanzhao laid siege to Junzhou (modern Haiphong ). A Nanzhao and rebel fleet of 4,000 men led by
13860-518: The iron bracelet that [she] asked her husband wear on his arm. The ruler of Nanzhao marvelled at her intelligence and strongly desired to take her as his wife. Cishan replied saying, “I have not buried my deceased husband yet, so how could I dare think of marrying again so quickly?”, and then she shut tight her city gates. The Nanzhao army encircled the city, and all inside died of starvation after three months after completely exhausting their food supplies. [Before dying] Cishan declared, “I am going to report
14000-635: The main operations. For having occupied Shihe, Piluoge was well placed to attack the Xier He people of the Dali Plain. Once again victory was his, though some of the conquered people managed to escape and make their way North, where they eventually came under the rule of the Jianlang Zhao at Jian Chuan, which will be mentioned in due course. Two other zhaos also joined in the attack on Shilang: Dengdan ruled by Mieluopi and Langqiong ruled by Duoluowang. Piluoge moved to eliminate these competitors by bribing Wang Yu,
14140-465: The meantime, Gao had been reinforced by 7,000 men who arrived overland under the command of Wei Zhongzai. In early 866, Gao's 12,000 men defeated a fresh Nanzhao army and chased them back to the mountains. He then laid siege to Songping but had to leave command due to the arrival of Li Weizhou and Wang Yanqian. He was later reinstated after sending his aid, Zeng Gun, who went to the capital as his representative and explained his circumstances. Gao completed
14280-462: The mid/late Tang dynasty . It was centered on present-day Yunnan in China , with its capitals in modern-day Dali City . The kingdom was officially called Dameng (大蒙) from 738 to 859 AD, Dali (大禮) from 859 to 877 and Dafengmin (大封民) from 877 to 902. Nanzhao encompassed many ethnic and linguistic groups. Some historians believe that the majority of the population were the Bai people (then known as
14420-500: The military commissioner of Jiannan (modern Sichuan based in Chengdu ) to convince the Tang court to support him in uniting the Six Zhaos. Piluoge then made a surprise attack on Dengdan and defeated the forces of both Mieluopi and the ruler of Shilang, Shiwangqian. The zhao of Yuexi was annexed when its ruler, Bochong, was murdered by his wife's lover, Zhangxunqiu. Zhangxunqiu was summoned by
14560-489: The ministries in Vientiane . The conflict between Hmong rebels and Laos continued in areas of Laos, including in Saysaboune Closed Military Zone, Xaisamboune Closed Military Zone near Vientiane Province and Xiangkhouang Province . From 1975 to 1996, the United States resettled some 250,000 Lao refugees from Thailand, including 130,000 Hmong. On 27 May 2016, the 8th Government of Laos banned
14700-526: The mountainous regions of eastern Yunnan. These tribes were called Mengshe (蒙舍), Mengxi (蒙嶲), Langqiong (浪穹), Tengtan (邆賧), Shilang (施浪), and Yuexi (越析). Each tribe was known as a zhao . In academia, the ethnic composition of the Nanzhao kingdom's population has been debated for a century. Some non-Chinese scholars subscribed to the theory that the Tai ethnic group was a major component and later moved south into modern-day Thailand and Laos . The historiography of
14840-634: The name Yunnan district with Kunming as the headquarters. After the expulsion of the Mongols from China in 1368, the Ming Dynasty destroyed the Yuan loyalists in Yunnan under Basalawarmi in 1381 and occupied it. In 1381, "Ming Dynasty troops routed the Yuan army by the shore of the Baishui River . The Mongol soldiers, their hopes to return to their homeland having been dashed, had no alternative but to settle down in
14980-445: The neighboring kingdoms of Kunlun to the east and Nuwang to the south. In 846, Nanzhao raided the southern Tang circuit of Annan . Relations with the Tang broke down after the death of Emperor Xuanzong in 859, when the Nanzhao king Shilong treated Tang envoys sent to receive his condolences with contempt, and launched raids on Bozhou and Annan. Shilong also killed Wang Cuodian. To recruit for his wars, Shilong ordered all men over
15120-515: The origins of Nanzhao people has attracted much interest. Among them, Mengshe zhao was recorded as Ma Shizi ( ꂷꏂꌅ ma shy nzy ) in Yi classics, which means "King of Golden Bamboo". Because it is located in the south, Mengshe was called Nanzhao or southern Zhao. In 649, the chieftain of the Mengshe tribe, Xinuluo (細奴邏, Senola), son of Jiadupang and grandson of Shelong, founded the Great Meng (大蒙) and took
15260-436: The other four polities to create a kingdom, so he invited the four rulers to a banquet to celebrate the xinghui festival 星回節 on the sixteenth day of the twelfth lunar month. He set fire to the building, and then ordered the wives of the four rulers to search for their husband’s bones and take them home. At first, Cishan, the wife of the ruler of Dengdan, could not find the bones of her husband, but she located them by searching for
15400-655: The poor and marginalised." A product, Beerlao , was exported in 2017 to more than 20 countries worldwide. It is produced by the Lao Brewery Company . The tourism sector has grown from 80,000 international visitors in 1990, to 1.876 million in 2010, when tourism had been expected to rise to US$ 1.5857 billion by 2020. In 2010, 1 in every 11 jobs was in the tourism sector. Export earnings from international visitors and tourism goods are expected to generate 16% of total exports or US$ 270.3 million in 2010, growing in nominal terms to US$ 484.2 million (12.5% of
15540-543: The potential capacity of approximately 18,000 megawatts, around 8,000 megawatts have been committed for export to Thailand and Vietnam. As of 2021, Laos continues to rely on fossil fuels, coal in particular, in domestic electricity production. In 2018, the country ranked 139th on the Human Development Index (HDI), indicating medium development. According to the Global Hunger Index (2018), Laos ranks as
15680-509: The power of the five-stage and Morganian historical schemes. According to Chen, the origin of the Yi goes back further, to the San Miao of classical History, who were always fighting against the Xia dynasty (C.2200-1600 B.C.E.). The Bai people also trace their ancestry to Nanzhao and the Dali Kingdom, but records from those kingdoms do not mention Bai. "Bai barbarians" or "Bo people" were mentioned during
15820-426: The province." In the early 1980s, village elders sent a delegation to Inner Mongolia to re-learn their long lost Mongolian culture . They adopted customs similar to Mongols in the north gradually, and wrestling became their favorite sport when they saw how popular it was with other Mongols. There are about 13,000 Khatso people, and their culture is heavily influenced by the local Yi culture . Khatso people speak
15960-407: The quality and quantity of slaves they owned or their parents wished to own. For example: Lurbbu (many slaves), Lurda (strong slaves), Lurshy (commander of slaves), Lurnji (origin of slaves), Lurpo (slave lord), Lurha, (hundred slaves), Jjinu (lots of slaves). Extant sources from Nanzhao and the later Dali Kingdom show that the ruling elite used Chinese script. Scriptures from Nanzhao unearthed in
16100-615: The repatriation plans, Democratic and Republican Members of Congress challenged the Clinton administration's position that the government of Laos was not systematically violating Hmong human rights. US Representative Steve Gunderson , for instance, told a Hmong gathering: "I do not enjoy standing up and saying to my government that you are not telling the truth, but if that is necessary to defend truth and justice, I will do that." While some accusations of forced repatriation were denied, thousands of Hmong people refused to return to Laos. In 1996 as
16240-464: The resources south of Chengdu. The advance of Nanzhaos' army was almost unopposed; the attack took advantage of chaos created in Sichuan by its governor , Du Yuanying . Bilateral relations between Nanzhao and Tang became delicate, as Wang Cuodian refused to step retreat from Yizhou , saying that Nanzhao had remained a loyal tributary and was only punishing Du Yuanying at the request of Tang soldiers. In
16380-464: The rest retreated to a nearby mountain. The Tang force advanced to Tuojiang, a relay station merely 15 kilometers north of Chengdu. Now it was Shilong who anxiously sued for peace. But Zhixiang was in no hurry to make a deal with him: “You should first lift the siege and withdraw your troops.” A few days later, a Nanzhao envoy came again. He shuttled ten times between Shilong and Zhixiang in the same day, trying to work out an agreement, but to no avail. With
16520-547: The retaking of Annan in fall 866, executing the enemy general, Duan Qiuqian, and beheading 30,000 of his men. According to G. Evans in his final monograph The Tai Original Diaspora , there were probably a quite large number of indigenous Tai-speaking people in Northern Vietnam that threw their support for Nanzhao against the Chinese, and when the Chinese came back in 864, many Tai people were also victims of following Chinese suppression. In 869, Shilong attacked Chengdu with
16660-420: The ruling dynasty of Nanzhao in some way due to practicing the same naming system. Pyusawhti and his descendants for seven generations used the same patronymic naming tradition that the Nanzhao kings practiced: the last part of a father's name is used as the first part of the son's name. It is also said that Pyusawhti achieved victory over the Chinese, which likely refers to Nanzhao defeating the Tang dynasty in
16800-617: The same year of 830, Nanzhao renewed contact with Tang. The next year, at the request of Li Deyu, Nanzhao released more than four thousand prisoners of war, including Buddhist monks, Daoist priests, and artisans, who had been captured during the Yizhou incident. Frequent visits to Chang’an by Nanzhao delegations followed and continued until the end of Emperor Wuzong’s reign in 846. During these sixteen years, Nanzhao progressed rapidly in state building. Through its students dispatched to Yizhou, Nanzhao borrowed heavily from Tang administrative practice. There
16940-576: The second and third largest investors respectively. Subsistence agriculture accounts for half of the GDP and provides 80% of employment. 4% of the country is arable land and 0.3% used as permanent crop land, the lowest percentage in the Greater Mekong Subregion . The irrigated areas account for 28% of the total area under cultivation which, in turn, represents 12% of all of the agricultural land in 2012. Rice dominates agriculture, with about 80% of
17080-528: The supreme leader. As of 22 March 2021 , the head of state is President Thongloun Sisoulith . He has been General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party , a position making him the de facto leader of Laos, since January 2021. Laos's first French-written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on 11 May 1947, and declared Laos an independent state within the French Union . The revised constitution of 11 May 1957 omitted reference to
17220-430: The system of governance and rule in Nanzhao was essentially feudal. Sons of the Nanzhao aristocracy visited the Tang capital, Chang'an , to receive a Chinese education. Sources that believe Nanzhao was a Yi dominated society also traditionally hold it to be a slave society because of how central the institution was to Yi culture. The prevalence of the slave culture was so great that sometimes children were named after
17360-555: The throne, Lan Xang further expanded its frontiers. When he died without an heir, the kingdom split into 3 principalities. Between 1763 and 1769, Burmese armies overran northern Laos and annexed Luang Prabang , while Champasak eventually came under Siamese suzerainty . Chao Anouvong was installed as a vassal king of Vientiane by the Siamese. He encouraged a renaissance of Lao fine arts and literature and improved relations with Luang Phrabang. Under Vietnamese pressure, he rebelled against
17500-526: The title of Qijia Wang (奇嘉王; "Outstanding King"). He acknowledged Tang suzerainty. In 652, Xinuluo absorbed the White Mywa realm of Zhang Lejinqiu, who ruled Erhai Lake and Cang Mountain . This event occurred peacefully as Zhang made way for Xinuluo of his own accord. The agreement was consecrated under an iron pillar in Dali . Thereafter the Black and White Mywa acted as warriors and ministers respectively. In 655, Xinuluo sent his eldest son to Chang'an to ask for
17640-419: The visit would subject him to mortal danger because the “barbarians are deceitful.” This cancellation only convinced Shilong that Tang lacked sincerity in seeking peace. He resumed attacks on Chengdu but could not score a decisive victory. The situation in Chengdu changed in favor of the defenders when Yan Qingfu, military governor of Jiannan East Circuit (Jiannan dongchuan), coordinated a rescue operation. On
17780-402: Was assassinated, Piluoge drove Yuanluo from Mengsui and annexed the territory. The remaining zhaos banded together against Piluoge, who thwarted them with an alliance with the Tang dynasty. Not long after 733, the Tang official Yan Zhenghui cooperated with Piluoge in a successful attack on the zhao of Shilang, and rewarded the Mengshe rulers with titles. Shige/gupi of Shilang was garrisoning
17920-463: Was brutal and protracted. The Nanzhao soldiers used scaling ladders and battering rams to attack the city from four directions. The Tang defenders used hooks and robes to immobilize the attackers before showering them with oil and setting them on fire. The 3,000 commandos that Lu Dan had earlier handpicked were particularly brave and skillful in battle. They killed and wounded some 2,000 enemy soldiers and burned three thousand pieces of war equipment. After
18060-517: Was called Luojuzuo. The king's personal guards, known as the Zhunuquju, were recruited from the Luojuzi. Nanzhao society was separated into two distinct castes: the administrative White Mywa living in western Yunnan, and the militaristic Black Mywa in eastern Yunnan. The rulers of Nanzhao were from the Mengshe tribe of the Black Mywa. Nanzhao modelled its government on the Tang dynasty with ministries (nine instead of six) and imperial examinations. However
18200-511: Was classified as an "authoritarian regime", ranking lowest of the 9 ASEAN nations included in the study. Civil society advocates, human rights defenders, political and religious dissidents, and Hmong refugees have disappeared at the hands of Lao military and security forces. Ostensibly, the Constitution of Laos that was promulgated in 1991 and amended in 2003 contains safeguards for human rights. For example, Article 8 makes it clear that Laos
18340-522: Was defeated by Duan Jianwei (段俭魏) with heavy losses (many due to disease) at Xiaguan . Duan Jianwei's grave is two kilometres west of Xiaguan, and the Tomb of Ten Thousand Soldiers is located in Tianbao Park. In 754, another Tang army of 100,000 soldiers, led by General Li Mi (李宓), approached the kingdom from the north, but never made it past Mu'ege . By the end of 754, Geluofeng had established an alliance with
18480-401: Was detained for two years due to a dispute in ceremony and failed to bring back the princess. In 897 Longshun was murdered by one of his own ministers. His successor, Shunhua, sent envoys to the Tang requesting restoration of friendly relations, but by this time the Tang emperor was merely a puppet figurehead of more powerful military governors. No response returned. In 902, the dynasty came to
18620-542: Was established on 13 December 2013. Provinces are divided into districts ( muang ) and then villages ( ban ). An "urban" village is essentially a [town]. The Lao PDR is one of the world's socialist states openly endorsing communism . The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP). With the one-party state status of Laos, the General Secretary ( party leader ) holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as
18760-452: Was killed by Wang Cuodian, a powerful governor. The military generals in Nanzhao had become powerful after the victory in Tibet. Wang Cuodian installed a puppet ruler Quanlisheng. However, Quanlisheng quickly took power back three years later before he was himself replaced by Quanfengyou, with the aid of the generals. Quanfengyou and Wang Cuodian, who remained a powerful general, were instrumental in
18900-460: Was killed. In the year 737 AD, Piluoge (皮羅閣) united the Six Zhaos in succession, establishing a new kingdom called Nanzhao (Southern Zhao). In 738, the Tang granted Piluoge the Chinese-style name Meng Guiyi ("return to righteousness") and the title of "Prince of Yunnan". Piluoge set up a new capital at Taihe in 739, (the site of modern-day Taihe village, a few miles south of Dali ). Located in
19040-573: Was much building of public works and a great expansion of monasteries. Nanzhao also expanded its realm to the Indochina peninsula. They invaded Biaoguo (one of the Pyu city-states , present-day Prome in Upper Burma) in 832 and brought back three thousand prisoners of war; shortly after, in 835, they subdued Michen (near the mouth of the Ayeyarwady River in lower Burma). In the 830s, they conquered
19180-630: Was recovered in 2009 from the Tam Pa Ling Cave in the Annamite Mountains in northern Laos; the skull is at least 46,000 years old, making it the oldest modern human fossil found to date in Southeast Asia. Stone artifacts including Hoabinhian types have been found at sites dating to the Pleistocene in northern Laos. Archaeological evidence suggests an agriculturist society developed during
19320-632: Was rejected. Nanzhao forces were driven from the Bozhou region, modern Guizhou , in 877 by a local military force organized by the Yang family from Shanxi . This effectively ended Nanzhao's expansionist campaigns. Shilong died in 877. From Emperor Yizong’s time [r. 860–874], the barbarians [i.e., Nanzhao] sacked Annan and Yongzhou twice, marched into Qianzhong [southern Guizhou] once, and raided Xichuan [southern Sichuan] four times. Over these fifteen years, recruiting soldiers for and transporting supplies to [troops on
19460-758: Was said that he meditated in a thatched cottage of Fengding Mountain in the east of Heqing , and became an "enlightened God." He established an altar to propagate tantric doctrines in Changdong Mountain of Tengchong . Candragupta continued to propagate tantric doctrines, translated the tantric scripture The Rites of the Great Consecration , and engaged in water conservancy projects. He left for his homeland later on and possibly went to Tibet to propagate his teachings. When he returned to Nanzhao, he built Wuwei Temple. Laos in ASEAN (dark grey) – [ Legend ] Laos , officially
19600-518: Was unsuccessful, and the situation turned into civil war between the Royal Laotian government and the Pathet Lao. The Pathet Lao were backed militarily by the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the Viet Cong . Laos was a part of the Vietnam War since parts of Laos were invaded and occupied by North Vietnam since 1958 for use as a supply route for its war against South Vietnam . In response,
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