Misplaced Pages

#515484

102-487: Xiao Daocheng was born in 427. His ancestors traced their line to the famed Western Han dynasty chancellor Xiao He . If their records were accurate, Xiao Daocheng was Xiao He's 24-generation descendant. During the Jin and Liu Song dynasties, Xiao's ancestors served as low-level officials. His father Xiao Chengzhi ( 蕭承之 ) was a general under Emperor Wen of Song , and for his contributions in campaigns against rival Northern Wei

204-628: A limited engagement at Mayi involving the assassination of the Chanyu would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos and benefit the Han. When this plot failed in 133 BC, Emperor Wu launched a series of massive military invasions into Xiongnu territory. The assault culminated in 119 BC at the Battle of Mobei , when Han commanders Huo Qubing ( d.  117 BC ) and Wei Qing ( d.  106 BC ) forced

306-629: A series of military campaigns to quell the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu were eventually defeated and forced to accept a status as Han vassals , and the Xiongnu confederation fragmented. The Han conquered the Hexi Corridor and Inner Asian territory of the Tarim Basin from the Xiongnu, helping to establish the Silk Road . The lands north of the Han's borders were later overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful conquests in

408-595: A Greek sailor had visited. Emperor Zhang 's ( r.  75–88 AD ) reign came to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house. Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by eunuch intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial consort clans . In 92 AD, with the aid of the eunuch Zheng Zhong ( d.  107 AD ), Emperor He ( r.  88–105 AD ) had Empress Dowager Dou ( d.  97 AD ) put under house arrest and her clan stripped of power. This

510-496: A brief two months, he had Emperor Shun create him the Duke of Qi, and then the Prince of Qi, and bestow upon him the nine bestowments , all progressive steps toward the throne. In summer 479, he forced the fearful Emperor Shun into yielding the throne to him, ending Liu Song and starting Southern Qi, as its Emperor Gao. A major trend that Emperor Gao tried to start after he took the throne was

612-457: A change which debased the value of coinage. Although these reforms provoked considerable opposition, Wang's regime met its ultimate downfall with the massive floods of c.  3  AD and 11 AD. Gradual silt build-up in the Yellow River had raised its water level and overwhelmed the flood control works . The Yellow River split into two new branches: one emptying to the north and

714-445: A coalition of former officials and officers against Dong, who burned Luoyang to the ground and resettled the court at Chang'an in May 191 AD. Dong Zhuo later poisoned Emperor Shao. Dong was killed by his adopted son Lü Bu ( d.  198 AD ) in a plot hatched by Wang Yun ( d.  192 AD ). Emperor Xian fled from Chang'an in 195 AD to the ruins of Luoyang. Xian

816-409: A commanding general of Crown Prince Yu's guards. (In secret, Xiao told his followers that he believed that Liu Song would not last much longer and that he would need their support when opportunity presented itself.) When Emperor Ming grew gravely ill in 472, on the recommendation of the high-level official Chu Yuan (to whom, along with Yuan Can , Emperor Ming entrusted the care of Crown Prince Yu), who

918-416: A coup against the eunuchs Hou Lan ( d.  172 AD ), Cao Jie ( d.  181 AD ), and Wang Fu ( 王甫 ). When the plot was uncovered, the eunuchs arrested Empress Dowager Dou ( d.  172 AD ) and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan ( 張奐 ) favoured the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side shouted accusations of treason against

1020-516: A descendant of Emperor Jing ( r.  157–141 BC ), attempted to restore the Han dynasty and occupied Chang'an as his capital. However, he was overwhelmed by the Red Eyebrow rebels who deposed, assassinated, and replaced him with the puppet monarch Liu Penzi . Gengshi's distant cousin Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu ( r.  25–57 AD ), after distinguishing himself at

1122-536: A failed siege of Shouyang . Realizing that Jiankang was relatively defenseless (as throughout Jin and Liu Song, a wall had never been built around Jiankang), he started a construction project to build a wall around Jiankang. Northern Wei and Southern Qi forces would continue to have minor border battles for another year, until spring 481, but there would be no further major campaigns by either side. In spring 482, Emperor Gao died. Crown Prince Ze succeeded him as Emperor Wu. Consorts and Issue: Western Han This

SECTION 10

#1733114491516

1224-495: A major military strategy session, although there were a number of high-level officials, powerful associates of the emperor, and senior generals present, no one dared to speak first. Then Xiao Daocheng proposed the strategy of not sending an army to engage Liu Xiufan but rather defend the strong defensive posts in the outskirts of Jiankang and not actively engage Liu Xiufan, forcing him into a stalemate and causing him to run out of food supplies. Without significant opposition, Xiao's plan

1326-410: A move against wastefulness and luxury and a move toward frugality. He appeared to be fairly frugal, although the effects his edicts on those subjects had on his officials and nobles are unclear. Later in 479, when someone was riding a horse near the mansion of the former Emperor Shun (now the Prince of Ruyin), the guards whom Emperor Gao posted to watch over the former emperor panicked, believing someone

1428-465: A number of generals and preparing to rise. However, Liu Bing panicked during the preparation stage and fled to Yuan's defense post at the fortress of Shitou Cheng several hours before the scheduled time, alarming Xiao and allowing him to further start a counterinsurrection, arresting and killing several generals aligned with Yuan and Liu Bing before they could act. Xiao's troops then besieged Yuan's defenses at Shitou, killing Yuan and Liu Bing. Meanwhile,

1530-659: A number of limited institutional innovations. To finance its military campaigns and the settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the Han government nationalised private salt and iron industries in 117 BC, creating government monopolies that were later repealed during the Eastern period. There were significant advances in science and technology during the Han period, including the emergence of papermaking , rudders for steering ships, negative numbers in mathematics , raised-relief maps , hydraulic -powered armillary spheres for astronomy , and seismometers that discerned

1632-428: A rebellion, Xiao coordinated the campaign against Liu Jingsu (although he did not personally command troops), and Liu Jingsu was defeated and killed. In 477, Emperor Houfei, by now age 14, was growing increasingly impulsive and violent, often wandering outside the palace with his guards and killing all people or animals they encountered. One day, he suddenly charged into Xiao's headquarters and saw Xiao sleeping naked. He

1734-561: A request by Kushan ruler Vima Kadphises ( r.   c.  90  – c.  100 AD –  ) for a marriage alliance with the Han was rejected in AD ;90, he sent his forces to Wakhan (modern-day Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The conflict ended with the Kushans withdrawing because of lack of supplies. In AD 91, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions

1836-428: A series of reforms that limited the power of these kingdoms in 145, dividing their former territories into new commanderies under central control. Kings were no longer able to appoint their own staff; this duty was assumed by the imperial court. Kings became nominal heads of their fiefs and collected a portion of tax revenues as their personal incomes. The kingdoms were never entirely abolished and existed throughout

1938-477: A state pension and a territorial fiefdom . Holders of the rank immediately below, that of ordinary marquess, received a pension, but had no territorial rule. Scholar-bureaucrats who served in government belonged to the wider commoner social class and were ranked just below nobles in social prestige. The highest government officials could be enfeoffed as marquesses. Liu Bing (official) Liu Bing (劉秉) (433 – 12 January 478 ), courtesy name Yanjie (彥節),

2040-545: A successful overthrow of her regime to enthrone Emperor Shun of Han ( r.  125–144 AD ). Yan was placed under house arrest, her relatives were either killed or exiled, and her eunuch allies were slaughtered. The regent Liang Ji ( d.  159 AD ), brother of Empress Liang Na ( d.  150 AD ), had the brother-in-law of Consort Deng Mengnü ( d.  165 AD ) killed after Deng Mengnü resisted Liang Ji's attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who

2142-474: A war to determine who would have hegemony over China, which had fissured into Eighteen Kingdoms , each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang. Although Xiang Yu proved to be an effective commander, Liu Bang defeated him at the Battle of Gaixia (202 BC) in modern-day Anhui . Liu Bang assumed the title of Emperor at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu ( r.  202–195 BC ). Chang'an (modern Xi'an)

SECTION 20

#1733114491516

2244-612: Is an accepted version of this page The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring interregnum known as the Chu–Han Contention (206–202 BC), and it was succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). The dynasty

2346-486: Is now northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi , was not quelled until 215 AD. Zhang Jue's massive rebellion across eight provinces was annihilated by Han forces within a year; however, the following decades saw much smaller recurrent uprisings. Although the Yellow Turbans were defeated, many generals appointed during the crisis never disbanded their assembled militias and used these troops to amass power outside of

2448-589: Is recorded in the Weilüe and Book of Later Han to have reached the court of Emperor Huan of Han ( r.  146–168 AD ) in AD 166, yet Rafe de Crespigny asserts that this was most likely a group of Roman merchants . In addition to Roman glasswares and coins found in China, Roman medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius and his adopted son Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in Vietnam. This

2550-526: The Battle of Kunyang in 23 AD, was urged to succeed Gengshi as emperor. Under Guangwu's rule, the Han Empire was restored. Guangwu made Luoyang his capital in 25 AD, and by 27 his officers Deng Yu and Feng Yi had forced the Red Eyebrows to surrender and executed their leaders for treason . From 26 until 36 AD, Emperor Guangwu had to wage war against other regional warlords who claimed

2652-462: The Battle of Zhizhi , in modern Taraz , Kazakhstan. In 121 BC, Han forces expelled the Xiongnu from a vast territory spanning the Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur . They repelled a joint Xiongnu- Qiang invasion of this northwestern territory in 111 BC. In that same year, the Han court established four new frontier commanderies in this region to consolidate their control: Jiuquan , Zhangyi , Dunhuang , and Wuwei . The majority of people on

2754-715: The Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria to the Ili River of the Wusun people. The Xianbei reached their apogee under Tanshihuai ( d.  AD 181 ), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death. Ban Chao ( d.  AD 102 ) enlisted the aid of the Kushan Empire , which controlled territory across South and Central Asia, to subdue Kashgar and its ally Sogdiana. When

2856-733: The Chu–Han Contention , the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief. China's first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC). The Qin united the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their regime became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huang . Within four years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in a rebellion. Two former rebel leaders, Xiang Yu ( d.  202 BC ) of Chu and Liu Bang ( d.  195 BC ) of Han , engaged in

2958-678: The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom ); he also gathered information on Shendu (the Indus River valley) and Anxi (the Parthian Empire ). All of these countries eventually received Han embassies. These connections marked the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire , bringing goods like Chinese silk and Roman glasswares between the two. From c.  115 BC until c.  60 BC , Han forces fought

3060-613: The Xiongnu , who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi ( 比 ), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu ( 蒲奴 ), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han. During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, China lost control over

3162-565: The Yellow Turban Rebellion and Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion in 184 AD, largely because the court did not want to continue to alienate a significant portion of the gentry class who might otherwise join the rebellions. The Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice adherents belonged to two different hierarchical Taoist religious societies led by faith healers Zhang Jue ( d.  184 AD ) and Zhang Lu ( d.  216 AD ), respectively. Zhang Lu's rebellion, in what

Emperor Gao of Southern Qi - Misplaced Pages Continue

3264-524: The cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu . The Han dynasty oversaw periods of economic prosperity as well as significant growth in the money economy that had first been established during the Zhou dynasty ( c.  1050  – 256 BC). The coinage minted by the central government in 119 BC remained the standard in China until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). The period saw

3366-445: The " Han people " or "Han Chinese". The spoken Chinese and written Chinese are referred to respectively as the "Han language" and " Han characters ". The Han emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society and culture . He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and the appointed ministers who came largely from the scholarly gentry class . The Han Empire

3468-459: The Crown Prince after his death – became suspicious of Xiao, particularly because there were rumors that Xiao was secretly communicating with Northern Wei. Emperor Ming sent his general Wu Xi ( 吳喜 ), a friend of Xiao's, with a sealed pot of wine to Huaiyin to deliver to Xiao. Xiao became fearful that the wine was poisoned and was preparing to flee to Northern Wei. Wu secretly told Xiao that the wine

3570-448: The Han as equal partners in a royal marriage alliance, but the Han were forced to send large amounts of tribute items such as silk clothes, food, and wine to the Xiongnu. Despite the tribute and negotiation between Laoshang Chanyu ( r.  174–160 BC ) and Emperor Wen ( r.  180–157 BC ) to reopen border markets, many of the Chanyu 's subordinates chose not to obey

3672-689: The Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. In 167 AD, the Grand Commandant Dou Wu ( d.  168 AD ) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them. However, the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the Partisan Prohibitions . Following Huan's death, Dou Wu and the Grand Tutor Chen Fan ( d.  168 AD ) attempted

3774-525: The Prince of Wuling and governor of Ying Province into stopping and putting the well-fortified Yingcheng under siege. In 478, with his forces unable to capture Yingcheng, Shen Youzhi's soldiers began to desert. Shen aggravated the situation by imposing severe punishments on the commanding officers of deserting soldiers — which caused them to desert. Shen's officer Liu Rangbing ( 劉攘兵 ) surrendered to Liu Shilong, causing his forces to collapse. Shen tried to retreat to Jiangling (the capital of Jing Province). By

3876-666: The Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor in Gansu . Dou Gu ( d.  88 AD ) defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the Battle of Yiwulu in AD 73, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them as far as Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at Hami. After the new Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu ( d.  AD 75 )

3978-508: The Xiongnu court to flee north of the Gobi Desert , and Han forces reached as far north as Lake Baikal . After Wu's reign, Han forces continued to fight the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader Huhanye ( r.  58–31 BC ) finally submitted to the Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BC. Huhanye's rival claimant to the throne, Zhizhi Chanyu ( r.  56–36 BC ), was killed by Han forces under Chen Tang and Gan Yanshou ( 甘延壽 ) at

4080-476: The Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin. The Han was eventually victorious and established the Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BC, which dealt with the region's defence and foreign affairs. The Han also expanded southward . The naval conquest of Nanyue in 111 BC expanded the Han realm into what are now modern Guangdong , Guangxi , and northern Vietnam. Yunnan

4182-536: The Yuan brothers, Zhang committed suicide by jumping into the Yellow River. General Dong Zhuo ( d.  192 AD ) found the young emperor and his brother wandering in the countryside. He escorted them safely back to the capital and was made Minister of Works , taking control of Luoyang and forcing Yuan Shao to flee. After Dong Zhuo demoted Emperor Shao and promoted his brother Liu Xie as Emperor Xian, Yuan Shao led

Emperor Gao of Southern Qi - Misplaced Pages Continue

4284-453: The aftermaths of Liu Xiufan's defeat, Xiao was promoted. He, with Yuan Can, Chu Yuan, and Emperor Houfan's distant uncle Liu Bing , were in charge of the affairs of government and known as the "four nobles" ( 四貴 ). In 476, when Emperor Houfei's cousin Liu Jingsu ( 劉景素 ) the governor of South Xu Province, who received wrong information that Jiankang had fallen into a state of confusion, started

4386-513: The army sent south by Xue Andu ( 薛安都 ) the governor of Xu Province (徐州, modern northern Jiangsu and northern Anhui ). For these contributions, Emperor Ming created him the Marquess of Xiyang and made him the acting governor of South Xu Province (南徐州, modern western central Jiangsu). Later, he became the governor of Southern Yan Province (南兗州, modern eastern central Jiangsu), defending the important city of Huaiyin (淮陰, in modern Huaian , Jiangsu ). It

4488-517: The capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until the fall of Han is known as the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD). The Eastern Han ( traditional Chinese : 東漢 ; simplified Chinese : 东汉 ; pinyin : Dōnghàn ), also known as the Later Han ( 後漢 ; 后汉 ; Hòuhàn ), formally began on 5 August AD 25, when Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han . During

4590-491: The cardinal direction of distant earthquakes by use of inverted pendulums . The Han dynasty had many conflicts with the Xiongnu , a nomadic confederation centred in the eastern Eurasian steppe . The Xiongnu defeated the Han in 200 BC , prompting the Han to appease the Xiongnu with a policy of marriage alliance and payments of tribute, though the Xiongnu continued to raid the Han's northern borders. Han policy changed in 133 BC, under Emperor Wu , when Han forces began

4692-434: The collapsing imperial authority. General-in-chief He Jin ( d.  189 AD ), half-brother to Empress He ( d.  189 AD ), plotted with Yuan Shao ( d.  202 AD ) to overthrow the eunuchs by having several generals march to the outskirts of the capital. There, in a written petition to Empress He, they demanded the eunuchs' execution. After a period of hesitation, Empress He consented. When

4794-490: The emperor was often a minor, ruled over by a regent such as the empress dowager or one of her male relatives. Ranked immediately below the emperor were the kings who were of the same Liu family clan. The rest of society, including nobles lower than kings and all commoners excluding slaves, belonged to one of twenty ranks ( ershi gongcheng 二十公乘 ). Each successive rank gave its holder greater pensions and legal privileges. The highest rank, of full marquess , came with

4896-576: The empire . The Han dynasty came to an end in 220 AD when Cao Pi , king of Wei , usurped the throne from Emperor Xian . According to the Records of the Grand Historian , after the collapse of the Qin dynasty the hegemon Xiang Yu appointed Liu Bang as prince of the small fief of Hanzhong , named after its location on the Han River (in modern southwest Shaanxi ). Following Liu Bang's victory in

4998-483: The empresses and empresses dowager . Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Taoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion . Following the death of Emperor Ling ( r.  168–189 AD ), the palace eunuchs were massacred by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide

5100-633: The eunuchs discovered this, however, they had her brother He Miao ( 何苗 ) rescind the order. The eunuchs assassinated He Jin on 22 September 189. Yuan Shao then besieged Luoyang's Northern Palace while his brother Yuan Shu ( d.  199 AD ) besieged the Southern Palace. On September 25 both palaces were breached and approximately two thousand eunuchs were killed. Zhang Rang had previously fled with Emperor Shao ( r.  189 AD ) and his brother Liu Xie—the future Emperor Xian of Han ( r.  189–220 AD ). While being pursued by

5202-427: The family inheritance. His brothers Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi were killed in 207 AD by Gongsun Kang ( d.  221 AD ), who sent their heads to Cao Cao. After Cao's defeat at the naval Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD, China was divided into three spheres of influence, with Cao Cao dominating the north, Sun Quan (182–252 AD) dominating the south, and Liu Bei (161–223 AD) dominating

SECTION 50

#1733114491516

5304-601: The frontier were soldiers. On occasion, the court forcibly moved peasant farmers to new frontier settlements, along with government-owned slaves and convicts who performed hard labour. The court also encouraged commoners, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired labourers, to voluntarily migrate to the frontier. Even before the Han's expansion into Central Asia, diplomat Zhang Qian 's travels from 139 to 125 BC had established Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations. Zhang encountered Dayuan ( Fergana ), Kangju ( Sogdiana ), and Daxia ( Bactria , formerly

5406-494: The governmental matters were in the hands of Yuan Can and Chu Yuan . Late in 472, Yuan and Chu promoted Liu Bing to join them in making important decisions, because it was considered appropriate to incorporate a member of the imperial clan into the decision-making process. During the rebellion of Emperor Houfei's uncle Liu Xiufan (劉休範) the Prince of Guiyang in 474, Liu Bing was given a general title as well, but did not appear to actually command troops. After Liu Xiufan's rebellion

5508-399: The news was not known initially. Liu Xiufan's forces intensified their siege against the various defense positions. Xiao was barely able to hold his position, but Liu Xiufan's general Ding Wenhao ( 丁文豪 ) was able to defeat and kill Liu Mian ( 劉勔 ) and Wang Daolong ( 王道隆 ) and put the palace under siege. Soon, news of Liu Xiufan's death became gradually known, and Ding's forces collapsed. In

5610-456: The nobility, Wang Mang claimed on 10 January that the divine Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of his own: the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD). Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that were ultimately unsuccessful. These reforms included outlawing slavery, nationalizing and equally distributing land between households, and introducing new currencies,

5712-666: The other to the south of the Shandong Peninsula , though Han engineers managed to dam the southern branch by 70 AD. The flood dislodged thousands of peasant farmers, many of whom joined roving bandit and rebel groups such as the Red Eyebrows to survive. Wang Mang's armies were incapable of quelling these enlarged rebel groups. Eventually, an insurgent mob forced their way into the Weiyang Palace and killed Wang Mang. The Gengshi Emperor ( r.  23–25 AD ),

5814-560: The other. When the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced to commit suicide. Under Emperor Ling ( r.  168–189 AD ) the eunuchs had the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while also auctioning off top government offices. Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs Zhao Zhong ( d.  189 AD ) and Zhang Rang ( d.  189 AD ) while Emperor Ling spent much of his time roleplaying with concubines and participating in military parades. The Partisan Prohibitions were repealed during

5916-406: The plot would not succeed without Chu Yuan's support, told Chu of the plot as well, and Chu, who was friendly with Xiao, quickly informed Xiao. Yuan, not aware of this, continued his preparations, aligning with a number of generals and preparing to rise. However, Liu Bing panicked during the preparation stage, and fled to Yuan's defense post at the fortress of Shitou Cheng several hours in advance of

6018-412: The provincial governors whom Shen invited to join him all declined and either resisted him or stood by. Shen nevertheless had a strong army, and the imperial army generals were apprehensive about facing him. He initially progressed quickly toward Jiankang. But as he went past Yingcheng (郢城, in modern Wuhan , Hubei ), he was provoked by insults of Liu Shilong ( 柳世隆 ), the chief of staff for Liu Zan ( 劉贊 )

6120-584: The remainder of Western and Eastern Han. To the north of China proper , the nomadic Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu ( r.  209–174 BC ) conquered various tribes inhabiting the eastern portion of the Eurasian Steppe . By the end of his reign, he controlled the Inner Asian regions of Manchuria , Mongolia , and the Tarim Basin , subjugating over twenty states east of Samarkand . Emperor Gaozu

6222-599: The salt and iron monopolies were eventually abolished in the early Eastern Han. The issuing of coinage remained a central government monopoly throughout the rest of the Han dynasty. The government monopolies were eventually repealed when a political faction known as the Reformists gained greater influence in the court. The Reformists opposed the Modernist faction that had dominated court politics in Emperor Wu's reign and during

SECTION 60

#1733114491516

6324-475: The south , annexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC . He further expanded Han territory into the northern Korean Peninsula , where Han forces conquered Gojoseon and established the Xuantu and Lelang commanderies in 108 BC. After 92 AD, palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in the dynasty's court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between various consort clans of

6426-479: The subsequent regency of Huo Guang ( d.  68 BC ). The Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansionary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy government intervention in the private economy. The Reformists, however, overturned these policies, favouring a cautious, non-expansionary approach to foreign policy, frugal budget reform, and lower tax-rates imposed on private entrepreneurs. Wang Zhengjun (71 BC – 13 AD)

6528-410: The throne in 466 after the brief reign and assassination of Emperor Xiaowu's son Emperor Qianfei , Xiao Daocheng was a general, and his allegiance was with Emperor Ming. He participated in the campaign against the army nominally commanded by Liu Zixun's brother Liu Zifang ( 劉子房 ) the Prince of Xunyang and governor of Kuaiji Commandery along the southern shore of Hangzhou Bay . He subsequently defeated

6630-551: The throne. Xiao Daocheng made Emperor Houfei's brother Liu Zhun the Prince of Ancheng emperor (as Emperor Shun). In response, the general Shen Youzhi arose with the troops of his Jing Province (荊州, modern central and western Hubei ), accusing Xiao of wanting to usurp the throne. Yuan and Liu Bing also believed that that was Xiao's intent, and, as Xiao prepared for a campaign against Shen, secretly planned another uprising within Jiankang to overthrow Xiao. However, Yuan, believing that

6732-425: The throne. Yuan Can and Liu Bing also believed that that was Xiao's intent. As Xiao prepared for a campaign against Shen, they secretly planned another uprising within Jiankang to overthrow Xiao. Yuan, believing that the plot would not succeed without Chu Yuan's support, told Chu of the plot as well. Chu, who was friendly with Xiao, quickly informed Xiao. Yuan, not aware of this, continued his preparations, aligning with

6834-485: The time he did so, Zhang Jing'er, whom Xiao had made the governor of Yong Province (雍州, modern southwestern Henan and southwestern Hubei ) with the intent of having him attack Shen from the rear, had already captured Jiangling and killed Shen Yuanyan, whom Shen Youzhi had left in charge of Jiangling. Shen's remaining army, seeing that Jiangling had fallen, collapsed, and he initially tried to flee, but realizing that his escape route had been cut off he committed suicide. Xiao

6936-455: The title of emperor; when these warlords were defeated, China reunified under the Han. The period between the foundation of the Han dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han ( 西漢 ; 西汉 ; Xīhàn ) or Former Han ( 前漢 ; 前汉 ; Qiánhàn ) (206 BC – 9 AD). During this period the capital was at Chang'an (modern Xi'an ). From the reign of Guangwu

7038-466: The treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the Great Wall for additional goods. In a court conference assembled by Emperor Wu ( r.  141–87 BC ) in 135 BC, the majority consensus of the ministers was to retain the heqin agreement. Emperor Wu accepted this, despite continuing Xiongnu raids. However, a court conference the following year convinced the majority that

7140-506: The war with Chu, Emperor Gaozu enfeoffed some of them as kings. By 196, the Han court had replaced all of these kings with royal Liu family members, with the lone exception of Changsha . The loyalty of non-relatives to the emperor was questioned, and after several insurrections by Han kings—with the largest being the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154—the imperial court began enacting

7242-483: The west. Cao Cao died in March 220 AD. By December his son Cao Pi (187–226 AD) had Emperor Xian relinquish the throne to him and is known posthumously as Emperor Wen of Wei . This formally ended the Han dynasty and initiated an age of conflict between the Three Kingdoms : Cao Wei , Eastern Wu , and Shu Han . In the hierarchical social order, the emperor was at the apex of Han society and government. However,

7344-411: The widespread rebellion against Wang Mang , the state of Goguryeo was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies ; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD 30. The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam rebelled against Han in AD 40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan ( d.  AD 49 ) in a campaign from AD 42 to 43. Wang Mang renewed hostilities against

7446-410: Was a friend of Xiao, Xiao became a commanding general of the capital defense force. Emperor Ming soon died, and Crown Prince Yu took the throne as Emperor Houfei. In 474, Emperor Houfei's uncle Liu Xiufan ( 劉休範 ) the Prince of Guiyang and governor of Jiang Province (江州, modern Jiangxi and Fujian ), angry that he had not been made the regent , rebelled and made a quick advancement toward Jiankang. At

7548-459: Was a high-level official of the Chinese Liu Song dynasty and a member of Liu Song's imperial clan, who near the end of the dynasty made a futile attempt to prevent the general Xiao Daocheng from gaining sufficient power to take the throne. Liu Bing was born in 433. His father Liu Yizong (劉義宗), as a son of the dynasty founder Emperor Wu 's brother Liu Daolian (劉道憐) the Prince of Changsha,

7650-439: Was about to make an attack and claim to be trying to reestablish Liu Song on the behalf of Liu Chang ( 劉昶 ) the Prince of Danyang, a son of Liu Song's Emperor Wen who had in 465 fled to Northern Wei over fears that Emperor Qianfei would kill him. Emperor Gao prepared the northern borders in anticipation of a major attack, which Northern Wei launched in winter 479. The Northern Wei attack ended, however, after Northern Wei forces made

7752-440: Was about to start a rebellion. They killed the former emperor. Emperor Gao did not punish these guards, but rewarded them and further carried out a massacre of Liu Song's imperial clan. Later that year, he made princes of his son Xiao Ze (who had by that point been known as an able general, now crown prince ), his other sons, as well as Xiao Ze's oldest son Xiao Zhangmao . Meanwhile, Emperor Gao received reports that Northern Wei

7854-487: Was adopted. Liu Xiufan's forces soon arrived. He made a direct assault against Xiao's defensive position. With Xiao's approval, his officers Huang Hui ( 黃回 ) and Zhang Jing'er ( 張敬兒 ) falsely surrendered to Liu Xiufan and then further informed Liu Xiufan that Xiao wished to surrender as well. While pretending to secretly convey the information, Zhang and Huang then assassinated Liu Xiufan. However, because they had to then discard Liu Xiufan's head to avoid Liu Xiufan's guards,

7956-438: Was appointed regent as Marshall of State on 16 August under Emperor Ping ( r.   1 BC – 6 AD). When Ping died on 3 February 6 AD, Ruzi Ying ( d.  25 AD ) was chosen as the heir and Wang Mang was appointed to serve as acting emperor for the child. Wang promised to relinquish his control to Liu Ying once he came of age. Despite this promise, and against protest and revolts from

8058-415: Was asleep. Xiao then forced Yuan and Liu Bing to effectively grant him near-imperial powers, leading to concerns that Xiao would next take the throne. Xiao Daocheng made Emperor Houfei's brother Liu Zhun the Prince of Ancheng emperor (as Emperor Shun). In response, the general Shen Youzhi arose with the troops of his Jing Province (荊州, modern central and western Hubei ), accusing Xiao of wanting to usurp

8160-409: Was assassinated, Liu Bing continued to be promoted. Because the imperial Liu clan then lacked people with talent, because Liu Bing was himself not particularly talented but was known for his studiousness and virtues, Emperor Ming favored him. By the end of Emperor Ming's reign, he was a powerful provincial governor. After Emperor Ming died in 472 and was succeeded by his son Emperor Houfei , initially,

8262-627: Was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) established by the usurping regent Wang Mang , and is thus separated into two periods—the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and the Eastern Han (25–220 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history , and had a permanent impact on Chinese identity in later periods. The majority ethnic group of modern China refer to themselves as

8364-889: Was brought into the Han realm with the conquest of the Dian Kingdom in 109 BC, followed by parts of the Korean Peninsula with the Han conquest of Gojoseon and establishment of the Xuantu and Lelang commanderies in 108 BC. The first nationwide census in Chinese history was taken in 2 AD; the Han's total population was registered as comprising 57,671,400 individuals across 12,366,470 households. To pay for his military campaigns and colonial expansion, Emperor Wu nationalised several private industries. He created central government monopolies administered largely by former merchants . These monopolies included salt, iron, and liquor production, as well as bronze coinage . The liquor monopoly lasted only from 98 to 81 BC, and

8466-546: Was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han. At the beginning of the Western Han ( traditional Chinese : 西漢 ; simplified Chinese : 西汉 ; pinyin : Xīhàn ), also known as the Former Han ( 前漢 ; 前汉 ; Qiánhàn ), thirteen centrally-controlled commanderies —including the capital region—existed in the western third of the empire, while the eastern two-thirds were divided into ten semi-autonomous kingdoms . To placate his prominent commanders from

8568-490: Was convinced by the accusations of the eunuchs Li Run ( 李閏 ) and Jiang Jing ( 江京 ) that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them, and forced many to commit suicide. After An's death, his wife, Empress Dowager Yan ( d.  126 AD ) placed the child Marquess of Beixiang on the throne in an attempt to retain power within her family. However, palace eunuch Sun Cheng ( d.  132 AD ) masterminded

8670-582: Was created the Baron of Jinxing. Xiao Daocheng first studied the Confucian classics at the imperial university set up by Emperor Wen and headed by the hermit and scholar Lei Cizong ( zh:雷次宗 ) when he was 12, but by age 15 he was serving in the military. He continued serving as a military officer during the reigns of Emperors Wen and Xiaowu (Emperor Wen's son). By the time that Emperor Xiaowu's brother Emperor Ming and Emperor Xiaowu's son Liu Zixun were fighting for

8772-442: Was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government called commanderies , as well as a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms . These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States . From the reign of Emperor Wu ( r.  141–87 BC ) onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with

8874-480: Was first empress, then empress dowager , and finally grand empress dowager during the reigns of the Emperors Yuan ( r.  49–33 BC ), Cheng ( r.  33–7 BC ), and Ai ( r.  7–1 BC ), respectively. During this time, a succession of her male relatives held the title of regent. Following the death of Ai, Wang Zhengjun's nephew Wang Mang (45 BC – 23 AD)

8976-446: Was in revenge for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother— Consort Liang —and then concealing her identity from him. After Emperor He's death, his wife Empress Deng Sui ( d.  121 AD ) managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118 AD. When Empress Dowager Deng died, Emperor An ( r.  106–125 AD )

9078-404: Was intrigued by the large size of Xiao's belly. He woke Xiao up, drew a target on Xiao's belly, and prepared to shoot him with arrows. Xiao pleaded for his life, and Emperor Houfei's attendant Wang Tian'en ( 王天恩 ) pointed out that if he killed Xiao with an arrow, he would lose Xiao's belly as a wonderful target. So, at Wang's suggestion, Emperor Houfei shot Xiao with bone-made round-point arrows and

9180-625: Was killed by allies of the Xiongnu in Karasahr and Kucha , the garrison at Hami was withdrawn. At the Battle of Ikh Bayan in AD 89, Dou Xian ( d.  AD 92 ) defeated the Northern Xiongnu chanyu who then retreated into the Altai Mountains . After the Northern Xiongnu fled into the Ili River valley in AD 91, the nomadic Xianbei occupied the area from the borders of

9282-642: Was near the commandery of Rinan where Chinese sources claim the Romans first landed, as well as embassies from Tianzhu in northern India in 159 and 161. Óc Eo is also thought to be the port city " Cattigara " described by Ptolemy in his Geography ( c.  150 AD ) as lying east of the Golden Chersonese ( Malay Peninsula ) along the Magnus Sinus (i.e. the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea ), where

9384-584: Was not poisoned and drank some himself, before Xiao would dare to drink. Once Wu returned to the capital Jiankang , he assured Emperor Ming that Xiao was loyal. But after details of Wu's leaking the information to Xiao became known to Emperor Ming, Emperor Ming forced Wu to commit suicide; he did not take any actions against Xiao. Soon thereafter he recalled Xiao to Jiankang. Xiao's followers largely suspected that Emperor Ming would kill him and suggested that he resist, but Xiao believed that Emperor Ming would not do so. He therefore returned to Jiankang, where he became

9486-481: Was now without substantial opposition, particularly after he killed Huang Hui, who had been implicated in conspiracies with Liu Jingsu and Yuan Can, later that year after Huang showed signs of insubordination. He began to put his sons into important posts as well. He also engaged the nobly born official Wang Jian as a key assistant and, with Chu's tacit agreement, started making moves toward the throne, including quietly assassinating Emperor Houfei's brothers. In 479, over

9588-450: Was persuaded by Cao Cao (155–220 AD), then Governor of Yan Province in modern western Shandong and eastern Henan , to move the capital to Xuchang in 196 AD. Yuan Shao challenged Cao Cao for control over the emperor. Yuan's power was greatly diminished after Cao defeated him at the Battle of Guandu in 200 AD. After Yuan died, Cao killed Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan (173–205 AD), who had fought with his brothers over

9690-422: Was pleased when he was able to target Xiao's bellybutton successfully. Xiao became fearful after the incident; he initially discussed with Yuan and Chu the possibilities of deposing the emperor but could not get them to go along with his plan. Xiao therefore acted on his own, associating with Emperor Houfei's attendants and eventually getting one of them, Yang Yufu ( 楊玉夫 ), to kill Emperor Houfei while Emperor Houfei

9792-595: Was reinstated when it was bestowed on Ban Chao. Foreign travellers to the Eastern Han empire included Buddhist monks who translated works into Chinese , such as An Shigao from Parthia, and Lokaksema from Kushan-era Gandhara . In addition to tributary relations with the Kushans, the Han empire received gifts from sovereigns in the Parthian Empire , as well as from kings in modern Burma and Japan . He also initiated an unsuccessful mission to Rome in AD 97 with Gan Ying as emissary. A Roman embassy of Emperor Marcus Aurelius ( r.  161–180 AD )

9894-408: Was said that, while at this post, he began to engage a group of talented followers. During Emperor Ming's reign, there were rumors that Xiao Daocheng's facial features were unusual and were signs that he would become emperor. By 471, Emperor Ming – who had already carried out a campaign of killing most of his brothers and some high-level officials in fear that they would not be loyal to his son Liu Yu

9996-576: Was sonless, after Liu Shao was defeated and killed by his brother Liu Jun the Prince of Wuling, who took the throne as Emperor Xiaowu, Liu Bing was created the Marquess of Xinyu to inherit his father's and brother's title. Little is known about the chronology of Liu Bing's subsequent activities until the reign of Emperor Ming , his second cousin, but he was promoted in rank throughout the years. After Emperor Ming became emperor in January 466 after his violent and arbitrary nephew Liu Ziye (Emperor Xiaowu's son)

10098-453: Was suppressed by Xiao Daocheng , Liu Bing was created the greater title of Marquess of Dangyang, and he shared the decision-making process with Yuan, Chu, and Xiao. In 477, Xiao Daocheng, fearful that the violent Emperor Houfei would kill him, engaged in a plot with Emperor Houfei's associates and had him assassinated. Xiao then forced Yuan and Liu Bing to effectively grant him near-imperial powers, leading to concerns that Xiao would next take

10200-463: Was the Marquess of Xinyu. In 444, Liu Yizong died, and initially, Liu Bing's older brother Liu Jie (劉玠) inherited the title. However, after Emperor Wen was assassinated by his crown prince Liu Shao in 453, Liu Shao, because he particularly disliked his cousins from Liu Daolian's line, had a number of them, including Liu Jie, put to death under a false accusation that they conspired with the official Wang Sengchuo (王僧綽) to overthrow him. Because Liu Jie

10302-413: Was then forced to commit suicide. Students from the imperial university organized a widespread student protest against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court. Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis. Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying ( 李膺 ) and his associates from

10404-399: Was troubled about the abundant Han-manufactured iron weapons traded to the Xiongnu along the northern borders, and he established a trade embargo against the group. In retaliation, the Xiongnu invaded what is now Shanxi , where they defeated the Han forces at Baideng in 200 BC. After negotiations, the heqin agreement in 198 BC nominally held the leaders of the Xiongnu and

#515484