List of forms of government
162-601: The Yellow Emperor , also known as the Yellow Thearch or by his Chinese name Huangdi ( / ˈ hw ɑː ŋ ˈ d iː / ), is a mythical Chinese sovereign and culture hero included among the legendary Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors , and an individual deity ( shen ) or part of the Five Regions Highest Deities ( Chinese : 五方上帝 ; pinyin : Wǔfāng Shàngdì ) in Chinese folk religion . Regarded as
324-600: A Caliph should be selected or elected by Muslims or by their representatives. Followers of Shia Islam , however, believe a Caliph should be an Imam chosen by God from the Ahl al-Bayt (the "Family of the House", Muhammad 's direct descendants). In both cases, caliphs theoretically combine religious and secular powers. The Emperors of the Timurid and Mughal Dynasty were regarded as intermediaries of their subordinaries and God by virtue of
486-504: A narrow transcription of the sounds of the standard language of the Tang dynasty . Beginning with his Analytical Dictionary of Chinese and Sino-Japanese (1923), he compared these sounds across groups of words written with Chinese characters with the same phonetic component . Noting that such words were not always pronounced identically in Middle Chinese, he postulated that their initials had
648-586: A "theocratic republic" by various sources, including the CIA World Factbook . Its constitution has been described as a "hybrid" of "theocratic and democratic elements" by Francis Fukuyama . Like other Islamic states, it maintains religious laws and has religious courts to interpret all aspects of law. According to Iran's constitution, "all civil, penal, financial, economic, administrative, cultural, military, political, and other laws and regulations must be based on Islamic criteria." In addition, Iran has
810-431: A character for a similarly sounding word with a semantic indicator. Often characters sharing a phonetic element (forming a phonetic series) are still pronounced alike, as in the character 中 ( zhōng , 'middle'), which was adapted to write the words chōng ('pour', 沖) and zhōng ('loyal', 忠). In other cases the words in a phonetic series have very different sounds both in Middle Chinese and in modern varieties. Since
972-474: A common point of articulation in an earlier phase he called "Archaic Chinese", but which is now usually called Old Chinese . For example, he postulated velar consonants as initials in the series In rarer cases where different types of initials occurred in the same series, as in he postulated initial clusters *kl- and *gl-. Karlgren believed that the voiced initials of Middle Chinese were aspirated, and projected these back onto Old Chinese. He also proposed
1134-569: A consistent feature of Chinese poetry. While much old poetry still rhymes in modern varieties of Chinese, Chinese scholars have long noted exceptions. This was attributed to lax rhyming practice of early poets until the late- Ming dynasty scholar Chen Di argued that a former consistency had been obscured by sound change . This implied that the rhyming practice of ancient poets recorded information about their pronunciation. Scholars have studied various bodies of poetry to identify classes of rhyming words at different periods. The oldest such collection
1296-681: A definition in apocryphal texts related to the Hétú 河圖 , the Yellow Emperor "proceeds from the essence of the Yellow God". As a cosmological deity, the Yellow Emperor is known as the "Great Emperor of the Central Peak" ( 中岳大帝 Zhōngyuè Dàdì ), and in the Shizi as the "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" ( 黃帝四面 Huángdì Sìmiàn ). In old accounts the Yellow Emperor is identified as a deity of light (and his name
1458-511: A diffuse, feudal system after the ascension of the Fifth Dalai Lama . Power in Tibet was held by a number of traditional élites, including members of the nobility, the heads of the major Buddhist sects (including their various tulkus ), and various large and influential monastic communities. The Bogd Khanate period of Mongolia (1911–19) featured a Buddhist theocratic khanate . Similar to
1620-645: A diplomatic dispute with the Russian Empire was no longer an obstacle, after the latter's collapse during World War I . Mount Athos is specifically exempt from the free movement of people and goods required by Greece's membership of the European Union , and entrance is allowed only with express permission from the monks. The number of daily visitors to Mount Athos is restricted, with all visitors required to obtain an entrance permit. Only men are permitted to visit, and Eastern Orthodox Christians take precedence in
1782-520: A divine heritage would positively affect their claim to legitimacy. Harvard University historian Michael Puett writes that the Qi bronze inscription was one of several references to the Yellow Emperor in the fourth and third centuries BC within accounts of the creation of the state. Noting that many of the thinkers who were later identified as precursors of the Huang–Lao – "Huangdi and Laozi" – tradition came from
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#17328522277111944-405: A farmer and tamed six different special beasts: the bear ( 熊 ), the brown bear ( 罴 ; 羆 ), the pí ( 貔 ) and xiū ( 貅 ) (which later combined to form the mythical Pixiu ), the ferocious chū ( 貙 ), and the tiger ( 虎 ). Huangdi is sometimes said to have been the fruit of extraordinary birth , as his mother Fubao conceived him as she was aroused, while walking in the country, by
2106-539: A figure paradigmatic of emperorship. In his Shiji , Sima Qian claims that the state of Qin started worshipping the Yellow Emperor in the fifth century BC, along with Yandi , the Fiery Emperor. The altars were established at Yong 雍 (near modern Fengxiang County in Shaanxi province), which was the capital of Qin from 677 to 383 BC. By the time of King Zheng , who became king of Qin in 247 BC and First Emperor of
2268-455: A full set of aspirated nasals, as well as Yakhontov's labio-velar and labio-laryngeal initials. Pulleyblank also accepted Yakhontov's expanded role for the medial *-l-, which he noted was cognate with Tibeto-Burman *-r-. To account for phonetic contacts between Middle Chinese l- and dental initials, he also proposed an aspirated lateral *lh-. Pulleyblank also distinguished two sets of dental series, one derived from Old Chinese dental stops and
2430-554: A god who could reveal new teachings – in the form of texts such as the sixth-century Huangdi Yinfujing – to his earthly followers. The Yellow Emperor became a powerful national symbol in the last decade of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) and remained dominant in Chinese nationalist discourse throughout the Republican period (1912–1949). The early twentieth century is also when the Yellow Emperor
2592-458: A government which enforces a state religion. Sumerian cities were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king ( ensi ), assisted by a council of elders including both men and women. Ancient Egyptian society regarded its pharaohs as divine and associated them with Horus , and after death, with Osiris . While not considered equal to other members of the Egyptian pantheon ,
2754-566: A later transformation and systematization of Shang mythology ." In her view, Huangdi was originally an unnamed "lord of the underworld" (or the "Yellow Springs"), the mythological counterpart of the Shang sky deity Shangdi. At the time, Shang rulers claimed that their mythical ancestors, identified with "the [ten] suns, birds, east, life, [and] the Lord on High" (i.e., Shangdi), had defeated an earlier people associated with "the underworld, dragons, west." After
2916-624: A leading role in the state, but do not claim that they are instruments of divine revelation. A related phenomenon is a secular government co-existing with a state religion or delegating some aspects of civil law to religious communities. For example, in Israel, marriage is governed by officially recognized religious bodies who each provide marriage services for their respected adherents, yet no form of civil marriage (free of religion) exists, nor marriage by non-recognized minority religions. According to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, there are two meanings for
3078-477: A lightning bolt from the Big Dipper . She delivered her son on the mount of Shou (Longevity) or mount Xuanyuan, after which he was named. Another story states that "Huang Di came into being when the energies that instigated the beginning of the world merged with one another, and created human beings by placing earthen statues at the cardinal points of the world and leaving them exposed for 300 years. During that time,
3240-617: A long history of monasteries , which dates back to at least 800 AD. The origin of self-rule at Mount Athos can be traced back to a royal edict issued by the Byzantine Emperor John Tzimisces in 972, and reaffirmed by Emperor Alexios I Komnenos in 1095. Greece wrestled control of the area from the Ottoman Empire during the First Balkan War in 1912. However, it was formally recognized as part of Greece only after
3402-477: A massive migration of his people into China around 2300 BC and founded what later became Chinese civilization. European sinologists quickly rejected these theories, but in 1900 two Japanese historians, Shirakawa Jirō and Kokubu Tanenori, omitted these criticisms and published a long summary that presented Lacouperie's views as the most advanced Western scholarship on China. Chinese scholars were quickly attracted by "the historicization of Chinese mythology " that
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#17328522277113564-565: A medical classic, and the Huangdi Sijing , a group of political treatises – were thus attributed to him. Having waned in influence during most of the imperial period , in the early twentieth century Huangdi became a rallying figure for Han Chinese attempts to overthrow the rule of the Qing dynasty, remaining a powerful symbol within modern Chinese nationalism . Until 221 BC when Qin Shi Huang of
3726-678: A modern translator of the Records of the Grand Historian , states that Huangdi was originally the head of the Youxiong clan, which lived near what is now Xinzheng in Henan. Rémi Mathieu, a French historian of Chinese myths and religion, translates "Youxiong" as "possessor of bears" and links Huangdi to the broader theme of the bear in world mythology. Ye Shuxian has also associated the Yellow Emperor with bear legends common across northeast Asia people as well as
3888-563: A monarchy, as many Middle Eastern states presently are. Afghanistan was an Islamic theocracy when the Taliban first ruled Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001 and since their reinstatement of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan in 2021, Afghanistan is an Islamic theocracy again. Spreading from Kandahar , the Taliban eventually captured Kabul in 1996. By the end of 2000, the Taliban controlled 90% of
4050-615: A new series of labio-velar and labio-laryngeal initials, or from the breaking of a vowel *-o- to -wa- before dental codas. Yakhontov proposed a simpler seven-vowel system: However, these vowels had an uneven distribution, with *ä and *â almost in complementary distribution and *ü occurring only in open syllables and before *-k. His final consonants were the nasals *-m, *-n and *-ng, corresponding stops *-p, *-t and *-k, as well as *-r, which became -j or disappeared in Middle Chinese. The Canadian sinologist Edwin Pulleyblank published
4212-418: A reconstruction of the consonants of Old Chinese in two parts in 1962. In addition to new analyses of the traditional evidence, he also made substantial use of transcription evidence. Though not a full reconstruction, Pulleyblank's work has been very influential, and many of his proposals are now widely accepted. Pulleyblank adapted Dong Tonghe 's proposal of a voiceless counterpart to the initial *m, proposing
4374-481: A reconstruction that, with minor variations, is still in wide use in China. For the initials, Wang largely followed Karlgren, but in later revisions recast Karlgren's voiced stops as voiced fricatives and a palatal lateral, re-interpreting the aspirated voiced stops and affricates as merely voiced. Wang refined the rhyme classes, distinguishing the 脂 zhī and 微 wēi classes. In his reconstruction, each rhyme class
4536-403: A religious ruler and many religious officials in powerful governmental positions. The head of state, or " Supreme Leader ", is a faqih (scholar of Islamic law) and has more power than the president of Iran . Iran's current Supreme Leader is Ali Khamenei , a role he has held since 1989. The Leader appoints the heads of many powerful governmental positions: the commanders of the armed forces ,
4698-482: A series of unaspirated voiced initials to account for other correspondences, but later workers have discarded these in favour of alternative explanations. Karlgren accepted the argument of the Qing philologist Qian Daxin that the Middle Chinese dental and retroflex stop series were not distinguished in Old Chinese, but otherwise proposed the same points of articulation in Old Chinese as in Middle Chinese. This led him to
4860-499: A sovereign Arab Islamic state with Islam as its official religion. However, some critiques describe Saudi Arabia as an Islamic theocracy. Religious minorities do not have the right to practice their religion openly. Conversion from Islam to another religion is punishable by death as apostasy . Muhammad Al-Atawneh describes the current Saudi regime as a 'theo-monarchy, that draws power from long-standing religio-cultural norms.' The Central Tibetan Administration , colloquially known as
5022-601: A specific role reserved for a class of monk officials. On 14 March 2011, at the 14th Dalai Lama 's suggestion, the parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration began considering a proposal to remove the Dalai Lama's role as head of state in favor of an elected leader. The first directly elected Kalön Tripa was Samdhong Rinpoche , who was elected on 20 August 2001. Before 2011, the Kalön Tripa position
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5184-399: A state religion is not sufficient to mean that a state is a theocracy in the narrow sense of the term. Many countries have a state religion without the government directly deriving its powers from a divine authority or a religious authority which is directly exercising governmental powers. Since few theocracies exist in the modern world, the word "theocracy" is now used as a descriptive term for
5346-466: A stop, e.g. He suggested that the departing tone words in such pairs had ended with a final voiced stop ( *-d or *-ɡ ) in Old Chinese. To account for occasional contacts between Middle Chinese finals -j and -n , Karlgren proposed that -j in such pairs derived from Old Chinese *-r . He believed there was insufficient evidence to support definitive statements about Old Chinese tones. Wang Li made extensive studies of Shijing rhymes and produced
5508-832: A strict interpretation of Islamic Sharia law , along with the religious edicts of Mullah Mohammed Omar , upon the entire country of Afghanistan. During the five-year history of the Islamic Emirate , the Taliban regime interpreted the Sharia in accordance with the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence and the religious edicts of Mullah Omar . The Taliban forbade pork and alcohol, many types of consumer technology such as music , television , and film , as well as most forms of art such as paintings or photography , male and female participation in sport , including football and chess ; recreational activities such as kite-flying and keeping pigeons or other pets were also forbidden, and
5670-515: A theocracy, declaring the ruling family the sons of heaven and calling the chief sky god Shangdi after a word for their deceased ancestors. After their overthrow by the Zhou , the royal clan of Shang were not eliminated but instead moved to a ceremonial capital where they were charged to continue the performance of their rituals. The titles combined by Shi Huangdi to form his new title of emperor were originally applied to god-like beings who ordered
5832-614: A total of 25 sons, 14 of whom began their own surnames and clans. The oldest was Shaohao or Xuan Xiao, who lived in Qingyang by the Yangtze River . Changyi , the second son, lived by the Ruo River . When the Yellow Emperor died, he was succeeded by Changyi's son, Zhuan Xu . The chronological tables found in chapters 13 of the Shiji represent all past rulers – legendary ones such as Yao and Shun,
5994-514: A unified China in 221 BC, Huangdi had become by far the most important of the four "thearchs" ( di 帝 ) who were then worshiped at Yong. The figure of Huangdi had appeared sporadically in Warring States texts. Sima Qian 's Shiji (or Records of the Grand Historian , completed around 94 BC) was the first work to turn these fragments of myths into a systematic and consistent narrative of the Yellow Emperor's "career". The Shiji ' s account
6156-419: A valuable reference for students of Old Chinese, and characters are routinely identified by their GSR position. Karlgren's remained the most commonly used until it was superseded by the system of Li Fang-Kuei in the 1970s. In his Études sur la phonologie chinoise (1915–1926), Karlgren produced the first complete reconstruction of Middle Chinese (which he called "Ancient Chinese"). He presented his system as
6318-548: A voiced initial, though scholars are divided on which form is basic. In the earliest period, Chinese was spoken in the valley of the Yellow River , surrounded by neighbouring languages, some of whose relatives, particularly Austroasiatic and the Kra–Dai and Miao–Yao languages , are still spoken today. The earliest borrowings in both directions provide further evidence of Old Chinese sounds, though complicated by uncertainty about
6480-401: A work on the sovereigns of antiquity, commented that Xuanyuan was the name of a hill where Huangdi had lived and that he later took as a name. The Classic of Mountains and Seas mentions a Xuanyuan nation whose inhabitants have human faces, snake bodies, and tails twisting above their heads; Yuan Ke , a contemporary scholar of early Chinese mythology, "noted that the appearance of these people
6642-443: Is a "novel etymology" likening huang 黄 to the phonetically close wang 尪 (the "burned shaman" in Shang rainmaking rituals), Lewis suggests that "Huang" in "Huangdi" might originally have meant "rainmaking shaman" or "rainmaking ritual." Citing late Warring States and early Han versions of Huangdi's myth, he further argues that the figure of the Yellow Emperor originated in ancient rain-making rituals in which Huangdi represented
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6804-434: Is also a mirror called the "Xuanyuan Mirror". In the second century AD, Huangdi's role as a deity was diminished because of the rise of a deified Laozi . A state sacrifice offered to "Huang-Lao jun" was not offered to Huangdi and Laozi, as the term Huang-Lao would have meant a few centuries earlier, "yellow Laozi". Nonetheless, Huangdi kept being considered as an immortal: he was seen as a master of longevity techniques and as
6966-487: Is characteristic of gods and suggested that they may reflect the form of the Yellow Thearch himself". The Qing dynasty scholar Liang Yusheng ( 梁玉繩 , 1745–1819) argued instead that the hill was named after the Yellow Emperor. Xuanyuan is also the name of the star Regulus in Chinese, the star being associated with Huangdi in traditional astronomy. He is also associated to the broader constellations Leo and Lynx , of which
7128-446: Is characterized by its main vowel and coda. To account for Middle Chinese divisions and open/closed distinctions, Wang reconstructed medials: Wang argued that Old Chinese distinguished long and short syllables, the former being higher in pitch, and that the four tones of Middle Chinese were derived from the combination of length and the distinction between open and stop-final syllables: In particular, he argued that length caused
7290-486: Is credited with teaching his people how to build shelters, tame wild animals, and grow the Five Grains , although other accounts credit Shennong with the last. He invents carts, boats, and clothing. Other inventions credited to the emperor include the Chinese diadem ( 冠冕 ), throne rooms ( 宮室 ), the bow sling , early Chinese astronomy , the Chinese calendar , math calculations, code of sound laws ( 音律 ), coins and
7452-639: Is elected by the Assembly of Experts which is made up of mujtahids , who are Islamic scholars competent in interpreting Sharia . The Guardian Council , has the power to reject bills passed by the Parliament . It can also approve or reject candidates who want to run for the Presidency, Parliament, and the Assembly of Experts. The council supervises elections, and can allow or ban investigations into elections. Six of
7614-526: Is explained in the Shuowen jiezi to derive from guāng 光 , "light") and thunder, and as one and the same with the "Thunder God" ( 雷神 Léishén ), who in turn, as a later mythological character, is distinguished as the Yellow Emperor's foremost pupil, such as in the Huangdi Neijing . The Chinese historian Sima Qian – and much Chinese historiography following him – considered
7776-553: Is in line with the Sharia . We abide by the Amir's view even if he alone takes this view. There will not be a head of state. Instead, there will be an Amir al-Mu'minin. Mullah Omar will be the highest authority, and the government will not be able to implement any decision to which he does not agree. General elections are incompatible with Sharia and therefore we reject them. The Taliban were reluctant to share power, and since their ranks were overwhelmingly Pashtun they ruled as overlords over
7938-473: Is limited to cardinals under 80 years of age. A Secretary for Relations with States, directly responsible for international relations, is appointed by the pope. The Vatican legal system is rooted in canon law . The Bishop of Rome, as the Supreme Pontiff , "has the fullness of legislative, executive and judicial powers." Although the laws of Vatican City come from the secular laws of Italy, under article 3 of
8100-531: Is often regarded in the West as arising from Laozi , many Chinese Taoists claim the Yellow Emperor formulated many of their precepts, including the quest for "long life". The Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon ( 黃帝內經 Huángdì Nèijīng ), which presents the doctrinal basis of traditional Chinese medicine , was named after him. He was also credited with composing the Four Books of the Yellow Emperor ( 黃帝四經 Huángdì Sìjīng ),
8262-653: Is rooted in the hearts of the descendants of the Yellow Emperor," whereas in 1986 the PRC acclaimed the Chinese-American astronaut Taylor Wang as the first of the Yellow Emperor's descendants to travel in space . In the first half of the 1980s, the Party had internally debated whether this usage would make ethnic minorities feel excluded. After consulting experts from Beijing University , the Chinese Academy of Social Science , and
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#17328522277118424-534: Is the Shijing , containing songs ranging from the 10th to 7th centuries BC. The systematic study of Old Chinese rhymes began in the 17th century, when Gu Yanwu divided the rhyming words of the Shijing into ten groups ( 韻部 yùnbù ). Gu's analysis was refined by Qing dynasty philologists, steadily increasing the number of rhyme groups. One of these scholars, Duan Yucai , stated the important principle that characters in
8586-593: Is the name given to several states that are officially ruled by Islamic laws , including the Islamic Republics of Iran , Pakistan , and Mauritania . Pakistan first adopted the title under the constitution of 1956. Mauritania adopted it on 28 November 1958. Iran adopted it after the 1979 Iranian Revolution that overthrew the Pahlavi dynasty . The term "Islamic republic" has come to mean several different things, at times contradictory. To some Muslim religious leaders in
8748-472: Is the phonological system of the Qieyun , a rhyme dictionary published in 601, with many revisions and expansions over the following centuries. These dictionaries set out to codify the pronunciations of characters to be used when reading the classics . They indicated pronunciation using the fanqie method, dividing a syllable into an initial consonant and the rest, called the final. In his Qièyùn kǎo (1842),
8910-549: Is the rejection of Loya Jirga decision about expulsion of Osama bin Laden . Mullah Omar visited the capital, Kabul, only twice while in power. Instead of an election, their leader's legitimacy came from an oath of allegiance (" Bay'ah "), in imitation of the Prophet and the first four Caliphs . On 4 April 1996, Mullah Omar had "the Cloak of Muhammad " taken from its shrine, Kirka Sharif , for
9072-523: Is unclear, but historians have formulated several hypotheses about it. Yang Kuan , a member of the Doubting Antiquity School (1920s–40s), argued that the Yellow Emperor was derived from Shangdi , the highest god of the Shang dynasty . Yang reconstructs the etymology as follows: Shangdi 上帝 → Huang Shangdi 皇上帝 → Huangdi 皇帝 → Huangdi 黄帝 , in which he claims that huang 黃 ("yellow") either
9234-536: Is why we give no salaries to officials or soldiers, just food, clothes, shoes, and weapons. We want to live a life like the Prophet lived 1400 years ago, and jihad is our right. We want to recreate the time of the Prophet, and we are only carrying out what the Afghan people have wanted for the past 14 years. They modeled their decision-making process on the Pashtun tribal council ( jirga ), together with what they believed to be
9396-644: The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified Roman emperors and some members of their families with the divinely sanctioned authority ( auctoritas ) of the Roman State . The official offer of cultus to a living emperor acknowledged his office and rule as divinely approved and constitutional: his Principate should therefore demonstrate pious respect for traditional republican deities and mores . Unified religious rule in Buddhist Tibet began in 1642, when
9558-764: The Yellow Emperor's Book of the Hidden Symbol ( 黃帝陰符經 Huángdì Yīnfújīng ), and the "Yellow Emperor's Four Seasons Poem(軒轅黃帝四季詩)" included in the Tung Shing fortune-telling almanac. "Xuanyuan (+ number)" is also the Chinese name for Regulus and other stars of the constellations Leo and Lynx , of which the latter is said to represent the body of the Yellow Dragon. In the Hall of Supreme Harmony in Beijing's Forbidden City , there
9720-451: The -j- medial of Middle Chinese was an innovation not present in Old Chinese. He classified Middle Chinese finals without -j- as type A and those with the medial as type B, and suggested that they arose from Old Chinese short and long vowels respectively. André-Georges Haudricourt had demonstrated in 1954 that the tones of Vietnamese were derived from final consonants *-ʔ and *-s in an atonal ancestral language. He also suggested that
9882-531: The 1911 Revolution , which overthrew the Qing dynasty. In 1912, for instance, banknotes carrying Huangdi's effigy were issued by the new Republican government. After 1911, however, the Yellow Emperor as national symbol changed from first progenitor of the Han race to ancestor of China's entire multi-ethnic population. Under the ideology of the Five Races Under One Union , Huangdi became the common ancestor of
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#173285222771110044-502: The Ancient Greek : θεοκρατία ( theocratia ) meaning "the rule of God". This, in turn, derives from θεός (theos), meaning "god", and κρατέω ( krateo ), meaning "to rule". Thus the meaning of the word in Greek was "rule by god(s)" or human incarnation (s) of god(s). The term was initially coined by Flavius Josephus in the first century AD to describe the characteristic government of
10206-494: The Central Nationalities Institute , the Central Propaganda Department recommended on March 27, 1985, that the Party speak of the Zhonghua Minzu – the "Chinese nation" broadly defined – in official statements, but that the phrase "sons and grand-sons of Yandi and the Yellow Emperor" could be used in informal statements by party leaders and in "relations with Hong Kong and Taiwanese compatriots and overseas Chinese compatriots". After retreating to Taiwan in late 1949 at
10368-458: The Dangun legend . Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian describes the Yellow Emperor's ancestral name as Gongsun ( 公孫 ). In Han dynasty texts, the Yellow Emperor is also called upon as the "Yellow God" ( 黃神 Huángshén ). Certain accounts interpret him as the incarnation of the "Yellow God of the Northern Dipper " ( 黄神北斗 Huángshén Běidǒu ), another name of the universal god ( Shangdi 上帝 or Tiandi 天帝 ). According to
10530-408: The Enlightenment era, when the term took on negative connotations and was barely salvaged by Hegel 's commentary. The first recorded English use was in 1622, with the meaning " sacerdotal government under divine inspiration" (as in ancient Israel and Judah ); the meaning "priestly or religious body wielding political and civil power" was first recorded in 1825. The term theocracy derives from
10692-435: The Fifth Dalai Lama allied with the military power of the Mongol Gushri Khan to consolidate political power and to center control around his office as head of the Gelug school. This form of government is known as the dual system of government . Prior to 1642, particular monasteries and monks had held considerable power throughout Tibet but had not achieved anything approaching complete control, and their power continued in
10854-403: The Han Chinese , the Manchu people , the Mongols , the Tibetans , and the Hui people , who were said to form the Zhonghua minzu , a broadly understood Chinese nation. Sixteen state ceremonies were held between 1911 and 1949 to Huangdi as the "founding ancestor of the Chinese nation " ( 中華民族始祖 ) and even "the founding ancestor of human civilization" ( 人文始祖 ). The cult of the Yellow Emperor
11016-418: The Jews . Josephus argued that while mankind had developed many forms of rule, most could be subsumed under the following three types: monarchy , oligarchy , and democracy . However, according to Josephus, the government of the Jews was unique. Josephus offered the term theocracy to describe this polity in which a god was sovereign and the god's word was law. Josephus' definition was widely accepted until
11178-418: The Koine Greek θεοκρατία , "rule of God", a term used by Josephus for the kingdoms of Israel and Judah , reflecting the view that "God himself is recognized as the head" of the state. The common, generic use of the term, as defined above in terms of rule by a church or analogous religious leadership, may be more accurately described as an ecclesiocracy. In an ecclesiocracy, the religious leaders assume
11340-622: The Mausoleum of the Yellow Emperor in Huangling , Yan'an , in mainland China. Gay studies researcher Louis Crompton has cited Ji Yun 's report in his popular Notes from the Yuewei Hermitage (1800), that some claimed the Yellow Emperor was the first Chinese to take male bedmates, a claim that Ji Yun dismissed. Ji Yun argued that this was probably a false attribution. Today, Xuanyuanjiao based on Taiwan represents an organised form of Yellow Emperor worship married to Confucian orthodoxy. As with any myth, there are numerous versions of Huangdi's story, emphasizing different themes and interpreting
11502-435: The Qin dynasty coined the title huangdi ( 皇帝 ) – conventionally translated as " emperor " – to refer to himself, the character di 帝 did not refer to earthly rulers but to the highest god of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) pantheon. In the Warring States period (c. 475–221 BC), the term di on its own could also refer to the deities associated with the five Sacred Mountains of China and colors. Huangdi ( 黃帝 ),
11664-594: The Second World War in 1945: on 1 January 1946 Emperor Hirohito , at the request of Douglas MacArthur , declared that he was not a living god in order for Japan to reorganize into a democratic nation. In biblical times, Early Israel was a kritarchy , ruled by Judges before the institution of a monarchy under Saul . The Israelites regarded the Judges as representatives of God to dispense His judgement, and were often themselves prophets. From c. 27 BCE
11826-427: The Shijing , *a rhymed with *ă and *â, *ɛ rhymed with *ĕ and *ŭ, *ŭ rhymed with *u, *ô rhymed with *ộ, and *o rhymed with *ǒ and *å. Karlgren projected the final consonants of Middle Chinese, semivowels /j/ and /w/ , nasals /m/ , /n/ and /ŋ/ , and stops /p/ , /t/ and /k/ back onto Old Chinese. He also noted many cases where words in the departing tone rhymed or shared a phonetic element with words ending in
11988-482: The Tongmenghui , featured the Yellow Emperor on its cover and called Huangdi "the first great nationalist of the world." It was one of several nationalist magazines that featured the Yellow Emperor on their cover in the early twentieth century. The fact that Huangdi meant "yellow" emperor also served to buttress the theory that he was the originator of the "yellow race". Many historians interpret this sudden popularity of
12150-614: The Yan Emperor were both leaders of a tribe or a combination of two tribes near the Yellow River . The Yan Emperor hailed from a different area around the Jiang River , which a geographical work called the Shuijingzhu identified as a stream near Qishan in what was the Zhou homeland before they defeated the Shang. Both emperors lived in a time of warfare. The Yan Emperor proving unable to control
12312-651: The Zhou dynasty overthrew the Shang dynasty in the eleventh century BC, Zhou leaders reinterpreted Shang myths as meaning that the Shang had vanquished a real political dynasty, which was eventually named the Xia dynasty . By Han times – as seen in Sima Qian 's account in the Shiji – the Yellow Emperor, who as lord of the underworld had been symbolically linked to the Xia, had become a historical ruler whose descendants were thought to have founded
12474-492: The logographic script provides much more indirect and partial information about the pronunciation of the language than alphabetic systems used elsewhere. Several authors have produced reconstructions of Old Chinese phonology , beginning with the Swedish sinologist Bernhard Karlgren in the 1940s and continuing to the present day. The method introduced by Karlgren is unique, comparing categories implied by ancient rhyming practice and
12636-466: The "yellow di ", was one of the latter. To emphasize the religious meaning of di in pre-imperial times, historians of early China commonly translate the god's name as "Yellow Thearch" and the first emperor's title as "August Thearch", in which "thearch" refers to a godly ruler. In the late Warring States period, the Yellow Emperor was integrated into the cosmological scheme of the Five Phases , in which
12798-694: The 15th Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile unanimously voted to change the title of Kalön Tripa to Sikyong in Article 19 of the Charter of the Tibetans in exile and relevant articles. The Dalai Lama had previously referred to the Kalön Tripa as Sikyong, and this usage was cited as the primary justification for the name change. According to Tibetan Review , "Sikyong" translates to "political leader", as distinct from "spiritual leader". Foreign affairs Kalön Dicki Chhoyang stated that
12960-455: The 1920s by historians such as Gu Jiegang , one of the founders of the Doubting Antiquity School in China. In their attempts to prove that the earliest figures of Chinese history were mythological, Gu and his followers argued that these ancient sages were originally gods who were later depicted as humans by the rationalist intellectuals of the Warring States period. Yang Kuan , a member of
13122-402: The 1990s, most authors have agreed on a six-vowel system and a re-organized system of liquids . Earlier systems proposed voiced final stops to account for contacts between stop-final syllables and other tones, but many investigators now believe that Old Chinese lacked tonal distinctions, with Middle Chinese tones derived from consonant clusters at the end of the syllable. The major sources for
13284-410: The 1990s. Baxter did not produce a dictionary of reconstructions, but the book contains a large number of examples, including all the words occurring in rhymes in the Shijing , and his methods are described in great detail. Schuessler (2007) contains reconstructions of the entire Old Chinese lexicon using a simplified version of Baxter's system. Baxter's treatment of the initials is largely similar to
13446-555: The 60% of Afghans from other ethnic groups. In local government, such as the Kabul city council or Herat, Taliban loyalists, not locals, dominated, even when the Pashto -speaking Taliban could not communicate with roughly half of the population who spoke Dari or other non-Pashtun tongues. Critics complained that this "lack of local representation in urban administration made the Taliban appear as an occupying force." Iran has been described as
13608-718: The Cantonese scholar Chen Li performed a systematic analysis of a later redaction of the Qieyun , identifying its initial and final categories, though not the sounds they represented. Scholars have attempted to determine the phonetic content of the various distinctions by comparing them with rhyme tables from the Song dynasty , pronunciations in modern varieties and loans in Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese (the Sinoxenic materials), but many details regarding
13770-478: The Chinese departing tone derived from earlier *-s, which acted as a derivational suffix in Old Chinese. Then the departing tone syllables that Karlgren had reconstructed with *-d and *-g could instead be reconstructed as *-ts and *-ks, with the stops subsequently being lost before the final *-s, which eventually became a tonal distinction. The absence of a corresponding labial final could be attributed to early assimilation of *-ps to *-ts . Pulleyblank strengthened
13932-534: The Communists, sponsored the production of the movie Children of the Yellow Emperor ( Huangdi zisun 黃帝子孫 ), which was filmed mostly in Taiwanese Hokkien and showed extensive passages of Taiwanese folk opera . Directed by Bai Ke (1914–1964), a former assistant of Yuan Muzhi , it was a propaganda effort to convince speakers of Taiyu that they were linked to mainland people by common blood. In 2009 Ma Ying-jeou
14094-662: The Law of the Sources of the Law, a provision is made for the application of the "laws promulgated by the Kingdom of Italy". Mount Athos is a mountain peninsula in Greece which is an Eastern Orthodox autonomous area consisting of 20 monasteries under the direct jurisdiction of the Primate of Constantinople . There have been almost 1,800 years of a continuous Christian presence on Mount Athos, and it has
14256-741: The Middle Chinese stage, because they contain distinctions that cannot be derived from the Qieyun system. For example, the following dental initials have been identified in reconstructed proto-Min : Other points of articulation show similar distinctions within stops and nasals. Proto-Min voicing is inferred from the development of Min tones, but the phonetic values of the initials are otherwise uncertain. The sounds indicated as * -t , * -d , etc. are known as "softened stops" due to their reflexes in Jianyang and nearby Min varieties in Fujian , where they appear as fricatives or approximants, or are missing entirely, while
14418-526: The Middle East and Africa who advocate it, an Islamic republic is a state under a particular Islamic form of government . They see it as a compromise between a purely Islamic caliphate and secular nationalism and republicanism . In their conception of the Islamic republic, the penal code of the state is required to be compatible with some or all laws of Sharia , and the state does not necessarily have to be
14580-629: The Roman Emperor, the Chinese sovereign was historically held to be the Son of Heaven . However, from the first historical Emperor on, this was largely ceremonial and tradition quickly established it as a posthumous dignity, like the Roman institution. The situation before Qin Shi Huang Di ( r. 221–210 BCE) is less clear. The Shang dynasty ( c. 1600 BCE to c. 1045 BCE) essentially functioned as
14742-626: The Taliban succeeded in nearly eradicating opium production (99%) by 2001. Under the Taliban governance of Afghanistan, both drug users and dealers were severely prosecuted. Cabinet ministers and deputies were mullahs with a " madrasah education." Several of them, such as the Minister of Health and Governor of the State bank, were primarily military commanders who were ready to leave their administrative posts to fight when needed. Military reverses that trapped them behind lines or led to their deaths increased
14904-487: The Taliban's liking, and to wear turbans outside their households. Communists were systematically executed. Prayer was made compulsory and those who did not respect the religious obligation after the azaan were arrested. Gambling was banned. Thieves were punished by amputating their hands or feet . In 2000, the Taliban leader Mullah Omar officially banned opium cultivation and drug trafficking in Afghanistan;
15066-561: The Tibetan government in exile, is a Tibetan exile organization with a state-like internal structure. According to its charter, the position of head of state of the Central Tibetan Administration belongs ex officio to the Dalai Lama , a religious hierarch. In this respect, it continues the traditions of the former government of Tibet , which was ruled by the Dalai Lamas and their ministers, with
15228-425: The Xia. Given that the earliest extant mention of the Yellow Emperor was on a fourth-century BC Chinese bronze inscription claiming that he was the ancestor of the royal house of the state of Qi , Lothar von Falkenhausen speculates that Huangdi was invented as an ancestral figure as part of a strategy to claim that all ruling clans in the " Zhou dynasty culture sphere" shared common ancestry. Explicit accounts of
15390-497: The Yellow Emperor as a reaction to the theories of French scholar Albert Terrien de Lacouperie (1845–94), who in a book called The Western Origin of the Early Chinese Civilization, from 2300 B.C. to 200 A.D. (1892) had claimed that Chinese civilization was founded around 2300 BCE by Babylonian immigrants. Lacouperie's " Sino-Babylonianism " posited that Huangdi was a Mesopotamian tribal leader who had led
15552-504: The Yellow Emperor started to appear in Chinese texts during the Warring States period . The earliest extant mention of Huangdi is an inscription on the Chen Hou Yinqi dui ( 陳侯因齊敦 ), cast during the first half of the fourth century BC by the royal family (surnamed Tian 田 ) of the state of Qi , a powerful eastern state. As the Tian family had usurped the throne of Qi , establishing such
15714-404: The Yellow Emperor to be a more historical figure than earlier legendary figures such as Fu Xi , Nüwa , and Shennong . Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian begins with the Yellow Emperor, while passing over the others. Throughout most of Chinese history, the Yellow Emperor and the other ancient sages were considered to be historical figures. Their historicity started to be questioned in
15876-577: The Yellow Race ( Huangshi 黃史 ), which was published serially from 1905 to 1908, Huang Jie ( 黃節 ; 1873–1935) claimed that the "Han race" was the true master of China because it was descended from the Yellow Emperor. Reinforced by the values of filial piety and the Chinese patrilineal clan , the racial vision defended by Huang and others turned vengeance against the Manchus into a duty owed to one's ancestors. The Yellow Emperor continued to be revered after
16038-718: The birds were killed according to the Taliban's ruling. Movie theaters were closed and repurposed as mosques . Celebration of the Western and Iranian New Year was forbidden. Taking photographs and displaying pictures or portraits was forbidden, as it was considered by the Taliban as a form of idolatry . Women were banned from working , girls were forbidden to attend schools or universities , were requested to observe purdah and to be accompanied outside their households by male relatives; those who violated these restrictions were punished. Men were forbidden to shave their beards and required to let them grow and keep them long according to
16200-751: The blessings of the Hazrat Ishaans , who were the spiritual guides of the Timurid and Mughal Emperors. The Emperors believed in the Hazrat Ishaans to be the rightful spiritual successors of Muhammad and by this virtue to be the ultimate intermediaries between God and mankind in every time ( Qutb ). They thus used the title Zwillu-Nabi'llah (ظِلُّ النبی ٱلله) or "Sayeh Nabi-e- Khuda" in Persian which means "Shadow of God´s Prophet" in English to denote their representation of God on Earth. Emperor Aurangzeb in particular took over
16362-517: The chaos in the national administration. At the national level, "all senior Tajik , Uzbek and Hazara bureaucrats" were replaced "with Pashtuns, whether qualified or not." Consequently, the ministries "by and large ceased to function." Journalist Ahmed Rashid described the Taliban government as "a secret society run by Kandaharis ... mysterious, secretive, and dictatorial." They did not hold elections, as their spokesman explained: The Sharia does not allow politics or political parties. That
16524-513: The color yellow represents the earth phase , the Yellow Dragon , and the center. The correlation of the colors in association with different dynasties was mentioned in the Lüshi Chunqiu (late 3rd century BC), where the Yellow Emperor's reign was seen to be governed by earth. The character huang 黃 ("yellow") was often used in place of the homophonous huang 皇 , which means "august" (in
16686-519: The concept of money , and cuju , an early Chinese version of football. He is also sometimes said to have been partially responsible for the invention of the guqin zither , although others credit the Yan Emperor with inventing instruments for Ling Lun 's compositions. There are other major traditions where Fuxi was the one who invented the calendar and the Yellow Emperor merely reformed and intercalated it. In traditional accounts, he also goads
16848-415: The country, aside from the opposition ( Northern Alliance ) strongholds which were primarily found in the northeast corner of Badakhshan Province . Areas under the Taliban's direct control were mainly Afghanistan's major cities and highways. Tribal khans and warlords had de facto direct control over various small towns, villages, and rural areas. The Taliban sought to establish law and order and to impose
17010-474: The director of the national radio and television network , the heads of powerful major religious and economic foundations , the chief justice of Iran , the attorney general (indirectly through the chief justice), special tribunals, and members of the supreme national security council who are dealing with defense and foreign affairs. He also co-appoints the 12 jurists of the Guardian Council . The Leader
17172-400: The disorder within his realm, the Yellow Emperor took up arms to establish his domination over various warring factions. Thearch Theocracy is a form of autocracy or oligarchy in which one or more deities are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries who manage the government's daily affairs. The word theocracy originates from
17334-405: The division-II vowels of Middle Chinese derived from the Old Chinese medial *-l- that Karlgren had proposed to account for phonetic series contacts with l- . Yakhontov also observed that the Middle Chinese semi-vowel -w- had a limited distribution, occurring either after velar or laryngeal initials or before finals -aj , -an or at . He suggested that -w- had two sources, deriving from either
17496-405: The early 20th century Huang Kan observed that only 19 of them occurred with a wide range of finals, implying that the others were in some sense secondary developments. The logographic Chinese writing system does not use symbols for individual sounds as is done in an alphabetic system. However, the vast majority of characters are phono-semantic compounds , in which a word is written by combining
17658-402: The early Islamic model. Discussion was followed by a building of a consensus by the "believers". Before capturing Kabul, there was talk of stepping aside once a government of "good Muslims" took power, and law and order were restored. As the Taliban's power grew, decisions were made by Mullah Omar without consulting the jirga and without consulting other parts of the country. One such instance
17820-679: The end of the Chinese Civil War , Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang (KMT) ruled that the Republic of China (ROC) would keep paying homage to the Yellow Emperor on April 4, the National Tomb Sweeping Day , but neither he nor the three presidents that succeeded him ever paid homage in person. In 1955, the KMT, which was led by Mandarin speakers and still poised on retaking the mainland from
17982-448: The few words where Karlgren had *b, as well as a voiceless counterpart *f. Unlike the above ideas, these have not been adopted by later workers. Pulleyblank also proposed a number of initial consonant clusters, allowing any initial to be preceded by *s- and followed by *-l- (*-r- in later revisions), and grave initials and *n to be followed by *-δ- (*-l- in later revisions). On the basis of transcription evidence, Pulleyblank argued that
18144-564: The finals are still disputed. According to its preface, the Qieyun did not reflect a single contemporary dialect, but incorporated distinctions made in different parts of China at the time (a diasystem ). The fact that the Qieyun system contains more distinctions than any single contemporary form of speech means that it retains additional information about the history of the language. The large number of initials and finals are unevenly distributed, suggesting hypotheses about earlier forms of Chinese. For example, it includes 37 initials, but in
18306-560: The first ancestors of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, as well as the founders of the main ruling houses in the Zhou sphere – as descendants of Huangdi, giving the impression that Chinese history was the history of one large family. The Dai Dai Liji ( 大戴禮記 ), compiled by Dai De towards the end of the Western Han dynasty , carries a quote attributed to Confucius: 生而民得其利百年, 死而民畏其神百年, 亡而民用其教百年, 故曰三百年. When [the Yellow Emperor]
18468-520: The first time in 60 years. Wrapping himself in the relic, he appeared on the roof of a building in the center of Kandahar while hundreds of Pashtun mullahs below shouted " Amir al-Mu'minin !" (Commander of the Faithful), in a pledge of support. Taliban spokesman Mullah Wakil explained: Decisions are based on the advice of the Amir-ul Momineen. For us, consultation is not necessary. We believe that this
18630-703: The following inventory of initial consonants: Li also included the *-l- medial proposed by Pulleyblank, in most cases re-interpreting it as *-r-. In addition to the medial *-j- projected back from Middle Chinese, he also postulated the combination *-rj-. Assuming that rhyming syllables had the same main vowel, Li proposed a system of four vowels *i , *u , *ə and *a . He also included three diphthongs *iə , *ia and *ua to account for syllables that were placed in rhyme groups reconstructed with *ə or *a but were distinguished in Middle Chinese: Li followed Karlgren in proposing final consonants *-d and *-g, but
18792-430: The following series of initial consonants: To account for the broad variety of vowels in his reconstruction of Middle Chinese, Karlgren also proposed a complex inventory of Old Chinese vowels: He also had a secondary vowel *i, which occurred only in combination with other vowels. As with Middle Chinese, Karlgren viewed his reconstruction as a narrow transcription of the sounds of Old Chinese. Thus *e rhymed with *ĕ in
18954-474: The head of a thearchy (a kingdom of gods), but the more specific "theocrat" carries associations of a strong priesthood that would be generally inaccurate in describing imperial China. Others reserve the use of the word "thearch" to describe the legendary figures of Chinese prehistory while continuing to use "emperor" to describe historical rulers. The Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (1851 to 1864) in Qing China
19116-433: The heavens and earth and to culture heroes credited with the invention of agriculture , clothing , music , astrology , etc. Even after the fall of Qin in 206 BCE, an emperor's words were considered sacred edicts ( 聖旨 ) and his written proclamations "directives from above" ( 上諭 ). As a result, some Sinologists translate the title huangdi (usually rendered "emperor" ) as thearch . The term properly refers to
19278-624: The historian Cangjie into creating the first Chinese character writing system, the Oracle bone script , and his principal wife Leizu invents sericulture and teaches his people how to weave silk and dye clothes. At one point in his reign the Yellow Emperor allegedly visited the mythical East sea and met a talking beast called the Bai Ze who taught him the knowledge of all supernatural creatures. This beast explained to him there were 11,522 (or 1,522) kinds of supernatural creatures. The Yellow Emperor and
19440-462: The initiator of Chinese culture , he is traditionally credited with numerous innovations – including the lunar calendar ( Chinese calendar ), Taoism , wooden houses, boats, carts, the compass needle , "the earliest forms of writing ", and cuju , a ball game. Calculated by Jesuit missionaries , as based on various Chinese chronicles, Huangdi's traditional reign dates begin in either 2698 or 2697 BC, spanning one hundred years exactly, later accepted by
19602-572: The issuing of permits. Residents of Mount Athos must be men aged 18 and over who are members of the Eastern Orthodox Church and also either monks or workers. Athos is governed jointly by a community consisting of members of the 20 monasteries and a Civil Administrator , appointed by the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs . The monastic community is led by the Protos . An Islamic republic
19764-404: The latter is said to represent the body of the Yellow Dragon ( 黃龍 Huánglóng ), Huangdi's animal form. Huangdi was also referred to as "Youxiong" ( 有熊 ; Yǒuxióng ). This name has been interpreted as either a place name or a clan name. According to British sinologist Herbert Allen Giles (1845–1935), that name was "taken from that of [Huangdi's] hereditary principality". William Nienhauser,
19926-454: The loss of the final stop in checked syllables, giving rise to the departing tone. Other instance of the departing tone arise from word that shifted from the level and rising categories. In a pair of papers published in 1960, the Russian linguist Sergei Yakhontov proposed two revisions to the structure of Old Chinese that are now widely accepted. He proposed that both the retroflex initials and
20088-591: The main character's significance in different ways. According to Huangfu Mi (215–282), the Yellow Emperor was born in Shou Qiu ("Longevity Hill"), which is today on the outskirts of the city of Qufu in Shandong. Early on, he lived with his tribe near the Ji River – Edwin Pulleyblank states that "there seems to be no record of a Ji River outside the myth" – and later migrated to Zhuolu in modern-day Hebei . He then became
20250-700: The most commonly used until it was replaced by that of Baxter in the 1990s. Although Li did not produce a complete dictionary of Old Chinese, he presented his methods in sufficient detail that others could apply them to the data. Schuessler (1987) includes reconstructions of the Western Zhou lexicon using Li's system. Li included the labio-velars, labio-laryngeals and voiceless nasals proposed by Pulleyblank. As Middle Chinese g- occurs only in palatal environments, Li attempted to derive both g- and ɣ- from Old Chinese *g- (and similarly *gw- ), but had to assume irregular developments in some cases. Thus he arrived at
20412-452: The non-softened variants appear as stops. Evidence from early loans into Mienic languages suggests that the softened stops were prenasalized . Several early texts contain transcriptions of foreign names and terms using Chinese characters for their phonetic values. Of particular importance are the many Buddhist transcriptions of the Eastern Han period, because the native pronunciation of
20574-495: The other derived from dental fricatives *δ and *θ, cognate with Tibeto-Burman *l-. He considered recasting his Old Chinese *l and *δ as *r and *l to match the Tibeto-Burman cognates, but rejected the idea to avoid complicating his account of the evolution of Chinese. Later he re-visited this decision, recasting *δ, *θ, *l and *lh as *l, *hl, *r and *hr respectively. Pulleyblank also proposed an Old Chinese labial fricative *v for
20736-553: The pharaoh had the responsibility of mediating between the gods and the people. The Japanese people have historically venerated their emperor as the descendant of the Shinto sun-goddess Amaterasu . Through this line of descent, the emperor was seen as a living god who was the supreme leader of the Japanese people. This status only changed with the Occupation of Japan following the end of
20898-402: The power of rain and clouds, whereas his mythical rival Chiyou (or the Yan Emperor ) stood for fire and drought. Also disagreeing with Yang Kuan's hypothesis, Sarah Allan finds it unlikely that such a popular myth as the Yellow Emperor's could have come from a taboo character. She argues instead that pre-Shang "'history'," including the story of the Yellow Emperor, "can all be understood as
21060-425: The proposals of Pulleyblank and Li. He reconstructed the liquids *l, *hl, *r and *hr in the same contexts as Pulleyblank. Unlike Li, he distinguished Old Chinese *ɦ and *w from *g and *gʷ. Other additions were *z, with a limited distribution, and voiceless and voiced palatals *hj and *j, which he described as "especially tentative, being based largely on scanty graphic evidence". As in Pulleyblank and Li's systems,
21222-515: The racial consciousness they thought was missing from their compatriots, and thus depicted the Manchus as racially inferior barbarians who were unfit to rule over Han Chinese . Chen's widely circulated pamphlets claimed that the "Han race" formed one big family descended from the Yellow Emperor. The first issue (Nov. 1905) of the Minbao 民報 ("People's Journal"), which was founded in Tokyo by revolutionaries of
21384-640: The reconstruction of early forms of those languages. Many authors have produced their own reconstructions of Old Chinese. A few of the most influential are listed here. The first complete reconstruction of Old Chinese was produced by the Swedish linguist Bernhard Karlgren in a dictionary of Middle and Old Chinese, the Grammata Serica (1940), revised in 1957 as the Grammata Serica Recensa (GSR). Although Karlgren's Old Chinese reconstructions have been superseded, his comprehensive dictionary remains
21546-468: The rhyme table tradition were not present in the Han period. Many students of Chinese have noted "word families", groups of words with related meanings and variant pronunciations, sometimes written using the same character. One common case is "derivation by tone change", in which words in the departing tone appear to be derived from words in other tones. Another alternation involves transitive verbs with an unvoiced initial and passive or stative verbs with
21708-604: The same current of historiography , noted that only in the Warring States period had the Yellow Emperor started to be described as the first ruler of China. Yang thus argued that Huangdi was a later transformation of Shangdi , the supreme god of the Shang dynasty 's pantheon . Also in the 1920s, French scholars Henri Maspero and Marcel Granet published critical studies of China's accounts of high antiquity. In his Danses et légendes de la Chine ancienne ["Dances and legends of ancient China"], for example, Granet argued that these tales were "historicized legends" that said more about
21870-480: The same phonetic series would be in the same rhyme group, making it possible to assign almost all words to rhyme groups. A final revision by Wang Li in the 1930s produced the standard set of 31 rhyme groups. These were used in all reconstructions up to the 1980s, when Zhengzhang Shangfang , Sergei Starostin and William Baxter independently proposed a more radical splitting into more than 50 rhyme groups. The Min dialects are believed to have split off before
22032-471: The sense of 'distinguished') or "radiant", giving Huangdi attributes close to those of Shangdi, the Shang supreme god. The Records of the Grand Historian , compiled by Sima Qian in the first century BC, gives the Yellow Emperor's name as "Xuan Yuan" ( traditional Chinese : 軒轅 ; simplified Chinese : 轩辕 ; pinyin : Xuān Yuán < Old Chinese ( B-S ) * qʰa[r]-[ɢ]ʷa[n] , lit. "Chariot Shaft"). Third-century scholar Huangfu Mi , who wrote
22194-536: The sounds are assumed to have been similar at the time the characters were chosen, such relationships give clues to the lost sounds. The first systematic study of the structure of Chinese characters was Xu Shen 's Shuowen Jiezi (100 AD). The Shuowen was mostly based on the small seal script standardized in the Qin dynasty . Earlier characters from oracle bones and Zhou bronze inscriptions often reveal relationships that were obscured in later forms. Rhyme has been
22356-656: The sounds of Old Chinese, covering most of the lexicon, are the sound system of Middle Chinese (7th century AD), the structure of Chinese characters , and the rhyming patterns of the Classic of Poetry ( Shijing ), dating from the early part of the 1st millennium BC. Several other kinds of evidence are less comprehensive, but provide valuable clues. These include Min dialects, early Chinese transcriptions of foreign names, early loans between Chinese and neighbouring languages, and families of Chinese words that appear to be related. Middle Chinese, or more precisely Early Middle Chinese,
22518-430: The source languages, such as Sanskrit and Pali , is known in detail. Eastern Han commentaries on the classics contain many remarks on the pronunciations of particular words, which has yielded a great deal of information on the pronunciations and even dialectal variation of the period. By studying such glosses, the Qing philologist Qian Daxin discovered that the labio-dental and retroflex stop initials identified in
22680-417: The state of Qi, Robin D. S. Yates hypothesizes that Huang–Lao originated in that region. The cult of Huangdi became very popular during the Warring States period (5th century – 221 BC), a period of intense competition between rival states which ended with the unification of the realm by the state of Qin . In addition to his role as ancestor, he became associated with "centralized statecraft" and emerged as
22842-406: The statues became filled with the breath of creation and eventually began to move [after the 300 years]. Huang Di...received his magic powers when he was 100 years old. He [became a xian ] and, riding a dragon , rose to heaven where he became one of the five [ Wufang Shangdi ]. Huang Di himself rules over the fifth cardinal point, the centre." In traditional Chinese accounts, the Yellow Emperor
23004-477: The structure of Chinese characters with descriptions in medieval rhyme dictionaries , though more recent approaches have also incorporated other kinds of evidence. Although the various notations appear to be very different, they correspond with each other on most points. By the 1970s, it was generally agreed that Old Chinese had fewer points of articulation than Middle Chinese , a set of voiceless sonorants , and labiovelar and labio-laryngeal initials. Since
23166-482: The term "Sikyong" has had a precedent dating back to the 7th Dalai Lama , and that the name change "ensures historical continuity and legitimacy of the traditional leadership from the Fifth Dalai Lama". The online Dharma Dictionary translates sikyong ( srid skyong ) as "secular ruler; regime, regent". The title sikyong had previously been used by regents who ruled Tibet during the Dalai Lama's minority. Having
23328-679: The theory with several examples of syllables in the departing tone being used to transcribe foreign words ending in -s into Chinese. He further proposed that the Middle Chinese rising tone derived from *-ʔ, implying that Old Chinese lacked tones. Mei Tsu-lin later supported this theory with evidence from early transcriptions of Sanskrit words, and pointed out that rising tone words end in a glottal stop in some modern Chinese dialects, including Wenzhounese and some Min dialects. The Chinese linguist Li Fang-Kuei published an important new reconstruction in 1971, synthesizing proposals of Yakhontov and Pulleyblank with ideas of his own. His system remained
23490-459: The time when they were written than about the time they purported to describe. In the "middle of the [20th] century, a group of" Chinese "historians proposed the theory that [the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors ]" were originally Chinese gods who became thought of as human during the later period of the Zhou dynasty . Most scholars now agree that the Yellow Emperor originated as a god who
23652-454: The title of Caliph and Amir Al Muminin through the blessing ( Ijaza ) of the contemporary Hazrat Ishaan , his first cousin and son in law Prince Nizamuddin Naqshband a paternal grandson of Khwaja Khawand Mahmud and maternally of Jahangir . Reconstructions of Old Chinese#Baxter–Sagart (2014) Although Old Chinese is known from written records beginning around 1200 BC,
23814-506: The twelve council members are faqih and have the power to approve or reject all bills passed by the Parliament , whether the faqih believes that the bill is in accordance with Islamic laws and customs ( Sharia ) or not. The other six members are lawyers appointed by the chief justice, who is a cleric and appointed by the Leader. In the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia , Saudi Arabia defines itself as
23976-414: The twentieth-century promoters of a universal calendar starting with the Yellow Emperor. Huangdi's cult is first attested in the Warring States period , and became prominent late in that same period and into the early Han dynasty , when he was portrayed as the originator of the centralized state, as a cosmic ruler, and as a patron of esoteric arts. A large number of texts – such as the Huangdi Neijing ,
24138-403: The two Japanese authors advocated. Anti-Manchu intellectuals and activists who searched for China's "national essence" ( guocui 國粹 ) adapted Sino-Babylonianism to their needs. Zhang Binglin explained Huangdi's battle with Chi You as a conflict opposing the newly arrived civilized Mesopotamians to backward local tribes, a battle that transformed China into one of the most civilized places in
24300-742: The word theocracy : (1) government of a state by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided; and (2) a state governed by a theocracy. Following the Capture of Rome on 20 September 1870, the Papal States including Rome with the Vatican were annexed by the Kingdom of Italy . In 1929, through the Lateran Treaty signed with the Italian Government, the new state of Vatican City
24462-432: The world. Zhang's reinterpretation of Sima Qian's account "underscored the need to recover the glory of early China." Liu Shipei also presented these early times as the golden age of Chinese civilization. In addition to tying the Chinese to an ancient center of human civilization in Mesopotamia, Lacouperie's theories suggested that China should be ruled by the descendants of Huangdi. In a controversial essay called History of
24624-408: Was a variant Chinese character for huang 皇 ("august") or was used as a way to avoid the naming taboo for the latter. Yang's view has been criticized by Mitarai Masaru and by Michael Puett. Historian Mark Edward Lewis agrees that huang 黄 and huang 皇 were often interchangeable, but disagreeing with Yang, he claims that huang meaning "yellow" appeared first. Based on what he admits
24786-410: Was a heterodox Christian theocracy led by Hong Xiuquan , who portrayed himself as the younger brother of Jesus Christ . His theocratic state fought one of the most destructive wars in history, the Taiping Rebellion , against the Qing dynasty for fifteen years before being crushed following the 1864 fall of the rebel capital Nanjing . The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state,
24948-413: Was alive, people benefited from his rule for a hundred years; after he died, people stood in awe of his spirit for a hundred years; after [his spirit] disappeared, people used his teachings for a hundred years. For this reason, people say [that the Yellow Emperor lived for] three hundred years. The Yellow Emperor was credited with an enormous number of cultural legacies and esoteric teachings. While Taoism
25110-538: Was extremely influential in shaping how the Chinese viewed the origin of their history. The Shiji begins its chronological account of Chinese history with the life of Huangdi, whom it presents as a sage sovereign from antiquity. It recounts that Huangdi's father was Shaodian and his mother was Fubao ( 附寶 ). The Yellow Emperor had four wives. His first wife Leizu of Xiling bore him two sons. His other three wives were his second wife Fenglei ( 封嫘 ), third wife Tongyu ( 彤魚 ) and fourth wife Momu ( 嫫母 ). The emperor had
25272-547: Was first referred to as the ancestor of all Chinese people . Starting in 1903, radical publications started using the projected date of his birth as the first year of the Chinese calendar . Intellectuals such as Liu Shipei (1884–1919) found this practice necessary in order to "preserve the [Han] race" ( baozhong 保種 ) from both dominance by Manchu people and foreign encroachment. Revolutionaries motivated by Anti-Manchuism such as Chen Tianhua (1875–1905), Zou Rong (1885–1905), and Zhang Binglin (1868–1936) tried to foster
25434-489: Was forbidden in the People's Republic of China until the end of the Cultural Revolution. The prohibition was halted during the 1980s when the government reversed itself and resurrected the "Yellow Emperor cult". Starting in the 1980s, the cult was revived and phrases relating to the "Descendants of Yan and Huang" were sometimes used by the Chinese state when referring to people of Chinese descent. In 1984, for example, Deng Xiaoping argued for Chinese unification saying " Taiwan
25596-411: Was formally created and recognised as an independent state from Fascist Italy . The head of state of the Vatican is the pope , elected by the College of Cardinals , an assembly of high-ranking clergy. The pope is elected for life, and either dies in office, or in extremely rare situations may resign. The cardinals are appointed by the popes, who thereby choose the electors of their successors. Voting
25758-448: Was later represented as a historical person. K. C. Chang sees Huangdi and other cultural heroes as "ancient religious figures" who were " euhemerized " in the late Warring States and Han periods. Historian of ancient China Mark Edward Lewis speaks of the Yellow Emperor's "earlier nature as a god", whereas Roel Sterckx , a professor at University of Cambridge , calls Huangdi a "legendary cultural hero". The origin of Huangdi's mythology
25920-409: Was subordinate to the 14th Dalai Lama who presided over the government in exile from its founding. In August of that year, Lobsang Sangay received 55 percent of 49,189 votes, defeating his nearest rival Tethong Tenzin Namgyal by 8,646 votes, becoming the second popularly elected Kalön Tripa. The Dalai Lama announced that his political authority would be transferred to Sangay. On 20 September 2012,
26082-430: Was the first ROC president to celebrate the Tomb Sweeping Day rituals for Huangdi in person, on which occasion he proclaimed that both Chinese culture and common descent from the Yellow Emperor united people from Taiwan and the mainland. Later the same year, Lien Chan – a former Vice President of the Republic of China who is now Honorary Chairman of the Kuomintang – and his wife Lien Fang Yu paid homage at
26244-513: Was unable to clearly separate them from open syllables, and extended them to all rhyme groups but one, for which he proposed a final *-r. He also proposed that labio-velar consonants could occur as final consonants. Thus in Li's system every syllable ended in one of the following consonants: Li marked the rising and departing tones with a suffix *-x or *-h, without specifying how they were realized. William H. Baxter 's monograph A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology displaced Li's reconstruction in
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