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113-404: A yamen ( ya-men ; traditional Chinese : 衙門 ; simplified Chinese : 衙门 ; pinyin : yámén ; Wade–Giles : ya-men ; Manchu : ᠶᠠᠮᡠᠨ yamun ) was the administrative office or residence of a local bureaucrat or mandarin in imperial China , Korea , and Vietnam . A yamen can also be any governmental office or body headed by a mandarin, at any level of government:

226-572: A capable and energetic commander during the civil war of 1399–1402, but his arrogance and contempt towards his older brother, the Hongxi Emperor, who was the Xuande Emperor's father, caused tension. Zhu Gaoxu became bitter when he was not named as a successor in 1404. His disobedience eventually led to his banishment to the backwater city of Le'an in Qingzhou prefecture, Shandong . Believing that he

339-483: A card on the waist belt to identify themselves. In the Ming Dynasty, due to their duties, yamen runners were considered as a debased class ( jianmin , 贱民 ), which is even lower than good commoners ( liangmin , 良民 ) such as farmers. It is the lowest stratum in society. The salary provided by the court for the yamen runner was low compared to other jobs. The average daily salary was enough for only one meal. While

452-503: A certain extent in South Korea , remain virtually identical to traditional characters, with variations between the two forms largely stylistic. There has historically been a debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters . Because the simplifications are fairly systematic, it is possible to convert computer-encoded characters between the two sets, with the main issue being ambiguities in simplified representations resulting from

565-462: A decline in discipline, an increase in desertion, and a decrease in the overall strength of the army. In an attempt to address these issues, inspection officials were appointed in 1427 to verify the condition and numbers of the army detachments and restore discipline. However, their efforts were largely ineffective. The local military headquarters also came under the supervision of control authorities, but this did not have much impact either. In 1429,

678-538: A feat that was not always achieved in later eras. During the early years of the Xuande Emperor's reign, a major issue that arose was the war in Jiaozhi Province , or Đại Việt under Ming rule (present-day northern Vietnam ), which had been ongoing since 1408. In 1425, Ming troops, led by newly appointed commanders Li An ( 李安 ) and Chen Zhi, suffered multiple defeats at the hands of the Viets, led by Lê Lợi . In response,

791-581: A few months, Gu Zuo dismissed 43 censors from the Beijing and Nanjing offices, and Liu Quan himself was punished for numerous abuses of power. The Censorate underwent a reorganization, with changes made to procedures and an increase in the powers of the censors. Additionally, commissioners were appointed to oversee military farms, large construction projects, and military training camps near Beijing, as well as to manage taxes in South Zhili. These taxes were collected in

904-655: A formidable opponent, he also failed to recognize the strength of the government, which had functioned effectively during the Yongle Emperor's extended absences on campaigns in Mongolia. Furthermore, he did not consider the significant decrease in the princes' influence that the Yongle Emperor had achieved. As a result, he was in a much weaker position than Yongle had been in 1399. The emperor initially hesitated, but eventually succumbed to pressure from Grand Secretary Yang Rong and other advisors, ultimately taking personal command of

1017-543: A front gate, a courtyard and a hall (typically serving as a court of law); offices, prison cells and store rooms; and residences for the bureaucrat, his family and his staff. At the provincial level and above, specialisation among officials occurred to a greater extent. For example, the three chief officials of a province ( simplified Chinese : 三大宪 ; traditional Chinese : 三大憲 ; pinyin : Sàn Dà Xiàn ; lit. 'the Three Great Laws';) controlled

1130-472: A limited extent. They were also withdrawn as a mandatory form of payment for trade fees. Ultimately, these measures had little impact on the country's economy. The widespread distrust of paper currency and the scarcity of coins resulted in a growing trade in silver. Despite the government's opposition to replacing copper coins and paper currency with silver, attempts to prohibit the use of silver in commercial transactions were unsuccessful. However, silver alone

1243-475: A mandate imposed on high-ranking officials of the central authorities. Typically, these officials held the rank of deputy minister, particularly in the military, and later also held high positions in the Censorate. They also held the rank of (co-)superintendant of military affairs. This gave them the authority to oversee civil, military, and surveillance offices. The immediate result of implementing grand coordinators

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1356-447: A patron of the arts, and his reign was marked by significant cultural and political achievements. Despite his short temper, he was open to advice. As an emperor, he was conscientious and sought to balance the influence of various factions within the Ming elite–including civil officials, eunuchs, and generals. While he was capable of making strong decisions when necessary, he typically relied on

1469-423: A reduction in the tax rate in 1393, the land tax still made up almost a tenth of the empire's total tax quota, equivalent to 2.81 million shi of rice (with 1 shi being equivalent to 107.4 liters). Additionally, Songjiang Prefecture contributed 4.14% of the total tax quota. During the Yongle Emperor's reign, the country saw a ten percent increase in land tax revenue, which was likely distributed evenly throughout

1582-533: A regional (or local) basis, but he found that he needed bureaucracy to run a country as big as China. Hence, new bureaucratic offices arose, thus replicating the functions of the Imperial yamen s in many ways. The term yamen is still used in colloquial Chinese today, however, to denote government offices. It sometimes carries negative connotations of an arrogant or inefficient bureaucracy . Traditional Chinese characters Traditional Chinese characters are

1695-497: A significant amount of resources, and the subsequent loss of mineral wealth further exacerbated the situation. The imposition of high taxes and levies placed an unbearable burden on the economy of wealthy regions in China, resulting in a decline in government revenue. For instance, Suzhou, the economic hub of China, was three years behind in paying its taxes by the late 1420s. Moreover, the profitability of silver and copper mines declined in

1808-462: A solution to combat the decline in the value of government banknotes by increasing business taxes and only accepting payment in government banknotes. However, this approach did not yield the desired results. The government then shifted to a more cautious strategy, selling licenses to trade salt for state coins. Unfortunately, this measure also failed to increase the value of state stamps. The government also introduced new trade fees and customs duties on

1921-601: A standard set of Chinese character forms used to write Chinese languages . In Taiwan , the set of traditional characters is regulated by the Ministry of Education and standardized in the Standard Form of National Characters . These forms were predominant in written Chinese until the middle of the 20th century, when various countries that use Chinese characters began standardizing simplified sets of characters, often with characters that existed before as well-known variants of

2034-467: A step further by sending these officials on long-term assignments, rather than just once like his predecessors. For example, in September 1425, he sent two commissioners to South Zhili and Zhejiang , and in 1430, they were sent to Hunan , Shanxi , and Sichuan . They were also dispatched to Jiangxi and Shaanxi around 1426. The role of grand coordinators was not an independent function, but rather

2147-476: A transformative effect on Đại Việt. The long-term warfare also resulted in a strong and efficient Viet army, which would later be challenged by Champa , located further south. Envoys from Southeast Asian countries, such as Champa, Java , Ayutthaya , and Sumatra , regularly visited Beijing. However, there were no envoys from the Indian Ocean coast. The ban on unauthorized trade and overseas travel by subjects

2260-561: A trap, resulting in a crushing defeat. The Chinese army suffered heavy losses, with approximately 70,000 men killed. In the aftermath of this disaster, Wang Tong, without the emperor's knowledge, accepted Lê Lợi's proposal and began withdrawing troops from Jiaozhi on 12 November. Meanwhile, Mu Sheng had reached the upper reaches of the Red River and began constructing ships to advance downstream. However, upon learning of Wang Tong's withdrawal, Mu Sheng retreated back to China. On 16 November 1427,

2373-850: Is 産 (also the accepted form in Japan and Korea), while in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan the accepted form is 產 (also the accepted form in Vietnamese chữ Nôm ). The PRC tends to print material intended for people in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and overseas Chinese in traditional characters. For example, versions of the People's Daily are printed in traditional characters, and both People's Daily and Xinhua have traditional character versions of their website available, using Big5 encoding. Mainland companies selling products in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan use traditional characters in order to communicate with consumers;

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2486-439: Is a piece of paper on which a yamen runner was drawn, and upon which is recorded an accusation or tax liability, as well as a demand for the recipient to appear in court or pay the tax. The prefects and magistrates issued this to the litigants or tax defaulters in the hope that they would voluntarily appear in court or pay tax in arrears. It's unclear when the paper yamen runner was created, but literature about it can be found during

2599-483: The Chinese Commercial News , World News , and United Daily News all use traditional characters, as do some Hong Kong–based magazines such as Yazhou Zhoukan . The Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified characters. DVDs are usually subtitled using traditional characters, influenced by media from Taiwan as well as by the two countries sharing the same DVD region , 3. With most having immigrated to

2712-641: The Amur River . The Eastern Mongols were ruled by Arughtai , while the Western Mongolian Oirats were led by Toghon. However, Arughtai was not recognized by the Uriankhai Mongols in the southeast of Mongolia. As a result, he maintained friendly relations with the Ming dynasty and engaged in trade, exchanging horses for silk and tea. In October 1428, the Uriankhaians were known to occasionally raid

2825-587: The Jianwen Emperor , defeated him in a three-year civil war , and became the third Ming emperor in 1402. As a child, Zhu Zhanji was trained in both military skills and Confucian literature by Hanlin academics. He was a talented man of letters, but his physical prowess, in contrast to his father's frail health, made him excel in military disciplines. This impressed Yongle Emperor, who shared Zhu Zhanji's love for hunting and riding. Yongle allowed him to accompany him on hunting trips and military inspections. In 1414,

2938-469: The Kensiu language . Xuande Emperor Zhu Zhanji was the son of Zhu Gaochi, who would later become the Hongxi Emperor. He had a passion for poetry and literature, and was also known for his skill in painting and warfare. In 1425, following his father's brief reign, he ascended to the throne as the emperor of the Ming dynasty. Upon taking power, he made the decision to reverse his father's plan to relocate

3051-622: The Shanghainese -language character U+20C8E 𠲎 CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-20C8E —a composition of 伐 with the ⼝   'MOUTH' radical—used instead of the Standard Chinese 嗎 ; 吗 . Typefaces often use the initialism TC to signify the use of traditional Chinese characters, as well as SC for simplified Chinese characters . In addition, the Noto, Italy family of typefaces, for example, also provides separate fonts for

3164-514: The Eastern Mongols and Western Oirats . The Xuande Emperor permitted Zheng He 's final Indian Ocean voyage in 1431–1433. During the Xuande Emperor's rule, eunuchs gained influence, particularly in the secret police. The emperor sought order through purges in the Censorate and military service reforms in 1428, but these didn't fully address inefficiencies and low morale among hereditary soldiers. The Xuande Emperor's government attempted to promote

3277-504: The Eastern Mongols. In September 1434, the Oirats were successful in defeating and killing Arughtai, and Toghon maintained good relations with the Ming government, a relationship that has continued since then. The Xuande Emperor made repeated attempts to establish relations with Japan, but shogun Yoshimochi (shōgun 1394–1425, effectively ruled 1408–1428) adamantly refused any communication. However, his successor Yoshinori (reigned 1429–1441)

3390-503: The Grand Canal, which could only be paid in shillings. However, these fees had a negative impact on trade. As a result, there was strong opposition to these fees and they were eventually abolished after a few years. Despite the government's efforts, these measures did not effectively support the state's economy. The value of paper money continued to decline. By the 1430s, banknotes were no longer in use and were only used to pay employees to

3503-559: The Grand Secretaries, who, during the Yongle Emperor's reign, only had an advisory role of reading the emperor's correspondence and drafting replies. However, during the reign of the Hongxi Emperor, they gained more influence and were now granted real executive power. This was formalized by granting ministerial titles to Yang Shiqi (Minister of War), Huang Huai (Minister of Revenue), and Jin Youzi (Minister of Rites). Due to their long service to

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3616-501: The Grand Secretaries. They feared that their own positions would be threatened if Zhu Zhanji were to take over. In August 1424, the Yongle Emperor died due to a stroke while returning from the fifth Mongol campaign in the Mongolian steppe. His son, the Hongxi Emperor, succeeded him as the new emperor of the Ming dynasty at the start of September. On 1 November 1424, the Hongxi Emperor named Zhu Zhanji as crown prince. In April 1425, he sent

3729-507: The Indian Ocean. As a result, the end of the early Ming period marked the end of the three-hundred-year China's dominance in the East Asian seas. During the Xuande era, there was relative calm on the northern border. The Jurchens, who lived in present-day Manchuria, acknowledged Ming sovereignty and did not oppose the expeditions led by eunuch Yishiha . These expeditions even reached the mouth of

3842-563: The Koreans, while also asking them not to send gold, silver, or other unusual gifts that were not produced in their country. Additionally, the emperor rejected a request to admit Korean students to the Imperial University in Beijing, instead donating a collection of Confucian classics and historical literature to Korea as a replacement. While the official Chinese description of the relationship emphasizes mutual respect, Korean records highlight

3955-558: The Ming and Qing Dynasties. Because it was tempting for yamen runners to take unlawful advantage of their position, magistrates would occasionally allow plaintiffs to take litigants to the court first. If a plaintiff failed to do so, the magistrate would issue a paper yamen runner. Only if both methods failed would an actual yamen runner be sent to arrest the litigant. In this way, fewer yamen runners were required. Such practices were typically employed only for mild crimes, however. For serious crimes such as murder, theft, gambling, and fights,

4068-547: The People's Republic of China, traditional Chinese characters are standardised according to the Table of Comparison between Standard, Traditional and Variant Chinese Characters . Dictionaries published in mainland China generally show both simplified and their traditional counterparts. There are differences between the accepted traditional forms in mainland China and elsewhere, for example the accepted traditional form of 产 in mainland China

4181-448: The Trần family was no longer alive, and they should recognize him as the king. He also refused to repatriate Chinese prisoners and officials. The Xuande Emperor, however, refused to recognize Lê Lợi as the ruler of Đại Việt and demanded the return of the Trần dynasty. It was not until 1431, when Lê Lợi sent a humble letter, that the Xuande Emperor appointed him as "administrator of the affairs of

4294-571: The United States during the second half of the 19th century, Chinese Americans have long used traditional characters. When not providing both, US public notices and signs in Chinese are generally written in traditional characters, more often than in simplified characters. In the past, traditional Chinese was most often encoded on computers using the Big5 standard, which favored traditional characters. However,

4407-424: The Xuande Emperor was informed of Lê Lợi's offer. Despite divided opinions from his advisers, the emperor quickly made the decision to accept the proposal on 20 November. A delegation was immediately sent to Jiaozhi to negotiate the details. This move was seen as a surrender by the Ming after their defeat in battle, solidifying Lê Lợi's prestige. Lê Lợi informed the negotiators that Trần Cảo had died, another member of

4520-556: The Xuande era decreased to 30 million shi of rice, which was 8% less than during the Hongxi era and 5% less than during the Yongle era. The trend continued in the Zhengtong era (1436–1449) with a further reduction of 10–15%. By the end of the Ming dynasty, the land tax remained at 25–28 million shi . This reduction in expenses allowed the state to maintain a balanced budget during the Xuande era,

4633-427: The Xuande government allowed for a partial resumption of mining. The Xuande Emperor and his advisers implemented various measures in an attempt to support the state's economy. One such measure was the pressure placed on the use of copper coins, which were seen as competition for paper money. As a result, copper coins were almost completely phased out of circulation. In addition, Minister of Revenue Xia Yuanji suggested

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4746-452: The Xuande government was known for its swift and effective response in aiding the population. Specially appointed commissioners oversaw the distribution of grain from government stocks, as well as implementing a 20–40% reduction in land taxes and forgiving other taxes for a period of one to two years. These actions were highly praised and recorded in the official history of the dynasty. In comparison to previous reigns, land tax revenue during

4859-659: The Yongle Emperor even took the young prince with him on a campaign against the Mongols. Later, as emperor, Zhu Zhanji personally participated in skirmishes with the Mongols on the northern border. During one of these battles, he demonstrated his skill with a bow by shooting several Mongol warriors. In 1411, Zhu Zhanji was appointed as Huang Taisun ( 皇太孫 ; literally 'imperial grandson-heir') while his father had been Huang Taizi ( 皇太子 ; literally 'crown prince') since 1404. Zhu Zhanji's education in Confucian teachings and ways of government

4972-427: The Yongle era. However, both the coins and the copper used to make them were in short supply. In contrast, the government printed large quantities of banknotes, causing their value to rapidly decrease. By 1425, baochao banknotes were only worth 2% of their nominal value. In an unsuccessful attempt to promote paper currency, the Hongxi Emperor, the predecessor of the Xuande Emperor, closed precious metal mines. However,

5085-458: The areas that the emperor focused on for reform was fiscal policy , particularly in Jiangnan. This region, which includes prefectures such as Suzhou, Hangzhou , Songjiang , Jiaxing , and Zhenjiang , contributed a significant portion of the empire's land tax, accounting for a quarter of the total amount (despite the Ming dynasty having almost 160 prefectures). In Suzhou Prefecture alone, even after

5198-513: The army's strength were not fully realized until 1449, at the Battle of Tumu , when the Mongols were able to defeat the Ming army led by Emperor Yingzong and even take the emperor prisoner. This event highlighted the weakness of the Ming armies due to the prolonged period of peace. In the late 1420s, the Xuande Emperor's government faced significant financial challenges. The ongoing war in Jiaozhi drained

5311-411: The army. His main goal was to bring discipline and order to the state administration. He also took a keen interest in prominent criminal cases and often ordered judgments to be reviewed, resulting in justice for thousands of innocent people. In August 1428, he replaced the long-standing head of the Censorate, Liu Quan ( 劉觀 ), who had been in the position since 1415, with the honorable Gu Zuo ( 顧佐 ). Within

5424-432: The border, providing relief to exhausted troops, but was later criticized by historians. This shift in the border to the south and the loss of a base in the steppe made it much more challenging for the Chinese to conduct raids against the Mongols. The Ming government had hoped that the Eastern Mongols would be able to defeat the Oirats, but unfortunately, the Oirats proved to be stronger and launched repeated attacks against

5537-630: The border. An investigation revealed that other relatives of the emperor, including the rebel's brother Zhu Gaosui , were also involved in the rebellion. However, they were not punished in order to preserve the prestige of the imperial family. Grand Secretaries during the reign of the Xuande Emperor, from 1425–1435: In the years 1424–1444, Yang Shiqi served as the head of the Grand Secretariat. The Xuande Emperor retained his father's advisers and ministers, but some offices underwent changes in their functions. The most significant reforms were made to

5650-456: The borderlands. However, during an inspection in which the emperor was accompanied by 3,000 soldiers, they were successfully driven away. By May 1430, the Chinese had fortified cities along the border between China and the steppe (along the later Great Wall of China ) south of Kaiping (formerly the Yuan capital of Shangdu and the last Ming garrison in the steppe) and then withdrew from it. This shortened

5763-480: The bureaucrat and his immediate family would live in a residence attached to the yamen . This was especially so during the Qing dynasty, when imperial law forbade a person from taking government office in his native province. Yamen s varied greatly in size depending on the level of government they administered, and the seniority of the bureaucrat 's office. However, a yamen at a local level typically had similar features:

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5876-673: The capital from Beijing to Nanjing . His uncle Zhu Gaoxu rebelled against the young emperor but was ultimately unsuccessful. With the guidance of capable advisors, the Xuande Emperor personally led his army against his uncle and easily defeated him. In the early Xuande Emperor's reign, a prolonged war in Jiaozhi (present-day northern Vietnam ) ended with Ming defeat and the Viet's independence. Relations with Southeast Asian nations stayed peaceful. Communication continued with Korea, and ties were established with Japan in 1432. The northern region faced minimal Mongol threats, with relations established with

5989-412: The capital to Nanjing due to his familiarity with Beijing, where he grew up, and his shared concern with the Yongle Emperor for the security of the northern border. He adopted the era name Xuande, which means "proclamation of virtue". Upon his accession, the new emperor's officials received him calmly, as he shared his father's idealistic conservative policies. He was not only a man of letters, but also

6102-467: The civil administration of the province, the experienced Huang Fu was appointed (Huang Fu had previously administered Jiaozhi from 1407–1424). Meanwhile, Lê Lợi continued to expand his operations into the Red River Valley, posing a threat to Đông Quan, the capital of the province (present-day Hanoi ). Despite this, the Ming garrison successfully defended against the attack on Đông Quan. However, due to

6215-460: The country. However, this increase in taxes proved to be too much for the peasants in Suzhou and Songjiang, leading to a growing number of tax arrears. As if this was not enough, natural disasters struck towards the end of Yongle's reign, causing even more peasants to abandon their land. By 1422–28, the amount of tax arrears had reached several million shi of rice annually. This posed a serious threat to

6328-511: The court, prison, and warehouse. They also patrolled on the streets. Most of them were picked from among strong civilians. Kuais' duties included summoning defendants and witnesses to the court. They were usually asked to do the trips for the court, traveling long distances if necessary. During the tax season, they would be sent to remote areas to collect for the government. Therefore, Kuai had more contact with civilians than Zao and Zhuang. They didn't have their own uniform, but were required to hang

6441-448: The dissatisfaction of officials in Beijing, they were unable to suppress the circulation of coins produced by private entrepreneurs. However, they also did not make the decision to resume state production of coins. Towards the end of the Xuande era, the government began to tolerate the use of silver. In 1433, Governor of South Zhili Zhou Chen began to collect land taxes in silver in the most heavily burdened prefectures of Jiangnan. One of

6554-470: The early 1430s. To address these difficulties, the government attempted to promote the use of paper money, reduce and reform taxes, and limit government spending. The founder of the Ming dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, established paper money, known as baochao banknotes, as the primary form of currency. For smaller transactions, copper coins were also used, which were circulated alongside state notes during

6667-430: The emperor and the grand secretaries, during which the emperor would discuss and sign the drafts of his decrees. The ministers were responsible for carrying out these decrees. This system allowed for faster and more flexible decision-making, as the secretaries no longer needed to consult with the ministers beforehand. At the same time, the influence of the eunuchs serving in the imperial palace and completely dependent on

6780-653: The emperor appointed a new commander, Wang Tong ( 王通 ), and a new head of civil administration, minister Chen Qia ( 陳洽 ), in May 1426. Seeking advice from his entourage, the emperor recalled the Hongwu Emperor's prohibition on invading Đại Việt (and other countries) and the Yongle Emperor's original goal of restoring the Trần dynasty . Ministers Jian Yi and Xia Yuanji advocated for using military force to suppress Viet resistance, while Grand Secretaries Yang Shiqi and Yang Yong suggested withdrawing from Jiaozhi. However, due to conflicting opinions,

6893-423: The emperor attempted to boost morale by holding a large military parade with guard units from the Beijing garrison and three training camps located around Beijing. However, this did not have a significant impact on the morale of the army. The years of peace had led to a decline in the quality of training, and the emperor's leniency towards guilty officers only worsened the situation. The consequences of this decline in

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7006-485: The emperor grew. During the reign of the Hongwu Emperor , the first Ming emperor, eunuchs were prohibited from communicating with government authorities. Even the Yongle Emperor maintained strict control over them. The Xuande Emperor, on the other hand, provided them with education and utilized them more in confidential correspondence. Despite opposition from officials, the eunuchs' business continued to thrive, benefiting

7119-419: The emperor's personal projects such as logging and shipbuilding. In situations where the emperor did not agree with the ideas of Grand Secretaries, he would use eunuchs to convey his orders to lower branches of the state administration. As the ministers did not question the emperor's orders, the eunuchs were able to give orders to the ministers on behalf of the sovereign without his knowledge. This abuse of power

7232-506: The empire's prestige after their retreat from Jiaozhi. Zheng He brought envoys from Sri Lanka , Cochin , Calicut , Hormuz , Aden , the East African coast, and other countries to China, which pleased the emperor. After the death of the Xuande Emperor, the Ming did not undertake any further long-distance expeditions. These expeditions were only supported by the palace eunuchs, as the Confucian officials were strongly opposed to them. With

7345-414: The form of products, mainly rice, which was crucial for the nutrition of the people of Beijing. After the purge of 1428, the censors became more efficient and open. This was evident in their thorough checks of all branches of the state administration, including both civil and military sectors. In fact, over 240 officials were dismissed between 1424 and 1434, which was three times the number of dismissals in

7458-460: The golden age of the dynasty. Zhu Zhanji was the eldest son of the Hongxi Emperor (1378–1425; reigned from 1424) and Empress Zhang (1379–1442). He was born on 16 March 1399. At the time, Zhu Zhanji's parents lived in Beijing, northeast China, in the palace of his grandfather, Zhu Di, the later Yongle Emperor , who was then known as Prince of Yan. In the summer of 1399, Zhu Di rebelled against

7571-472: The help of experts sent from headquarters, led by a special commissioner. While the reduction of taxes was supported by the great secretaries, the Ministry of Revenue was able to delay its implementation for four years. Finally, in May 1430, the relevant imperial decree was issued. In October 1430, the emperor dispatched a group of high-ranking officials ( zongdu ) to oversee the collection of taxes. Among them

7684-490: The incompetence of Wang Tong, the Ming forces failed to capitalize on their success, allowing the Viets to prepare for the arrival of reinforcements. On 30 September 1427, Liu Sheng's army reached the border, where Lê Lợi unexpectedly proposed handing over power to Trần Cảo , a descendant of the Trần dynasty. This proposal was made under the condition that Trần Cảo would rule under Chinese suzerainty. However, Lê Lợi had ulterior motives and immediately lured Liu Sheng's army into

7797-493: The inverse is equally true as well. In digital media, many cultural phenomena imported from Hong Kong and Taiwan into mainland China, such as music videos, karaoke videos, subtitled movies, and subtitled dramas, use traditional Chinese characters. In Hong Kong and Macau , traditional characters were retained during the colonial period, while the mainland adopted simplified characters. Simplified characters are contemporaneously used to accommodate immigrants and tourists, often from

7910-448: The lawsuit cases. They would ask for money from the other debased classes like butchers and prostitutes. Such unwritten rule is called dirty regulation ( 陋规 ). Therefore, the actual income of the Kuai depended on their place of work; Kuai in large cities could easily collect a lot of money and Kuai in rural areas could be as poor as the homeless. Such corruption and extortion were rampant during

8023-432: The legislative and executive, the judicial, and the military affairs of the province or region. Their yamen would accordingly be specialised according to the functions of the office. The great yamen s of the central government, located in the capital, are more exclusively office complexes. Yamen runner ( 衙役 ) is an occupation which served for yamen ( 衙门 ), the law enforcement department in ancient China. They worked as

8136-405: The lowest class in the government department which made them a bridge between the common people and the government. There were three kinds of yamen runner, zao ( 皂 ), zhuang ( 壮 ), kuai ( 快 ). But in fact, there were more different kinds in specific . Zao usually served around the court, Zhuang provided physical labor and Kuai were in charge of inspection, investigation, and arrest. Zao acted as

8249-525: The magistrate would still send yamen runners directly for the arrest. The institution of the yamen fell victim to the Wuchang Uprising and the Xinhai Revolution , after which warlords often became the ultimate authorities, in spite of Sun Yat-sen 's best efforts to establish a Republic of China covering all of China. Sun Yat-sen tried to establish a form of self-government, or home rule , on

8362-725: The mainland. The increasing use of simplified characters has led to concern among residents regarding protecting what they see as their local heritage. Taiwan has never adopted simplified characters. The use of simplified characters in government documents and educational settings is discouraged by the government of Taiwan. Nevertheless, with sufficient context simplified characters are likely to be successfully read by those used to traditional characters, especially given some previous exposure. Many simplified characters were previously variants that had long been in some use, with systematic stroke simplifications used in folk handwriting since antiquity. Traditional characters were recognized as

8475-682: The majority of Chinese text in mainland China are simplified characters , there is no legislation prohibiting the use of traditional Chinese characters, and often traditional Chinese characters remain in use for stylistic and commercial purposes, such as in shopfront displays and advertising. Traditional Chinese characters remain ubiquitous on buildings that predate the promulgation of the current simplification scheme, such as former government buildings, religious buildings, educational institutions, and historical monuments. Traditional Chinese characters continue to be used for ceremonial, cultural, scholarly/academic research, and artistic/decorative purposes. In

8588-510: The meeting ended without a resolution. In the winter of 1426, the Ming army suffered heavy losses of 20,000–30,000 men due to Viet attacks. To counter this threat, the emperor issued orders in January 1427 for Mu Sheng, the commander of Yunnan troops, to gather an army in Yunnan and bring it to Jiaozhi. Additionally, General Liu Sheng ( 柳升 ) was tasked with leading a second army from Guangxi. To oversee

8701-975: The merging of previously distinct character forms. Many Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between these character sets. Traditional characters are known by different names throughout the Chinese-speaking world. The government of Taiwan officially refers to traditional Chinese characters as 正體字 ; 正体字 ; zhèngtǐzì ; 'orthodox characters'. This term is also used outside Taiwan to distinguish standard characters, including both simplified, and traditional, from other variants and idiomatic characters . Users of traditional characters elsewhere, as well as those using simplified characters, call traditional characters 繁體字 ; 繁体字 ; fántǐzì ; 'complex characters', 老字 ; lǎozì ; 'old characters', or 全體字 ; 全体字 ; quántǐzì ; 'full characters' to distinguish them from simplified characters. Some argue that since traditional characters are often

8814-512: The northern border remained relatively stable and peaceful relations were maintained with neighboring states in Central, East, and Southeast Asia. This stability allowed for internal reforms to take place. The accession of the young emperor was challenged by his uncle, Zhu Gaoxu . However, unlike the Yongle Emperor's usurpation, he was unsuccessful in his attempt. Zhu Gaoxu was favored by the Yongle Emperor due to his military prowess. He proved to be

8927-618: The offices of one of the Six Ministries is a yamen , but so is a prefectural magistracy. The term has been widely used in China for centuries, but appeared in English during the Qing dynasty . Within a local yamen , the bureaucrat administered the government business of the town or region. Typical responsibilities of the bureaucrat includes local finance, capital works, judging of civil and criminal cases, and issuing decrees and policies. Typically,

9040-665: The official script in Singapore until 1969, when the government officially adopted Simplified characters. Traditional characters still are widely used in contexts such as in baby and corporation names, advertisements, decorations, official documents and in newspapers. The Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative in Southeast Asia regarding simplification. Although major public universities teach in simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications such as

9153-419: The officials' bodyguards. They usually followed behind the officials. During the trial, they would stand on both sides of the court to maintain order. They also performed the duties of escorting the prisoner, questioning the suspect and applying minor punishment. They had their own black uniform. Zhuang were comparable to modern security guards. Their main job was to guard the critical areas such as castle gates,

9266-453: The opening of the Grand Canal, the need to transport rice by sea to the north disappeared, leading officials to view naval expeditions as expensive and unnecessary imperial ventures. This decision had long-term negative consequences, as it weakened the morale and strength of the Ming fleet, leaving them later unable to effectively deal with the wokou pirates. Additionally, it also had a negative impact on China's influence in Southeast Asia and

9379-700: The original standard forms, they should not be called 'complex'. Conversely, there is a common objection to the description of traditional characters as 'standard', due to them not being used by a large population of Chinese speakers. Additionally, as the process of Chinese character creation often made many characters more elaborate over time, there is sometimes a hesitation to characterize them as 'traditional'. Some people refer to traditional characters as 'proper characters' ( 正字 ; zhèngzì or 正寫 ; zhèngxiě ) and to simplified characters as 簡筆字 ; 简笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'simplified-stroke characters' or 減筆字 ; 减笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'reduced-stroke characters', as

9492-409: The performance of local authorities. These coordinators were responsible for addressing issues of injustice and corruption among tax collectors, as well as assessing the state of military units. After a short reign of ten years, the emperor died due to a brief illness. His rule was marked by a period of relative peace, with no major internal or foreign conflicts. Later historians regarded his reign as

9605-500: The port of Ningbo . After 1433, Japanese delegations arriving in China were primarily composed of agents of daimyos, monasteries, and temples who were eager to access the Chinese market. Along with luxury goods, they were particularly interested in Chinese copper coins. This trade proved to be highly profitable for the Japanese, leading to a lasting relationship between the two countries until 1529. However, there were frequent disputes over

9718-825: The predominant forms. Simplified characters as codified by the People's Republic of China are predominantly used in mainland China , Malaysia, and Singapore. "Traditional" as such is a retronym applied to non-simplified character sets in the wake of widespread use of simplified characters. Traditional characters are commonly used in Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Macau , as well as in most overseas Chinese communities outside of Southeast Asia. As for non-Chinese languages written using Chinese characters, Japanese kanji include many simplified characters known as shinjitai standardized after World War II, sometimes distinct from their simplified Chinese counterparts . Korean hanja , still used to

9831-407: The previous decade. While officials and censors who abused their powers were punished, they were not executed. During the reign of the Xuande Emperor, the regional administration saw a regular posting of grand coordinators ( xunfu ). These officials were responsible for coordinating the work of the three provincial offices—civil, military, and surveillance. This practice of having coordinators in

9944-406: The prince to Nanjing to make preparations for the relocation of the capital from Beijing. However, the Hongxi Emperor's health deteriorated and he called the prince back, but unfortunately died before his son could return. On 27 June 1425, Zhu Zhanji officially ascended the imperial throne in Beijing, becoming the fifth emperor of the Ming dynasty. It is believed that he chose to cancel the move of

10057-406: The proposals of the Grand Secretaries and ministers when issuing imperial decrees. However, in contrast to his predecessors, he lived a life of luxury and debauchery, and upon his death, thousands of women were released from the palace. Despite this, he successfully resolved major issues during the first two years of his reign, including his uncle's rebellion and the war in Jiaozhi. Under his rule,

10170-478: The punitive expedition on 9 September. A vanguard of 20,000 soldiers, led by the experienced general Xue Lu ( 薛祿 ; 1358–1430), laid siege to Le'an on 21 September. Despite the defenders' refusal to surrender, the imperial army successfully captured the city the following day. Zhu Gaoxu was subsequently brought to Beijing, demoted to a common subject, and ultimately tortured to death. In addition, over 600 of his followers were executed, while another 2,200 were deported to

10283-406: The regional administration was not new, as previous emperors had also employed them. For example, the Hongwu Emperor had sent his crown prince, Zhu Biao , to "tour and pacify", while the Yongle Emperor had sent both the Hongxi and Xuande emperors to the provinces. In 1421, the Yongle Emperor even sent 26 high-ranking government officials to the provinces. However, the Xuande Emperor took this practice

10396-478: The reign of Xuande Emperor . The prefects and magistrates just turn a deaf ear on their clerks blackmailing the lower classes. Xuande Emperor described them "licentious, greedy, and insatiably exploitative, [or] degenerate and worthless." Since the social status of yamen runners was low and the income was unstable (usually low), yamen runners were mostly formed by vagrants, especially among Kuai. They were often strong but uneducated. A paper yamen runner ( 纸皂 )

10509-474: The remaining households were burdened with the same total amount of taxes. To address this issue, Zhou Chen introduced five major measures: The emperor generally agreed with the proposals of Zhou Chen and Kuang Zhong, but the Ministry of Revenue blocked them. For example, it was not until 1433 that he received approval to reduce taxes in Suzhou by a quarter. However, other reforms in the same direction continued after 1436. During natural disasters and epidemics,

10622-408: The salary was not enough to live or raise a family on, working for the law enforcement department gave yamen runners some power that could be taken advantage of. The runners would charge a small fee from the litigants to cover the spendings. The prefects and magistrates acquiesced such a charging system as long as the amount is in a reasonable range. The Kuai, however, couldn't contact the litigants in

10735-533: The state of Annan" (Annan being the Chinese name for Đại Việt). Lê Lợi's son was officially recognized and given a royal title by the Beijing government in November 1436, after the Xuande Emperor's death. The Ming's withdrawal from Jiaozhi was a blow to their pride and prestige, but it also provided much-needed financial relief. For the Viets, it was a significant victory that left a lasting impact on their culture and state. The two decades of Ming rule and education had

10848-409: The state, they were highly respected and trusted by the emperor. Other close advisers to the emperor included Jian Yi (Minister of Personnel from 1402–1422 and 1423–1435) and Xia Yuanji (Minister of Revenue from 1402–1421 and 1424–1430). Even after the Xuande Emperor's death, the composition of the most influential officials and the grand secretaries remained unchanged. As a result, the top government

10961-444: The supply of Beijing, which relied on tax rice shipped from Jiangnan via the Grand Canal. In an effort to maintain a steady supply of rice, the government decided to reduce taxes and forgive a portion of the arrears. In August 1426, imperial commissioner Zhou Gan ( 周干 ) was tasked with investigating the situation on the ground. He proposed a plan to reduce taxes, eliminate corruption in tax collection, and improve local administration with

11074-627: The traditional character set used in Taiwan ( TC ) and the set used in Hong Kong ( HK ). Most Chinese-language webpages now use Unicode for their text. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommends the use of the language tag zh-Hant to specify webpage content written with traditional characters. In the Japanese writing system , kyujitai are traditional forms, which were simplified to create shinjitai for standardized Japanese use following World War II. Kyūjitai are mostly congruent with

11187-970: The traditional characters in Chinese, save for minor stylistic variation. Characters that are not included in the jōyō kanji list are generally recommended to be printed in their traditional forms, with a few exceptions. Additionally, there are kokuji , which are kanji wholly created in Japan, rather than originally being borrowed from China. In the Korean writing system , hanja —replaced almost entirely by hangul in South Korea and totally replaced in North Korea —are mostly identical with their traditional counterparts, save minor stylistic variations. As with Japanese, there are autochthonous hanja, known as gukja . Traditional Chinese characters are also used by non-Chinese ethnic groups. The Maniq people living in Thailand and Malaysia use Chinese characters to write

11300-509: The ubiquitous Unicode standard gives equal weight to simplified and traditional Chinese characters, and has become by far the most popular encoding for Chinese-language text. There are various input method editors (IMEs) available for the input of Chinese characters . Many characters, often dialectical variants, are encoded in Unicode but cannot be inputted using certain IMEs, with one example being

11413-449: The use of paper money and discourage the use of coins and precious metals. However, this effort was ultimately unsuccessful and paper money fell out of circulation. In the past, high taxes in heavily taxed prefectures, particularly in Jiangnan , had caused peasants to leave the economy. In response, the Xuande Emperor lowered taxes and dispatched "grand coordinators" to the provinces to improve

11526-428: The valuation of Japanese goods and the Ming government often complained about the Japanese government's inability to control piracy. Despite this, the shoguns were unable to effectively intervene against the pirates due to a lack of resources. Relations with Korea were generally peaceful, with regular delegations traveling between the two capitals. According to Chinese records, the emperor often requested horses from

11639-619: The wealthy to avoid service for a fee. These officers also embezzled the salaries of the soldiers and used them as personal servants. The supply of military farms was also a major issue, as it often dropped and made it difficult to properly equip the army. Additionally, capable officers had limited opportunities for advancement during times of peace, resulting in the army being led by individuals who inherited their positions without merit. These commanders, who had not experienced war themselves, often neglected to properly train their soldiers and instead used them for their own personal needs. This led to

11752-571: The words for simplified and reduced are homophonous in Standard Chinese , both pronounced as jiǎn . The modern shapes of traditional Chinese characters first appeared with the emergence of the clerical script during the Han dynasty c.  200 BCE , with the sets of forms and norms more or less stable since the Southern and Northern dynasties period c.  the 5th century . Although

11865-400: Was Zhou Chen ( 周忱 ), Left Vice Minister of Works, who was sent to South Zhili. Along with Kuang Zhong ( 况钟 ), the prefect of Suzhou since June 1430, they played a significant role in implementing tax reforms in Jiangnan. During their visit, they witnessed the aftermath of a large-scale migration from the region, with some areas losing up to ninety percent of their peasant population. As a result,

11978-475: Was a major concern for the Hongwu Emperor. The Xuande Emperor, however, maintained control over the eunuchs and was not afraid to execute them if they overstepped their boundaries. In the long run, this approach left room for eunuchs to exploit their power if a less assertive emperor was in power. In terms of internal politics, the emperor focused on implementing reforms in the Censorate , local administration, and

12091-500: Was dominated by the same group of people from 1424 until the early 1440s. The emperor established a process for routine and important decrees, in which proposals from various offices were reviewed and evaluated by the Grand Secretaries. These secretaries would then attach their recommendations for solving issues to the documents, which the emperor would typically approve and send to the relevant ministries for implementation. Significant government decisions were made during meetings between

12204-417: Was not enough to meet the demands of the market. It was primarily used for large payments and paying taxes, while copper coins remained the preferred currency for smaller transactions in cities. In 1433, the Xuande government closed the mints, causing disruptions throughout the region from Japan to Java. This halt in coin production led to a surge in counterfeit coins and hoarding of precious metals. Despite

12317-405: Was overseen by Grand Secretary Hu Guang ( 胡廣 ). He also dedicated himself to studying military expeditions. In court intrigues, Zhu Zhanji consistently defended his father against his uncles Zhu Gaoxu and Zhu Gaosui , who were the younger sons of the Yongle Emperor. This earned him their resentment. They were also concerned about his decisiveness, popularity with Yongle, and close cooperation with

12430-430: Was still in place, but it was not effectively enforced. Government officials strongly opposed long-distance voyages and influenced the emperor to cancel a shipbuilding program in 1429, led by the emperor's eunuchs. However, a few months later, after the death of a leading opponent of the voyages, Xia Yuanji, the emperor changed his mind. The last of Zheng He's great expeditions took place in 1430–33, possibly to restore

12543-497: Was the rightful heir to the throne in 1424, instead of his ailing older brother, he began plotting a coup after his brother's death. Shortly after the Xuande Emperor's ascension to the throne on 2 September 1425, he attempted to follow in the footsteps of the Yongle Emperor by rebelling against the emperor. He accused the Xuande Emperor of abusing his power by appointing individuals with noble titles to civil offices and appointing unworthy individuals. Underestimating his young nephew as

12656-449: Was the transfer of command over troops in the provinces to civilian hands. The system of grand coordinators reached its final form during the Zhengtong era (1436–1449), when they were assigned to all provinces except Fujian and six of the nine frontier garrisons on the northern border. Considerable problems persisted in the army during this time period. Corrupt officers were known to bring in poor conscripts for campaigns, while allowing

12769-630: Was very interested in trade with China. In 1432, using the mediation of the king of the Ryukyu Islands, Ming envoys arrived at the shogun's court. The first Japanese delegation arrived in China in June 1433, bringing with them horses, armor, swords, and other goods. They also brought 2.6 tons of copper. The Ming government paid for these goods with banknotes ( baochao ), which the Japanese immediately exchanged for silk (one-fifth) and copper coins (the rest). The Ming authorities only accepted Japanese traders at

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