Fang Qiao (579 – 18 August 648), courtesy name Xuanling , better known as Fang Xuanling ( Chinese : 房玄齡 ), posthumously known as Duke Wenzhao of Liang , was a Chinese statesman and writer who served as a chancellor under Emperor Taizong in the early Tang dynasty . He was the lead editor of the historical record Book of Jin (covering the history of the Jin dynasty (266–420) ) and one of the most celebrated Tang dynasty chancellors. He and his colleague, Du Ruhui , were often described as role models for chancellors in imperial China.
154-578: Emperor Gaozong of Tang (21 July 628 – 27 December 683), personal name Li Zhi , was the third emperor of the Chinese Tang dynasty , ruling from 649 to 683; after January 665, he handed power over the empire to his second wife Empress Wu (the future Wu Zetian ), and her decrees were carried out with greater force than the decrees of Emperor Gaozong's. Emperor Gaozong was the youngest son of Emperor Taizong and Empress Zhangsun ; his elder brothers were Li Chengqian and Li Tai . Emperor Gaozong's reign saw
308-403: A campaign against Goguryeo , he took Li Zhi with him to Ding Prefecture (定州, roughly modern Baoding , Hebei) and then left Li Zhi there to be in charge of logistics, before heading to the front himself. He also left senior officials Gao Shilian , Liu Ji, Ma Zhou, Zhang Xingcheng , and Gao Jifu to assist Li Zhi. After the campaign ended in failure later that year, as Emperor Taizong was leading
462-528: A dynasty , and succession in most cases theoretically followed agnatic primogeniture . The emperor of China was an absolute monarch . During the Han dynasty , Confucianism gained sanction as the official political theory. The absolute authority of the emperor came with a variety of governing duties and moral obligations; failure to uphold these was thought to remove the dynasty's Mandate of Heaven and to justify its overthrow. In practice, emperors sometimes avoided
616-527: A Tang vassal state , the Tuyuhun . Tuyuhun's Ledou Khan Murong Nuohebo , unable to withstand the Tibetan attack, took his people and fled into Tang territory to seek protection, thus ending Tuyuhun's existence as a state. Meanwhile, also in 663, Liu Rengui and Liu Renyuan, in conjunction with Munmu of Silla and the former Baekje crown prince Buyeo Yung , defeated Buyeo Pung and Japanese forces sent to assist him, at
770-580: A campaign of reprisal on her behalf. Empress Wu, on the other hand, persuaded Emperor Gaozong to work with the removal of the chancellors appointed by Emperor Taizong to consolidate the emperor's power. In 657, they accused Han Yuan and Lai Ji of plotting treason with Chu Suiliang, who was then serving as the commandant at Gui Prefecture (桂州, roughly modern Guilin , Guangxi). Emperor Gaozong demoted Han and Lai to be prefects of distant prefectures, and demoted Chu and Liu Shi to even more distant prefectures—in Chu's case, to
924-529: A commandant at Tan Prefecture (roughly modern Changsha , Hunan), and then deposed both Empress Wang and Consort Xiao, putting them under arrest and creating Consort Wu, as empress (皇后, huánghòu) and the most powerful woman in the empire (天下母, Tiānxià Mǔ) instead to replace Empress Wang. (Later that year, Empress Wang and Consort Xiao were killed on orders by the new Empress Wu after Emperor Gaozong showed signs of considering their release.) Then, at Xu's suggestion, in spring 656, Emperor Gaozong demoted Li Zhong to be
1078-795: A coup in 1917 but was overthrown again shortly after. Although permitted to remain in the palace, he absconded to the Japanese concession in Tianjin in 1924. In 1934 he was installed as emperor of Manchukuo , a Japanese puppet state. In 1945, he was captured by the Red Army as a prisoner of war, where he was held in the Siberian city of Chita . In 1950, he was extradited to China and imprisoned in Fushun War Criminals Management Centre . He would be formally pardoned and released in 1959, working in
1232-494: A daughter that died shortly after birth. Evidence implicated Empress Wang as the killer, although some historians believe Consort Wu killed her own daughter in order to frame Empress Wang, but no concrete evidence of this exists. In anger, Emperor Gaozong considered deposing Empress Wang and replacing her with Consort Wu, but wanted to make sure that the chancellors would support this, and so visited Zhangsun's house with Consort Wu, awarding him with much treasure, but when he brought up
1386-616: A few places, eunuchs wielded vast power; one of the most powerful eunuchs in Chinese history was Wei Zhongxian during the Ming. Occasionally, other nobles seized power as regents. The actual area ruled by the emperor of China varied from dynasty to dynasty. In some cases, such as during the Southern Song dynasty , political power in East Asia was effectively split among several governments; nonetheless,
1540-517: A great deal of power in affairs of state until the end of his reign while exerting her influence on him. Empress Wu was partially in control of power from November 660 and then totally from January 665 to December 683; there was an equality of power between Gaozong and Wu, which caused them to be called "two saints" (二聖, Er Sheng , literally two emperors) both inside and outside. After Emperor Gaozong died in December 683, power fell completely and solely into
1694-449: A major simplification of the central government, reducing the number of officials at the central government to 634. In 629, Fang, along with Du, became Puye (僕射), the head of the important executive bureau of the government (尚書省, Shangshu Sheng ). It was said that at this time that the Fang and Du became known as the model for chancellors. It was also said that Fang, even though he had reached
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#17328586127601848-448: A male emperor). The given names of all the emperor's deceased male ancestors were forbidden from being written, and were avoided ( 避諱 ) by the use of synonyms, homophones, or leaving out the final stroke of the taboo character. This linguistic feature can sometimes be used to date historical texts, by noting which words in parallel texts are altered. The emperor was never to be addressed as you . Instead, one used Bixia ( 陛下 'bottom of
2002-400: A pearl screen behind him to hear the reports, and before the emperor can decide, he must ask the empress: therefore she got involved in everything pertaining to the empire and discussed and helped decide all "great and small" military and state affairs; her power is no different from that of the emperor. Since Empress Wu began to listen to politics in court, she established herself and Gaozong in
2156-527: A petition stating that Fang's faithfulness should not be forgotten, Emperor Taizong visited Fang's mansion – a visit that Fang anticipated and had cleaned his house for – and he had Fang accompany him on the imperial wagon back to palace. Fang was said to be so influential in Emperor Taizong's decision-making by this stage that an amusing incident occurred in 647, involving the official Li Wei (李緯). Emperor Taizong, then at his summer palace Cuiwei Palace (翠微宮, in
2310-583: A plea on Duman's behalf—that he had promised Duman life before Duman surrendered—and Emperor Gaozong stated that while under the law, Duman should die, he would honor Su's promise, and so he spared Duman. On the other end of the Tang atmosphere of influence, on the Korean Peninsula , Baekje had been attacking the Tang ally Silla . Once Su returned from the Esegel campaign, Emperor Gaozong commissioned him to head over
2464-499: A relief force, and Liu Rengui and Liu Renyuan were able to fight off the Baekje resistance forces' attacks, but were themselves not strong enough to quell the rebellion, and so for some time the armies were in stalemate. Meanwhile, Su advanced on the Goguryeo capital Pyongyang and put it under siege, but was unable to capture it quickly. In spring 662, after the general Pang Xiaotai ( 龐孝泰 )
2618-524: A repair shop and as a researcher of literature and history until his death in 1967. The current head of the House of Aisin-Gioro and hypothetical claimant to the throne is Jin Yuzhang . He has worked for various local councils on China, and has no interest in the restoration of monarchy. Traditional political theory holds that there can only be one legitimate Son of Heaven at any given time. However, identifying
2772-419: A surprise attack on Duman. When he arrived at Duman's headquarters, Duman was surprised, and after Su initially defeated Duman, Duman was forced to withdraw within the city. Su put the city under siege, and Duman surrendered. In spring 660, Su took Duman back to the eastern capital Luoyang , where Emperor Gaozong was at the time, to present Duman to him. Some officials requested that Duman be executed, but Su made
2926-518: A treasonous plot by Zhangsun. Emperor Gaozong, without meeting with Zhangsun, believed Xu, and put Zhangsun under house arrest in exile at Qian Prefecture (黔州, roughly modern southeastern Chongqing ). Xu further implicated Chu, Liu, Han, and Yu Zhining in the plot as well. Yu was removed from his post. Chu, who had died in 658, was posthumously stripped of all titles, and his sons Chu Yanfu ( 褚彥甫 ) and Chu Yanchong ( 褚彥沖 ) were executed. Orders were also issued to execute Liu and Han, although Han died before
3080-478: The Battle of Baekgang . Buyeo Pung fled to Goguryeo, ending the Baekje resistance movement. Emperor Gaozong recalled Liu Renyuan, leading Liu Rengui in charge of former Baekje territory, but in 664 sent Liu Renyuan back to Baekje and tried to recall Liu Rengui. Liu Rengui petitioned to remain to prepare for another attack on Goguryeo, and Emperor Gaozong agreed to let him remain. By 664, Empress Wu, who felt that her power
3234-789: The Jurchens of the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) , who later ruled the Qing dynasty as the Manchus , and the Mongols of the Yuan dynasty. The orthodox historical view sees these as dynasties as sinicized polities as they adopted Han culture, claimed the Mandate of Heaven , and performed the traditional imperial obligations such as annual sacrifices to Heaven for rain and prosperity. The revisionist New Qing History school, however, argues that
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#17328586127603388-642: The Ming-era Huang-Ming Zuxun ( Ancestral Instructions ). During the Western Zhou dynasty ( c. 1046 BC – 771 BC), Chinese vassal rulers with power over their particular fiefdoms served a strong central monarch. Following a brutal succession crisis and relocation of the royal capital, the power of the Zhou kings ( 王 ; wàng ) waned, and during the Eastern Zhou period,
3542-510: The New Book of Tang : Whenever the emperor was ill, the affairs of the state were left to the empress to decide. The court and the country called them "Two Saints" ( 二聖 , Er Sheng ). Each time the emperor personally addressed court matters, a curtain hung in the hall ( 垂簾聽政 , Chuílián tīngzhèng ), and both the emperor and empress presided over the court together. It is up to empress's to decide who will be promoted and demoted, die and survive, and
3696-613: The Nine Ding or the Heirloom Seal of the Realm . As with the First Emperor, it remained very common to grant posthumous titles to the ancestors of the victors. The Yuan and Qing dynasties were founded by successful invaders of different ethnic groups. As part of their rule over China, they also went through the culturally appropriate rituals of formally declaring a new dynasty and taking on
3850-512: The Northern Wei dynasty, and his grandfather Fang Xiong (房熊) was also an official. His father Fang Yanqian (房彥謙) was a county magistrate during the Sui dynasty. Fang Xuanling was said to be intelligent and well-learned in his youth, and particularly skillful at calligraphy . It was said that once, when he accompanied his father to the capital Chang'an , the state was peaceful, and the popular sentiment
4004-465: The Qinling Mountains ), leaving Fang again in charge of Chang'an, had commissioned Li Wei as the minister of finances. When a messenger arrived from Chang'an, Emperor Taizong asked the messenger what Fang had said about Li Wei, and the messenger responded, "When Fang Xuanling heard that Li Wei was made a minister, all he stated was, 'Li Wei has a handsome beard.'" Emperor Taizong, realizing that Fang
4158-691: The Yuan dynasty . The Qing view, reported to Europe by the Jesuits, was that there had been 150 emperors from the First Emperor to the Kangxi Emperor . Adding the eight uncontroversial emperors that followed the Kangxi Emperor would give a grand total of 158 emperors from the First Emperor to Puyi. By one count, from the Qin dynasty to the Qing dynasty , there were a total 557 individuals who at one point or another claimed
4312-400: The censorate . Paranoid emperors, like Emperor Wu of Han and the Ming's Hongwu Emperor , would cycle through high government officials rapidly, or simply leave top-ranking posts vacant, such that no one could threaten their power. During other reigns, certain officials in the civil bureaucracy wielded more power than the emperor himself. The emperor's position, unless deposed in a rebellion,
4466-451: The political fiction that there was but one ruler was maintained. The title of emperor was hereditary, traditionally passed on from father to son in each dynasty. There are also instances where the throne is assumed by a younger brother, should the deceased emperor have no male offspring. By convention in most dynasties, the eldest son born to the Empress consort ( 嫡长子 ; 嫡長子 ) succeeded to
4620-684: The "Mandate of Heaven". There has been only one lawful queen regnant in Chinese history, Wu Zetian , who briefly replaced the Tang dynasty with her own Wu Zhou dynasty . Many women, however, did become de facto leaders, usually as Empress Dowager . Prominent examples include Empress Dowager Lü of the Han, Empress Liu of the Song , and Empress Dowager Cixi of the Qing. As the emperor had, by law, an absolute position not to be challenged by anyone else, his subjects were to show
4774-458: The "legitimate" emperor during times of division is not always uncontroversial, and therefore the exact number of legitimate emperors depends on where one stands on a number of succession disputes. The two most notable such controversies are whether Cao Wei or Shu Han had legitimacy during the Three Kingdoms , and at what point the Song dynasty ceased to be the legitimate dynasty in favor of
Emperor Gaozong of Tang - Misplaced Pages Continue
4928-566: The Buddhist monk Dochim ( 道琛 ) and the former Baekje general Gwisil Boksin rose to try to revive Baekje. They welcomed the Baekje prince Buyeo Pung back from Japan to serve as king, with Juryu (주류, 周留, now Seocheon County , South Chungcheong ) as their headquarters. They put the Tang general Liu Renyuan ( 劉仁願 ) under siege in Sabi. Emperor Gaozong sent the general Liu Rengui , who had previously been demoted to commoner rank for offending Li Yifu, with
5082-877: The Chinese proverb "Fang plans and Du decides" (房謀杜斷, Fang mou Du duan ), after they became renowned.) By 626, Li Shimin was locked in an intense rivalry with his older brother, Li Jiancheng the Crown Prince , and Fang and Du often suggested that he act first against Li Jiancheng. As both Li Jiancheng and another brother who supported Li Jiancheng, Li Yuanji the Prince of Qi, feared Fang's and Du's strategic capabilities, they falsely accused both Fang and Du and had them demoted out of Li Shimin's staff. In summer 626, when Li Shimin decided to act against Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji, however, he summoned Fang and Du to his mansion. Fang and Du, initially fearing Emperor Gaozu's orders forbidding them to serve Li Shimin, declined. In anger, Li Shimin sent
5236-531: The Chinese title of Huangdi , in addition to the titles of their respective people, especially in the case of the Yuan dynasty. Thus, Kublai Khan was simultaneously khagan of the Mongols and emperor of China. In 1911, the title of Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet was created to rule alongside the emperor, as part of an attempt to turn China into a constitutional monarchy . Puyi , who had reigned as
5390-661: The Court" ( 二聖臨朝 , Er Sheng Lín cháo ). The first book: the Later Jin historian Liu Xu , in Old Book of Tang , commented: The Empress of Heaven was at the helm of the country for long years, her power is no different from that of the emperor. When emperor's could not listen to the court issues, all affairs were decided by the Empress of Heaven. Since the execution of the Shangguan Yi , whenever
5544-716: The Crown Prince and assist him in making the decisions. Also in 630, his title was changed to Duke of Wei. In 636, for reasons unknown, Fang was briefly removed from his post and returned to his mansion. When Emperor Taizong's wife Empress Zhangsun (Zhangsun Wuji's sister) died later that year, she, in her final words, pointed out to Emperor Taiizong that Fang had faithfully served him throughout his career and should not be removed. After her death, Emperor Taizong restored Fang to his post. In 637, as part of Emperor Taizong's scheme to bestow prefectures on his relatives and great generals and officials as their permanent domains, Fang's title
5698-544: The Emperor of Zheng and captured the Zheng capital Luoyang (which had served as Sui's eastern capital), it was said that he sent Fang to the offices of Sui's legislative and examination bureaus of government to try to preserve Sui archives, but Fang's mission turned out to be unsuccessful as the archives had already been destroyed by Wang. Later in 621, when Emperor Gaozu, awarding Li Shimin for his great accomplishments, bestowed on him
5852-467: The Han, Emperor Taizong of Tang of the Tang, the Hongwu Emperor and Yongle Emperor of the Ming, and the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing. The emperor's words were considered sacred edicts ( 圣旨 ; 聖旨 ), and his written proclamations were called 'directives from above' ( 上谕 ; 上諭 ). In theory, the emperor's orders were to be obeyed immediately. He was elevated above all commoners, nobility and members of
6006-420: The Han, as well as the empress dowagers Cixi and Ci'an during the Qing, who for a time ruled jointly as co-regents. Where Empresses Dowager were too weak to assume power, or her family too strongly opposed, court officials often seized control. Court eunuchs had a significant role in the power structure, as emperors often relied on a few of them as confidants, which gave them access to many court documents. In
6160-589: The Imperial family. Addresses to the emperor were always to be formal and self-deprecatory, even by the closest of family members. In practice, however, the power of the emperor varied between different emperors and different dynasties . Generally, in the Chinese dynastic cycle , emperors founding a dynasty usually consolidated the empire through comparative autocracy —examples include Qin Shi Huang, emperors Gaozu and Guangwu of Han, Emperor Taizong of Tang, Kublai Khan of
6314-480: The Japanese monarchy, Chinese political theory allowed for a change in the ruling house. This was based on the concept of the " Mandate of Heaven ". The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the "Son of Heaven" and held a mandate to rule over everyone else in the world; but only as long as he served the people well. If the quality of rule became questionable because of repeated natural disasters such as flood or famine, or for other reasons, then rebellion
Emperor Gaozong of Tang - Misplaced Pages Continue
6468-427: The Prince of Dai emperor (as Emperor Gong)) that Emperor Yang had been killed in a coup at Jiangdu (江都, in modern Yangzhou , Jiangsu ), led by the general Yuwen Huaji , Li Yuan had Yang You yield the throne to him, establishing the Tang dynasty as its Emperor Gaozu. He created Li Shimin, the Prince of Qin. Fang continued to serve on Li Shimin's staff. In 621, when Li Shimin defeated Tang's major enemy Wang Shichong
6622-475: The Prince of Jing to make Li Yuanjing emperor. Fang, knowing that Zhangsun had long been apprehensive of Li Ke, falsely implicated Li Ke in the plot as well, hoping to ingratiate Zhangsun sufficiently that he would be spared. nevertheless, in spring 653, at the suggestion of Zhangsun and Cui Dunli – despite Emperor Gaozong's initial inclination to spare Li Yuanjing and Li Ke—Emperor Gaozong ordered that Fang, Xue, and Chai be executed, and that Li Yuanjing, Li Ke, and
6776-467: The Prince of Liang and created Empress Wu's oldest son Li Hong the Prince of Dai crown prince instead. In 655 as well, Emperor Gaozong commissioned the general Cheng Zhijie ( 程知節 ) to attack Ashina Helu, but while the campaign saw some victories over Western Turkic Khaganate's substituent tribes Geluolu ( 歌邏祿 ) and Chuyue ( 處月 ), it was hindered by Cheng's inability to restrain his assistant Wang Wendu ( 王文度 ) from pillaging and inappropriately halting
6930-424: The Prince of Shu, as well as Fang's brother Fang Yizhi ( 房遺直 ) and Xue's brother Xue Wanbei ( 薛萬備 ). By 654, both Empress Wang and Consort Xiao had lost favor with Emperor Gaozong, and the former romantic rivals joined forces against Consort Wu, but to no avail, and as a sign of his love to Consort Wu, in 654 he conferred posthumous honors on her father Wu Shihuo ( 武士彠 ). Later that year, Consort Wu gave birth to
7084-492: The Princesses Gaoyang and Baling (Chai's wife) be forced to commit suicide. Zhangsun took this opportunity to accuse several other officials friendly with Fang or hostile to him—the chancellor Yuwen Jie , Li Daozong the Prince of Jiangxia, and the general Zhishi Sili ( 執失思力 ) – of being friendly with Fang and had them exiled. He also deposed and exiled Li Ke's mother Consort Yang and Consort Yang's other son Li Yin ( 李愔 )
7238-462: The Shangguan Yi! Do you really want to abolish me when you talk about abolishing the empress in your ear? I'll go to court with you in the future to prevent such mistakes, and I will assist you in addressing government issues and analyzing suggestions from the officials and others." Therefore, after this step, every day that Emperor Gaozong presided over imperial meetings, Empress Wu would sit behind
7392-492: The Tibetan Empire instead, and when Ashina Buzhen died later that year, Tang influence in the region was greatly reduced. During these years, Li Yifu had been, due to favors from Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu, exceedingly powerful, and he grew particularly corrupt. In 663, after reports of Li Yifu's corruption were made to Emperor Gaozong, Emperor Gaozong had Liu Xiangdao and Li Ji investigate, finding Li Yifu guilty. Li Yifu
7546-514: The Western Turkic Khaganate prince Ashina Helu , who had sought and received protection from Emperor Taizong, broke away from Tang and defeated the Western Turkic Khaganate's Yipishekui Khan , taking over the Western Turkic Khaganate himself and no longer subordinate under Tang. In fall 651, Ashina Helu attacked Tang's Ting Prefecture (庭州, roughly Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture , Xinjiang), and Emperor Gaozong responded by commissioning
7700-445: The Western Turkic Khaganate's subject kingdoms Shule ( 疏勒 ), Zhujupo ( 朱俱波 ), and Yebantuo ( 謁般陀 ) (all in modern Kashgar , Xinjiang). The joint forces commanded by Duman quickly defeated the Tang vassal Yutian (于田, in modern Hotan , Xinjiang). In winter 659, Emperor Gaozong sent Su Dingfang against Duman, and once he arrived in the vicinity of Duman's army, he selected 10,000 infantry soldiers and 3,000 cavalry soldiers and made
7854-571: The Xuantong Emperor, abdicated on 12 February 1912, ending the Qing dynasty as well as the imperial tradition altogether, after more than 2100 years. Yuan Shikai , former President of the Republic of China , attempted to restore dynastic rule with himself as the Hongxian Emperor, however he abdicated the throne on 22 March 1916 after only 83 days. Puyi was briefly restored for 12 days during
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#17328586127608008-437: The Yuan, and the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing. The usual method for widespread geographic power consolidation was to involve the whole family. From generation to generation, the bonds weakened between the branches of family established as local rulers in different areas. After a sufficient period of time, their loyalty could no longer be assured, and the taxes they collected sapped the imperial coffers. This led to situations like
8162-429: The army back from the front, Li Zhi went to meet him at Linyu Pass (臨渝關, now Shanhai Pass ). Emperor Taizong suffered an injury during the campaign, and Li Zhi was said to have, as Emperor Taizong's conditions were getting worse, sucked the pus out of his wound, until Emperor Taizong recovered somewhat. In 646, with Emperor Taizong still recovering, he transferred some of the imperial authorities to Li Zhi. Li Zhi stayed at
8316-589: The army. After the campaign ended in early 657, both Cheng and Wang were deposed from their offices. In 657, Emperor Gaozong commissioned the general Su Dingfang , who had served under Cheng Zhijie in the earlier failed campaign, to command a campaign against Ashina Helu, assisted by Ren Yaxiang and Xiao Siye ( 蕭嗣業 ). They were joined by the Western Turkic Khaganate's leaders Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen , who had submitted to Tang during Emperor Taizong's reign. The campaign caught Ashina Helu by surprise, and Su defeated him in several battles, causing him to flee to
8470-434: The centuries, it has not been uncommon to have numerous claimants to the title of "Son of Heaven". The Chinese political concept of the Mandate of Heaven essentially legitimized those claimants who emerged victorious. The proper list was considered those made by the official dynastic histories ; the compilation of a history of the preceding dynasty was considered one of the hallmarks of legitimacy, along with symbols such as
8624-411: The comment: Before I took the throne, it was by Fang Xuangling's assistance that I was able to seize power. After I took the throne, it was by Wei Zheng's assistance that I was able to have my errors corrected. He then awarded both Fang and Wei an imperial sword. In 639, Emperor Taizong made Fang a senior advisor to Li Chengqian, ordering him to bow to Fang as he would to Emperor Taizong. However, Fang
8778-593: The conquest of Baekje , Goguryeo , and the Western Turkic Khaganate , but throughout the 670s, much of those gains were lost to the Tibetan Empire , Silla , Khitans , and Balhae . Further, territory previously conquered that belonged to both the Göktürks and the Western Turkic Khaganate were subjected to repeated rebellions. Li Zhi was born in 628. He was the ninth son of his father, Emperor Taizong , and
8932-471: The court alone and decide. As a result, she increasingly took control of great and small decisions made throughout Emperor Gaozong's reign. She and Emperor Gaozong were thereafter referred to as the "Two Saints." The extent of Empress Wu's authority from 665 until the end of Emperor Gaozong, all historians and historical yearbooks state: Hanging the curtain from behind and listening and speaking in government ( 垂簾聽政 , Chuílián tīngzhèng ); "Two Saints came to
9086-517: The deputy imperial architect, Dou Desu (竇德素) of imperial construction projects — which Emperor Taizong saw as an encroachment on his liberty. However, Wei pointed out that chancellors were supposed to be responsible for all affairs of state, and Emperor Taizong, realizing that he had erred, was humbled. in 642, Fang was awarded the additional highly honorable title Sikong (司空) — one of the Three Excellencies . Later that year, when Emperor Taizong
9240-470: The disturbances, and Fang and Du did not refer to their own accomplishments; Wang Gui and Wei Zheng earnestly made suggestions to the emperor and Fang and Du praised them for their honesty; Li Shiji and Li Jing fought everywhere and won battles, and Fang and Du assisted them greatly on the political front. They brought peace for their time and they gave all their glory to the emperor. Is it not appropriate to refer to them as great contributors of Tang? However,
9394-431: The edict. However, during his years as crown prince, he was said to have favored his concubine Pure Consort Xiao , having two daughters (the later Princesses Yiyang and Xuan Cheng) and one son ( Li Sujie ) with her, much to the chagrin of his wife Crown Princess Wang, who was childless and jealous of Consort Xiao. Three other concubines of his bore his other sons Li Zhong , Li Xiao ( 李孝 ), and Li Shangjin ( 李上金 ). Around
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#17328586127609548-519: The emperor was referred to in the third person simply as Huangdi Bixia ( 皇帝陛下 'His Majesty the Emperor') or Dangjin Huangshang ( 当今皇上 ; 當今皇上 'present emperor above'). Under the Qing, the emperor was usually styled 'His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the Great Qing Dynasty, Son of Heaven , Lord of Ten Thousand Years ', though this varied considerably. In historical texts, the present emperor
9702-539: The emperor went to court, the Empress of Heaven hung a curtain behind the throne ( 垂簾聽政 , Chuílián tīngzhèng ), and there was matter of government, great or small, were settled by her, and they were called "Two Saints" ( 二聖 , Er Sheng ) inside and outside. The emperor wanted to issue an edict to make the Empress of Heaven would formally take over the throne of the empire, and Hao Chujun , persuaded him to stop this issue (appoint of regent). The second book: according to Song dynasty historians Ouyang Xiu and Song Qi , in
9856-483: The emperor will carry it out. Due to the empress's order, her literary scholars could secretly participate in decisions, and this led to the division of power of the Chancellors. In the last years of the emperor's life, he was unable to do anything due to illness and everything was managed by the empress. Emperor of China Throughout Chinese history , " Emperor " ( Chinese : 皇帝 ; pinyin : Huángdì )
10010-530: The emperor, while still living, often designated a crown prince ( 太子 ). Even such a clear designation, however, was often thwarted by jealousy and distrust, whether it was the crown prince plotting against the emperor, or brothers plotting against each other. Some emperors, like the Yongzheng Emperor , after abolishing the position of Crown Prince, placed the succession papers in a sealed box, only to be opened and announced after his death. Unlike, for example,
10164-493: The emperors were known with a temple name given after their death. Most emperors were also given a posthumous name which was sometimes combined with the temple name (e.g. Emperor Shengzu Ren 圣祖仁皇帝 ; 聖祖仁皇帝 for the Kangxi Emperor). The passing of an emperor was referred to as Jiabeng ( 驾崩 ; 駕崩 'collapse of the imperial chariot') and an emperor that had just died was referred to as Daixing Huangdi ( 大行皇帝 'the emperor of
10318-440: The empress. In the same year when the eunuch Wang Fusheng ( 王伏勝 ) reported to Emperor Gaozong that she had engaged the sorcerer Guo Xingzhen ( 郭行真 ) – an act that was strictly forbidden—Emperor Gaozong, in anger, summoned the chancellor Shangguan Yi to consult Shangguan. Shangguan suggested that he depose Empress Wu. He agreed, and had Shangguan draft an edict to that effect. However, Empress Wu had received information that that
10472-512: The execution order reached his location. Meanwhile, Zhangsun, once he reached his place of exile, was forced to commit suicide. It was said that after Han's and Lai's deaths, no official dared to criticize the emperor any further. Also in 659, a vassal of Western Turkic Khaganate (Pin. Tujue ), Duman ( 都曼 ), the commander of the Esegels (aka Izgil , Old Turkic : 𐰔𐰏𐰠 , Ch. Asijie , Sijie 思結) Tribe, rebelled against Tang occupation , along with
10626-571: The extremely distant Ai Prefecture (愛州, roughly modern Thanh Hóa Province , Vietnam ), and Chu's subsequent petition, sent from Ai Prefecture, pleading with Emperor Gaozong, fell on deaf ears. Empress Wu's reprisals did not end there. In 659, Zhangsun Wuji became the next target. At that time, two low level officials, Wei Jifang ( 韋季方 ) and Li Chao ( 李巢 ) had been accused of improper associations, and when Emperor Gaozong put Xu and Xin Maojiang of investigating, Xu falsely accused Wei and Li to be part of
10780-511: The former crown prince Li Zhong, Empress Wu had Xu Jingzong falsely accuse Shangguan, Wang, and Li Zhong of conspiring against Emperor Gaozong's life. Around the new year 665, Shangguan and Wang were executed, and Li Zhong was forced to commit suicide. After the events ended, Empress Wu told Emperor Gaozong: "Your Majesty, you are a wise man who manages the country in an orderly manner, but you are soft-hearted. Who do you think we are? We are husband and wife! Does our issue have anything to do with
10934-572: The general Yuchi Gong to summon Fang and Du, with directions if they declined again, to kill them. Yuchi, however, was able to persuade them that Li Shimin was in fact intending on acting against Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji, and so Fang and Du put on disguises as Taoist monks and were able to get to Li Shimin's mansions, where they assisted Li Shimin in planning the ambush against Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji. Li Shimin subsequently ambushed his brothers as Xuanwu Gate and killed them, and then effectively forced Emperor Gaozu to create him crown prince. Once he
11088-504: The general Zheng Rentai ( 鄭仁泰 ) to attack the Tiele, but while Zheng was initially victorious, his officers became bogged down in pillaging and eventually suffered great losses after being caught in poor weather. Emperor Gaozong instead sent Qibi, who was ethnically Tiele, assisted by Jiang Ke , to Tiele to try to persuade them to surrender. Qibi was able to do so, and rebel leaders were arrested and turned over to Tang. Qibi executed them and ended
11242-409: The generals Liang Jianfang ( 梁建方 ) and Qibi Heli ( 契苾何力 ) to attack Ashina Helu. Liang and Qibi achieved some victories against Ashina Helu's general Zhuxie Guzhu ( 朱邪孤注 ), but then withdrew without engaging Ashina Helu. Meanwhile, as Empress Wang was sonless, her uncle, the chancellor Liu Shi , suggested to her that she ask Emperor Gaozong to create his oldest son Li Zhong, whose mother Consort Liu
11396-407: The government was organized well and the people were comforted, much like during the reign of Emperor Taizong, although in winter 650, Chu was accused of forcibly purchasing private land and paying below-market price, and was demoted to be a prefectural prefect. (Chu eventually returned to power in 653.) Also in 650, the general Gao Kan ( 高侃 ) – whose army had been launched by Emperor Taizong against
11550-449: The great journey'). The imperial family was made up of the emperor and the empress ( 皇后 ) as the primary consort and Mother of the Nation ( 国母 ; 國母 ). In addition, the emperor would typically have several other consorts and concubines ( 嫔妃 ; 嬪妃 ), ranked by importance into a harem , in which the Empress was supreme. Every dynasty had its set of rules regarding the numerical composition of
11704-526: The greatest respect in the palace and was the decision maker in most family affairs. At times, especially when a young emperor was on the throne, she was the de facto ruler. The emperor's children, the princes ( 皇子 ) and princesses ( 公主 ), were often referred to by their order of birth—e.g. Eldest Prince or Third Princess. Princes were often given titles of peerage once they reached adulthood. The emperor's brothers and uncles served in court by law, and held equal status with other court officials ( 子 ). The emperor
11858-517: The hands of Empress Wu , acting as Empress Dowager-regent, "presiding over court and issuing edicts" ( lin chao chengzhi 臨朝稱制); she subsequently became the only empress regnant in Chinese history . After his death, he was interred at the Qian Mausoleum along with Wu Zetian. During the first part of his reign, Tang territorial gains, which started with his father Emperor Taizong, continued, including
12012-441: The harem. During the Qing dynasty, for example, imperial convention dictated that at any given time there should be one Empress , one Imperial Noble Consort , two Noble Consort , four Consort and six Concubine , plus an unlimited number of Noble Lady , First Class Attendant and Second Class Attendant . Although the emperor had the highest status by law, by tradition and precedent the empress dowager ( 皇太后 ) usually received
12166-521: The head of Li Zhi's household. At the advice of another key official, Liu Ji , who pointed out that the crown prince needed to have a group of well-learned scholars that he was close to, Emperor Taizong appointed Liu, as well as Cen Wenben , Chu Suiliang , and Ma Zhou , to serve as Li Zhi's friends and advisors. Late in 643, Emperor Taizong issued an edict to select beautiful women among good households to serve as Li Zhi's concubines . However, after Li Zhi declined such treatment, Emperor Taizong cancelled
12320-608: The highest grade, and Fang was created the Duke of Han. When Emperor Gaozu's cousin Li Shentong (李神通) the Prince of Huai'an, himself a key general, objected to being ranked below Fang and Du, stating that Fang and Du, in particular, were only bureaucrats, Emperor Taizong pointed out that it was with their strategies that he was able to become emperor, Li Shentong relented, which led to the other objectors to also cease their objections. Later in 627, under Emperor Taizong's direction, Fang carried out
12474-501: The honors the Fang clan received would not last long after Fang Xuanling's death. Emperor Taizong himself died in 649 and was succeeded by Li Zhi (as Emperor Gaozong). In 653, Fang Yi'ai and Princess Gaoyang were accused of plotting, along with the general Xue Wanche (薛萬徹), Emperor Gaozong's uncle Li Yuanjing (李元景) the Prince of Jing, Li Ke the Prince of Wu, and another brother-in-law of Emperor Gaozong, Chai Lingwu (柴令武), to overthrow Emperor Gaozong and making Li Yuanjing emperor. Fang Yi'ai
12628-444: The illness lasted 10 years, during which Fang Xuanling attended to him earnestly. After his father's death, he fasted for five days. He later became the magistrate of Xicheng County (隰城, in modern Lüliang , Shanxi ). In 617, when the general Li Yuan rebelled against the rule of Emperor Wen's son Emperor Yang , one of Li Yuan's major generals was his son Li Shimin . Fang Xuanling went to Li Shimin's camp and offered his services. It
12782-472: The imperial palace and attended to Emperor Taizong in his illness. That year, when Emperor Taizong was due to visit Ling Prefecture (靈州, roughly modern Yinchuan , Ningxia) to meet with a number of tribal chiefs who were formerly vassals of Xueyantuo —which had collapsed under Tang and Huige attacks earlier that year—he was set to take Li Zhi with him, but at Zhang's suggestion left Li Zhi in charge at Chang'an instead, to allow Li Zhi to become more familiar with
12936-537: The imperial servants attend to him. For a while, Fang got better, and then grew worse. In his illness, Fang believed that the only danger that the empire faced at that point was Emperor Taizong's anger at Goguryeo, and therefore wrote an earnest petition urging the cessation of campaigns against Goguryeo. When Emperor Taizong saw the petition, he stated to Princess Gaoyang, "He is this ill, and yet he still worries so much about my empire." He personally visited Fang to bid farewell, and in fall 649, Fang died at Yuhua Palace and
13090-422: The important affairs of state in his absence. After Emperor Taizong returned from Ling Prefecture, he retained for himself the authorities over imperial worship, state guests, military, the commissioning of officers of higher than the fifth rank, and executions, and transferred all other authorities to Li Zhi. In 647, a commoner named Duan Zhichong ( 段志沖 ) submitted a petition to Emperor Taizong, asking him to pass
13244-638: The important examination bureau of the government)] and trust him after I die. If he hesitates, execute him. He then demoted Li Shiji to the post of the commandant of Die Prefecture (疊州, roughly modern Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture , Gansu). Li Shiji, realizing what was happening, after receiving the order, departed without hesitation. As Emperor Taizong's illness was getting more serious, Li Zhi continuously attended to him and wept constantly, often going without food, which touched Emperor Taizong greatly. Emperor Taizong entrusted Li Zhi to Zhangsun and Chu Suiliang, and then died on 10 July 649. Initially, Li Zhi
13398-479: The interaction between politics and ethnicity was far more complex and that elements of these dynasties differed from and altered "native Chinese" traditions concerning imperial rule. Fang Xuanling Fang Xuanling was born in 579, shortly before the founding of the Sui dynasty in 581, during Sui's predecessor state, Northern Zhou . His great-grandfather Fang Yi (房翼) was a general, official, and hereditary count under
13552-501: The kingdom Shi (石國, centering modern Tashkent , Uzbekistan ), which arrested him and delivered him to Su, thus largely ending the Western Turkic Khaganate as an organized state. (Emperor Gaozong would try to continue the Western Turkic Khaganate's existence as a vassal stage by dividing it in half and creating Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen as khans of the two halves.) Meanwhile, Xu Jingzong and Li Yifu, aligned with Empress Wu, and became strong enough to fight for power, began to carry out
13706-408: The laws, led by Fang, was completed, and the penal laws were said to be far more lenient than the Sui penal code, on which Fang's revision was based, with 500 statutory sections and 20 grades of penalty. Also that year, the code of rites, authored by him and Wei Zheng, was also completed. In 638, Emperor Taizong, celebrating the birth of a grandson, held a feast for imperial officials, at which he made
13860-471: The man arrived at Emperor Taizong's camp and accused Fang of treason, Emperor Taizong immediately executed the man and sent an edict to Fang, rebuking him for lack of confidence in himself, stating, "If something like this happens again, you should carry out the decisive act yourself." In or around 646, Fang was again, for reasons unknown in history but described to be minor reasons, removed from his post and returned to his mansion. After Chu Suiliang submitted
14014-484: The matter of changing the empress. Li Ji claimed an illness and refused to attend. At the meeting, Chu vehemently opposed deposing Empress Wang, while Zhangsun and Yu showed their disapproval by silence. Meanwhile, other chancellors Han Yuan and Lai Ji also opposed the move, but when Emperor Gaozong asked Li Ji again, Li Ji's response was, "This is your family matter, Your Imperial Majesty. Why ask anyone else?" Emperor Gaozong therefore became resolved. He demoted Chu to be
14168-488: The more sensitive parts of the Incident at Xuanwu Gate, and he ordered Fang to write a more complete and less censored version. In 645, when Emperor Taizong personally led a campaign against Goguryeo , Fang was put in charge of the capital. It was said that there was an incident where a man approached Fang and stated, "I am here to report that you are committing treason." Fang bound him and delivered him to Emperor Taizong. When
14322-637: The newly reconstituted Göktürk state under Chebi Khan Ashina Hubo prior to Emperor Taizong's death—captured Ashina Hubo and brought him back to Chang'an. Emperor Gaozong spared Ashina Hubo and made him a general, putting his people directly under Tang rule. Meanwhile, with two of the states of the Western Regions previously conquered by Tang and governed by Tang-installed kings, Kucha and Karasahr in disturbance, Emperor Taizong returned their previously captured kings, Bai Helibushibi ( 白訶黎布失畢 ) and Long Tuqizhi ( 龍突騎支 ) respectively, to their thrones. In 651,
14476-447: The official history that Fang had written about during his reign, and Fang initially resisted, stating that it would set a bad precedent (as previously, it was considered inappropriate for emperors to read histories of their own reign, lest that historians be hindered from recording incidents accurately). Emperor Taizong disagreed, and Fang thus submitted what he and his staff had written. Emperor Taizong noticed that Fang had avoided some of
14630-409: The opportunity to invite her old neighbors and relatives to a feast. Later that year, Emperor Gaozong began to suffer from an illness that carried the symptoms of painful headaches, persistent dizziness, occasional seizures and loss of vision, generally thought to be hypertension-related or stroke, and Emperor Gaozong began to have Empress Wu make rulings on petitions and suggestions made by officials. It
14784-451: The original Chinese first-person singular pronoun arrogated by Qin Shi Huang, functioning as an equivalent to the royal we . In front of subjects, the emperor may also refer to themselves self-deprecatingly as Guaren ( 寡人 'the morally-deficient one') or Gu ( 孤 'lonely one'). In contrast to the Western convention of using a regnal or personal name (e.g. George V) to refer to a sovereign,
14938-430: The palace and demoted Liu Shi. Meanwhile, a faction of officials began to form around Consort Wu, including Li Yifu , Xu, Cui Yixuan ( 崔義玄 ), and Yuan Gongyu ( 袁公瑜 ). On an occasion in fall 655, Emperor Gaozong summoned the chancellors Zhangsun, Li Shiji (who by now was using the name Li Ji to observe naming taboo for Emperor Taizong's name Li Shimin), Yu Zhining , and Chu to the palace—which Chu deduced to be regarding
15092-455: The palace, she acted humbly and flattered Empress Wang, who trusted her greatly and recommended her to Emperor Gaozong. Soon, Emperor Gaozong became enamored with Consort Wu. Meanwhile, Emperor Gaozong's sister Princess Gaoyang and her husband Fang Yi'ai (房遺愛, Fang Xuanling's son), were implicated in 652 of conspiring with another brother-in-law Chai Lingwu ( 柴令武 ), the general Xue Wanche ( 薛萬徹 ) and Emperor Gaozong's uncle Li Yuanjing ( 李元景 )
15246-472: The pinnacle of officials' careers, was still very humble before the emperor, and whenever he received a rebuke, he would act as if a disaster was coming. He also became responsible for organizing the imperial archives and the writing of official histories. Later that year, the assistant imperial censor Quan Wanji (權萬紀) accused Fang and Wang Gui of being partial in their selections of officials, and Emperor Taizong initially ordered Hou to investigate. However, with
15400-422: The plot and that he should be concerned for himself. When Emperor Taizong noticed Li Zhi worrying about this and was told by Li Zhi of Li Tai's intimidation, Emperor Taizong's mind became set. He exiled Li Tai, and on 30 April 643, he created Li Zhi the new crown prince. He made Zhangsun and two other senior chancellors, Fang Xuanling and Xiao Yu , senior advisors to Li Zhi, and made another chancellor, Li Shiji ,
15554-531: The primacy of Empress Wu, who became the effective power behind the Tang rule. Emperor Gaozong was aided in his rule by Empress Wu during the later years of his reign after a series of strokes left him incapacitated. Emperor Gaozong effectively after January 665 delegated all matters of state to his strong wife; after that Empress Wu acted as the power behind the emperor, "hanging the curtain and listening to politics" ( Chuílián tīngzhèng 垂簾聼政). Gaozong's personal illness, over-affection and trust of Wu led to her wielding
15708-526: The rebellion. Meanwhile, for reasons unknown, also in 662 Emperor Gaozong sent the general Su Haizheng ( 蘇海政 ) to attack Qiuzi and ordered Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen to assist him. Ashina Buzhen, who had a rivalry with Ashina Mishe, falsely informed Su that Ashina Mishe was set to rebel and would attack the Tang army, and Su responded by ambushing Ashina Mishe, killing him and his chief assistants. The Western Turkic Khaganate tribes, angry over Ashina Mishe's death, largely turned away from Tang and submitted to
15862-510: The regional lords overshadowed the king and began to usurp that title for themselves. In 221 BC, after the King of Qin completed the conquest of the various kingdoms of the Warring States period , he adopted a new title to reflect his prestige as a ruler greater than the rulers before him. He called himself "Shi Huangdi", or the 'First Emperor'. Before this, Huang ( 皇 'august', 'sovereign' )
16016-470: The reign of Emperor Wu of Han , who disenfranchised and annihilated the nobilities of virtually all imperial relatives whose forebears had been enfeoffed by his own ancestor, Gaozu. Apart from a few very energetic monarchs, the emperor usually delegated the majority of decision making to the civil bureaucracy (chiefly the chancellery and the Central Secretariat ), the military, and in some periods
16170-410: The same position in front of the civil and military ministers of the Tang dynasty. In fact, if anyone with a request to make at Court obtains an audience or is allowed to speak, the emperor hears him indeed, but will give no definite answer of "Yes or No", referring him promptly to empress. frequently Emperor Gaozong was unable to go to the court because of a headache, and Empress Wu was "obliged" to go to
16324-475: The same time, however, Emperor Taizong also became concerned that Li Zhi, who was considered kind but weak in character, would not be strong enough to be an emperor, and secretly discussed with Zhangsun Wuji the possibility of making another son by his concubine Consort Yang (daughter of Emperor Yang of Sui ), Li Ke the Prince of Wu, crown prince. Zhangsun repeatedly opposed the idea, and Emperor Taizong did not carry this out. In 645, when Emperor Taizong launched
16478-493: The sea to attack Baekje, in conjunction with Silla. Su quickly captured the Baekje capital Sabi , forcing Baekje's King Uija and his crown prince Buyeo Yung to surrender. Emperor Gaozong ordered that Baekje be annexed as Tang territory. Emperor Gaozong then followed up by commissioning Su, along with Qibi Heli, Liu Boying ( 劉伯英 ), and Cheng Mingzhen ( 程名振 ), to attack Goguryeo. In 660, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu toured Bian Prefecture (modern-day Taiyuan), and Empress Wu had
16632-467: The state will not be preserved. Even though everything is peaceful now, I expect its fall to be soon. Fang Yanqian was surprised by his son's opinion, which, however, eventually turned out to be prophetic. When he was 17, he was successful at the imperial examination , and he became a military officer. He particularly impressed the deputy minister of civil service, Gao Xiaoji (高孝基). However, it appeared that he did not serve long, as his father became ill, and
16786-462: The steps'), corresponding to "Your Imperial Majesty" and originally referring to his attendents, Huangshang ( 皇上 'imperial highness', Shengshang ( 圣上 ; 聖上 'holy highness') or Tianzi ( 天子 'Son of Heaven'). The emperor was also alluded to indirectly through reference to the imperial dragon symbology . Servants often addressed the emperor as Wansuiye ( 万岁爷 ; 萬歲爺 'lord of ten thousand years '). The emperor referred to himself as zhen ( 朕 ),
16940-462: The strict rules of succession and dynasties' purported "failures" were detailed in official histories written by their successful replacements or even later dynasties. The power of the emperor was also limited by the imperial bureaucracy , which was staffed by scholar-officials , and eunuchs during some dynasties. An emperor was also constrained by filial obligations to his ancestors' policies and dynastic traditions, such as those first detailed in
17094-519: The summer palace Cuiwei Palace (翠微宮, in the Qin Mountains ), Emperor Taizong was gravely ill, and he, while impressed with Li Shiji's abilities, was concerned that Li Shiji was too able and would not submit to Li Zhi. He stated to Li Zhi: Li Shiji is full of ability and wisdom, but you had done him no favors, and it may be difficult for him to be faithful to you. I am going to exile him now. If he leaves immediately, promote him to be Puye [(僕射, head of
17248-427: The supreme court, investigate the matter. They confirmed Li Chengqian's guilt, and Li Chengqian was subsequently deposed, although Emperor Taizong, believing that Li Tai's machinations were responsible for Li Chengqian's downfall, exiled Li Tai as well and created another son, Li Zhi , crown prince. He subsequently made Zhangsun, Fang, and Xiao Li Zhi's senior advisors. Later that year, Emperor Taizong requested to read
17402-463: The third son of his mother, Emperor Taizong's wife Empress Zhangsun . In 631, he was created the Prince of Jin. In 633, he was made commandant of Bing Prefecture (并州, roughly modern Taiyuan , Shanxi), but remained at the capital Chang'an rather than reporting to Bing Prefecture. When Empress Zhangsun died in 636, Emperor Taizong was particularly touched by the grief that Li Zhi displayed, and from that point on particularly favored him. Sometime while he
17556-412: The throne to Li Zhi. Li Zhi, concerned that Emperor Taizong might be offended, was worried and grieving, and Zhangsun suggested that Duan be executed. Emperor Taizong did not take offense and did not punish Duan or Li Zhi. Meanwhile, Li Zhi began to build a Buddhist temple named Daci'en Temple ( 大慈恩寺 ) in commemoration of his mother Empress Zhangsun, and the temple was completed in 648. In 649, while at
17710-466: The throne. In some cases when the empress did not bear any children, the emperor would have a child with another of his many wives (all children of the emperor were said also to be the children of the empress, regardless of birth mother). In some dynasties the succession of the empress' eldest son was disputed, and because many emperors had large numbers of progeny, there were wars of succession between rival sons. In an attempt to resolve after-death disputes,
17864-435: The title of Emperor, including several simultaneous claimants at various times. Some, such as Li Zicheng , Huang Chao , and Yuan Shu , declared themselves the emperors, Son of Heaven and founded their own empires as a rival government to challenge the legitimacy of and overthrow the existing emperor. Among the most famous emperors were Qin Shi Huang of the Qin dynasty , emperors Gaozu , Han Wudi as well as Guangwu of
18018-447: The topic that Empress Wang was sonless (as an excuse for deposing her), Zhangsun repeatedly found ways to divert the conversation, and subsequent visits by Consort Wu's mother Lady Yang and the official Xu Jingzong , who was allied with Consort Wu, to seek support from Zhangsun were also to no avail. In summer 655, Consort Wu accused Empress Wang and her mother Lady Liu of using witchcraft. In response, Emperor Gaozong barred Lady Liu from
18172-407: The unprecedented title of "Grand General of Heavenly Tactics" (天策上將, Tiance Shangjiang ), Li Shimin built a mansion where he housed those staff members with the best literary talent, supplying them with the best food and supplies and had them conduct research and writing. Fang was part of this establishment, along with, among others, the fellow future chancellors Du Ruhui and Xu Jingzong . When Du
18326-417: The urging of another chancellor, Wei Zheng , who pointed out that Fang and Wang were trusted officials given important responsibilities, and it was inappropriate to pick on details of what they did, Emperor Taizong stopped the investigation. In 630, when Emperor Taizong began to have his crown prince Li Chengqian formally rule on a number of matters of state, he commissioned Fang and Li Gang (李綱) to sit with
18480-446: The utmost respect in his presence, whether in direct conversation or otherwise. When approaching the imperial throne, one was expected to kowtow before the emperor. In a conversation with the emperor, it was considered a crime to compare oneself to the emperor in any way. It was taboo to refer to the emperor by his given name, even for the emperor's own mother, who instead was to use Huangdi ( 皇帝 ), or simply Er ( 儿 ; 兒 'son', for
18634-445: The way to Chang'an, Fang Xuanling, along with Gao Shilian , attended to Emperor Taizong as he personally met Ashina Duobi to promise additional tributes, to induce Ashina Duobi to withdraw. Later in 626, when Emperor Taizong personally ranked the contributions of the generals and officials in order to grant them fiefs, Emperor Taizong ranked five of them — Fang, Zhangsun Wuji , Du Ruhui, Yuchi Gong, and Hou Junji to be contributors of
18788-496: Was divinely appointed to rule. The appellation Huangdi carried similar shades of meaning. Alternate English translations of the word include "The August Ancestor", "The Holy Ruler", or "The Divine Lord". On that account, some modern scholars translate the title as " thearch ". On occasion, the father of the ascended emperor was still alive. Such an emperor was titled as the Taishang Huang ('grand imperial sire'). The practice
18942-513: Was almost universally referred to as Shang ( 上 ). Generally, emperors also ruled with an era name ( 年号 ; 年號 ). Since the adoption of era names by Emperor Wu of Han and up until the Ming dynasty , the sovereign conventionally changed the era name semi-regularly during his reign. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, emperors simply chose one era name for their entire reign, and people often referred to past emperors with that title. In earlier dynasties,
19096-509: Was always elevated above all others despite any chronological or generational superiority. Recent scholarship is wary of applying present-day ethnic categories to historical situations. Most Chinese emperors have been considered members of the Han ethnicity , but there were also many Chinese emperors who were of non-Han ethnic origins. The most successful of these were the Khitans of the Liao dynasty ,
19250-546: Was always hereditary, usually by agnatic primogeniture . As a result, many emperors ascended the throne while still children. During minority reigns , the Empress Dowager , the emperor's mother, would usually possess significant political power, along with the male members of her birth family . In fact, the vast majority of female rulers throughout Chinese Imperial history came to power by ruling as regents on behalf of their sons; prominent examples include Empress Lü Zhi of
19404-480: Was buried near Empress Zhangsun's tomb (where Emperor Taizong would eventually himself be buried as well). The Tang dynasty historian Liu Fang (柳芳) made these comments about Fang and Du Ruhui: Fang Xuanling assisted Emperor Taizong in conquering and pacifying the empire for 32 years, finally serving as chancellor. The people all called him an excellent chancellor, but could not think of his personal contributions. This showed how virtuous he was. Emperor Taizong pacified
19558-417: Was changed to Duke of Liang, and he was given the post of prefect of Songzhou , to be inherited by his heirs, although he did not actually report to Songzhou but remained at Chang'an as chancellor. Soon, however, with many objections to the system, the strongest of which came from Zhangsun Wuji, Emperor Taizong cancelled the scheme, although Fang's title remained Duke of Liang. Also in 637, a major revision of
19712-461: Was completed in 663, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu moved to the newly remodeled palace (which was itself later renamed to Hanyuan Palace). (However, Empress Wang and Consort Xiao continued to appear in her dreams even after this, and therefore, late in Emperor Gaozong's reign, he and Empress Wu were often at the eastern capital Luoyang , not at Chang'an.) Also in 663, the Tibetan Empire attacked
19866-484: Was created crown prince, Fang and Du were restored to honored positions on his staff, and soon, Fang was made the Zhongshu Ling (中書令) — the head of the legislative bureau and a post considered one for a chancellor. Two months later, Emperor Gaozu yielded the throne to Li Shimin (as Emperor Taizong). Later in 626, when Eastern Tujue 's Jiali Khan Ashina Duobi launched a major incursion into Tang territory, reaching all
20020-473: Was debating whether warring with Xueyantuo or making peace by marrying his daughter Princess Xinxing to Xueyantuo's Zhenzhu Khan Yi'nan, Fang was a proponent of peace, and Emperor Taizong agreed, although Emperor Taizong later changed his mind and broke the marriage treaty. In 643, when Emperor Taizong commissioned the Portraits at Lingyan Pavilion to commemorate the 24 great contributors to Tang rule, Fang's
20174-569: Was defeated by Goguryeo forces at Sasu River (蛇水, probably Botong River ) and was killed along with his 13 sons, Su ran into harsh snowstorms and withdrew. Around the same time, after the death of the Huige chief Yaoluoge Porun ( 藥羅葛婆閏 ), who had been obedient to Tang, Yaoluoge Porun's nephew Yaoluoge Bisudu ( 藥羅葛比粟毒 ) rose in rebellion with the Tongluo ( 同羅 ) and Pugu ( 僕固 ) tribes in conjunction with other Tiele Confederation tribes. Emperor Gaozong sent
20328-489: Was disallowed from attending Emperor Taizong's funeral, Emperor Gaozong permitted him to again have a staff and be allowed to use wagons, clothes, and foods of high quality. Emperor Gaozong created his wife Crown Princess Wang empress and made her father Wang Renyou ( 王仁祐 ) the Duke of Wei. It was said that early in Emperor Gaozong's reign, he greatly respected both his uncle Zhangsun Wuji and Chu Suiliang and followed their advice, and that therefore, during this part of his reign,
20482-472: Was exploring the memorials, he had Empress Wu by his side to decide if anything went wrong, and he became very dependent on her advice over time, and, as usual, because of his illness, he allowed Empress Wu to act in his name. Thereafter, her authority rivaled Emperor Gaozong's, after this point on, Empress Wu became the undisputed power behind the throne until the death of Emperor Gaozong. Meanwhile, just after Su Dingfang left Baekje territory to attack Goguryeo,
20636-483: Was happening, and she emerged to defend herself, when she reached the main palace, she saw the emperor holding a decree and asked seriously: "What is this?" And when Empress Wu found out, she cried, which prompted Emperor Gaozong to stop. Emperor Gaozong could not carry out the removal, and instead blamed Shangguan, and Emperor Gaozong said to Empress Wu: "I did not intend to do that at first! Shangguan Yi taught me this." As both Shangguan and Wang had previously served
20790-431: Was humble and never gave the Crown Prince any opportunity to bow to him, an act of humility which was praised. By this point, Fang's children were also highly honored, and his second son Fang Yi'ai (房遺愛) married Emperor Taizong's daughter Princess Gaoyang , while his daughter married Emperor Taizong's brother Li Yuanjia (李元嘉) the Prince of Han. In 641, Fang and Gao Shilian drew rebuke from Emperor Taizong when they inquired
20944-456: Was initially going to make Li Tai the new crown prince, but later began to believe that Li Tai's machinations were responsible for Li Chengqian's downfall. The powerful chancellor Zhangsun Wuji – Empress Zhangsun's brother—suggested that he make Li Zhi crown prince, a possibility that Li Tai was apprehensive about. Li Tai tried to intimidate Li Zhi, who had been friendly with Li Yuanchang, by pointing out to Li Zhi that Li Yuanchang had been part of
21098-433: Was initiated by Qin Shi Huang, who gave the title as a posthumous name to his own father, as was already common for monarchs of any stratum of power. Liu Bang , who established the Han dynasty , was the first to become emperor while his father yet lived. It was said he granted the title during his father's life because he would not be done obeisance to by his own father, a commoner. Owing to political fragmentation, over
21252-467: Was justified. This important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties. This principle made it possible even for peasants to found new dynasties, as happened with the Han and Ming dynasties, and for the establishment of conquest dynasties such as the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and Manchu-led Qing dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of
21406-534: Was making a veiled comment that Li was not a proper minister, demoted Li Wei to the post of prefect of Luo Prefecture (洛州, roughly Luoyang). In 648, the Book of Jin , the official history of Jin dynasty , with Fang as its lead editor, was completed. Also in 648, when Emperor Taizong was at another summer palace, Yuhua Palace (玉華宮, in modern Tongchuan , Shaanxi ), he again left Fang in charge of Chang'an, when Fang grew ill. Emperor Taizong summoned him to Yuhua Palace and had
21560-596: Was most commonly seen as a reverential epithet for a deceased ancestor, and Di ( 帝 , OC : * tˤeks ) was an apical ancestor, originally referring to the deified ancestors of the Shang kings. In the 3rd century BC, the two titles had not previously been used together. The emperor of China, like the Zhou kings before him, and the Shang kings before them, was most commonly referred to as Tianzi ( 天子 'Son of Heaven'), who
21714-647: Was of low birth and therefore considered nonthreatening, crown prince so that Li Zhong would be grateful of her in the future. Liu also persuaded Zhangsun to suggest the idea as well, and in fall 652, Emperor Gaozong created Li Zhong crown prince. By this point, however, Empress Wang was facing a major threat from another romantic rival. When Emperor Gaozong was crown prince, he had an affair with one of Emperor Taizong's concubines, Consort Wu . After Emperor Taizong's death, all of his concubines who did not bear sons, which included Wu, were housed at Ganye Temple ( 感業寺 ) to be Buddhist nuns . In either 650 or 651, Emperor Gaozong
21868-417: Was officially announced. On 15 July, Li Zhi took the throne (as Emperor Gaozong). During his 34-year reign, he was unable to exercise power alone and was under the control of several of his great ministers and his wife, Empress Wu. The order of the regents were: Emperor Gaozong's first move as emperor was to cancel a second campaign against Goguryeo that Emperor Taizong had planned for later 649. While Li Tai
22022-401: Was one of the portraits commissioned. Later in 643, when Li Chengqian, fearing that Emperor Taizong would depose him in favor of his more favored brother Li Tai the Prince of Wei, was revealed to have plotted with Hou Junji to overthrow Emperor Taizong, Emperor Taizong had Zhangsun, Fang, Xiao Yu , Li Shiji , along with the responsible officials at the legislative and examination bureaus and
22176-471: Was removed from his post and exiled, and would never return to Chang'an. During the years, Empress Wu had repeatedly, in her dreams, seen Empress Wang and Consort Xiao, in the states they were after their terrible deaths, and she came to believe that their spirits were after her. For that reason, Emperor Gaozong started remodeling a secondary palace, Daming Palace ( 大明宮 ), into Penglai Palace ( 蓬萊宮 ), and when Penglai Palace's main hall, Hanyuan Hall ( 含元殿 ),
22330-435: Was said that Empress Wu had quick reactions and understood both literature and history, and therefore, she was making correct and error-free rulings. Emperor Gaozong's illness worsened over time, and lasted until his death. If he was well, he also would accept Empress Wu's help, asking her to read the documents to him, he consulted with her on important matters and write down the rulings he had issued. Even until midnight, when he
22484-490: Was said that as soon as Li Shimin met Fang, they became like old friends, and Li Shimin invited him to serve on staff. Fang served Li Shimin faithfully, and wherever Li Shimin campaigned, while his staff members would collect treasures, Fang spent the time interviewing the people of the area and retained the capable people to add to Li Shimin's staff. In 618, after news arrived at Chang'an (which Li Yuan had taken in winter 617 and where he declared Emperor Yang's grandson Yang You
22638-536: Was so mournful that he could not carry out any actions other than holding onto the necks of Zhangsun and Chu. Zhangsun, while mourning himself, reminded Li Zhi that he was now in charge of the empire and must act accordingly. Zhangsun also ordered that Emperor Taizong's death not be announced for the time being, and then, the next day, accompanied Li Zhi back to Chang'an. Zhangsun issued several edicts in Emperor Taizong's name—including making Yu Zhining , Zhang, and Gao Jifu chancellors. Two days later, Emperor Taizong's death
22792-522: Was subsequently commissioned as a prefectural secretary general, Fang told Li Shimin that Du was an uncommon talent that he should do everything he could to retain, and Li Shimin thus persuaded Emperor Gaozu to allow Du to remain on his staff. It was said that Fang was capable in planning and strategizing, but not decisive in his decisions, while Du was capable in making quick and correct decisions, and they divided their strategical responsibilities while on Li Shimin's staff in that manner. (This eventually led to
22946-519: Was that Sui would last a long time. However, Fang Xuanling secretly opined to his father: The emperor [i.e., Emperor Wen of Sui ] had no accomplishments or virtues, and he gained his power by trickery. He did not think about long-term benefits for his descendants, and he allowed his sons to have no differences between the heir and the non-heirs. They therefore compete with each other and plot against each other, and they also compete in their wastefulness and luxuries. They will eventually kill each other, and
23100-403: Was the Prince of Jin, at the recommendation of his grand aunt Princess Tong'an, he married the grandniece of Princess Tong'an's husband Wang Yu ( 王裕 ) as his wife and princess. Meanwhile, Li Zhi's two older brothers by Empress Zhangsun, Li Chengqian the Crown Prince and Li Tai the Prince of Wei, were locked in an intense rivalry, as Li Tai was favored by Emperor Taizong for his talent and
23254-400: Was the superlative title held by the monarchs who ruled various imperial dynasties or Chinese empires . In traditional Chinese political theory, the emperor was the " Son of Heaven ", an autocrat with the divine mandate right to rule all under Heaven . Emperors were worshiped posthumously under an imperial cult . The lineage of emperors descended from a paternal family line constituted
23408-402: Was trying to displace Li Chengqian. Li Chengqian, in fear, entered into a conspiracy with the general Hou Junji , his uncle Li Yuanchang ( 李元昌 ) the Prince of Han, the imperial guard commander Li Anyan ( 李安儼 ), and his brothers-in-law Zhao Jie (趙節, who was also his cousin) and Du He ( 杜荷 ) to overthrow Emperor Taizong. The plot was discovered in 643, and Emperor Taizong deposed Li Chengqian. He
23562-409: Was visiting Ganye Temple to offer incense to Buddha when he saw Consort Wu. Both of them wept. When Empress Wang heard this, she, wanting to divert Emperor Gaozong's favor from Consort Xiao, secretly instructed Consort Wu to grow her hair back, while suggesting to Emperor Gaozong that he take her as a concubine. Consort Wu was intelligent and full of machinations, and therefore, when she first returned to
23716-466: Was well established, was extending her influence further in the political arena and increases her controlling behavior over Emperor Gaozong and arbitrarily makes many government decisions. According to Song dynasty historian Sima Guang in the Zizhi Tongjian : When emperor's attains his will, empress specialises in power and blessings, emperor desires to do something, and his actions are controlled by
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