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113-671: The Wonderland Gang was a group of drug dealers involved in the Los Angeles cocaine trade during the late 1970s and early 1980s; their home base was located on Wonderland Avenue in the Laurel Canyon neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. On July 1, 1981, three members and one associate of the gang died in the Wonderland murders (also known as the "Four on the Floor murders" or the "Laurel Canyon murders"). The Wonderland Gang mainly trafficked in

226-413: A fast heart rate , sweating, and dilated pupils . High doses can result in high blood pressure or high body temperature . Onset of effects can begin within seconds to minutes of use, depending on method of delivery, and can last between five and ninety minutes. As cocaine also has numbing and blood vessel constriction properties, it is occasionally used during surgery on the throat or inside of

339-415: A local anaesthetic or diagnostic tool by medical practitioners in more developed countries. It is primarily obtained from the leaves of two Coca species native to South America: Erythroxylum coca and E. novogranatense . After extraction from the plant, and further processing into cocaine hydrochloride (powdered cocaine), the drug is administered by being either snorted , applied topically to

452-540: A withdrawal state with emotional-motivational deficits upon cessation of cocaine use. Crack baby is a term for a child born to a mother who used crack cocaine during her pregnancy. The threat that cocaine use during pregnancy poses to the fetus is now considered exaggerated. Studies show that prenatal cocaine exposure (independent of other effects such as, for example, alcohol, tobacco, or physical environment) has no appreciable effect on childhood growth and development. In 2007, he National Institute on Drug Abuse of

565-593: A Schedule II controlled substance". Tracy Ray died on October 18, 2006, in Colorado. Joy Audrey Gold Miller was Billy DeVerell's girlfriend and the leaseholder of the Wonderland townhouse. Miller had two adult daughters and was the ex-wife of a Beverly Hills attorney. Miller was a heroin user who had fallen in with the Wonderland Gang through her self-immersion in drug culture. By the time Holmes had become involved with

678-426: A bridge between the use of different groups of drugs. It is legal for people to use coca leaves in some Andean nations, such as Peru and Bolivia, where they are chewed, consumed in the form of tea, or are sometimes incorporated into food products. Coca leaves are typically mixed with an alkaline substance (such as lime ) and chewed into a wad that is retained in the buccal pouch (mouth between gum and cheek, much

791-464: A class of functionality different from both its own derived phenyltropanes analogues which have that removed. In addition to this, cocaine has some target binding to the site of the κ-opioid receptor . Cocaine also causes vasoconstriction , thus reducing bleeding during minor surgical procedures. Recent research points to an important role of circadian mechanisms and clock genes in behavioral actions of cocaine. Narcotics Legally speaking,

904-838: A combination of extraction and chemical synthesis: (i) Opium, opiates, derivatives of opium and opiates, including their isomers, esters, ethers, salts, and salts of isomers, esters, and ethers whenever the existence of such isomers, esters, ethers, and salts is possible within the specific chemical designation. Such a term does not include the isoquinoline alkaloids of opium. (ii) Poppy straw and concentrate of poppy straw. (iii) Coca leaves, except coca leaves and extracts of coca leaves from which cocaine, ecgonine and derivatives of ecgonine or their salts have been removed. (iv) Cocaine, its salts, optical and geometric isomers , and salts of isomers. (v) Ecgonine, its derivatives, their salts, isomers, and salts of isomers. (vi) Any compound, mixture, or preparation which contains any quantity of any of

1017-517: A flat, hard surface (such as a mobile phone screen, mirror, CD case or book) and divided into "bumps", "lines" or "rails", and then insufflated. A 2001 study reported that the sharing of straws used to "snort" cocaine can spread blood diseases such as hepatitis C . Subjective effects not commonly shared with other methods of administration include a ringing in the ears moments after injection (usually when over 120 milligrams) lasting 2 to 5 minutes including tinnitus and audio distortion. This

1130-411: A greater likelihood of relapse when the drug is withheld. ΔFosB increases the expression of AMPA receptor subunit GluR2 and also decreases expression of dynorphin , thereby enhancing sensitivity to reward. DNA damage is increased in the brain of rodents by administration of cocaine. During DNA repair of such damages, persistent chromatin alterations may occur such as methylation of DNA or

1243-480: A hypothesis that cocaine may also function as a so-called "DAT inverse agonist" or "negative allosteric modifier of DAT" resulting in dopamine transporter reversal , and subsequent dopamine release into the synaptic cleft from the axon terminal in a manner similar to but distinct from amphetamines . Sigma receptors are affected by cocaine, as cocaine functions as a sigma ligand agonist. Further specific receptors it has been demonstrated to function on are NMDA and

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1356-431: A joint or blunt . Acute exposure to cocaine has many effects on humans, including euphoria, increases in heart rate and blood pressure, and increases in cortisol secretion from the adrenal gland. In humans with acute exposure followed by continuous exposure to cocaine at a constant blood concentration, the acute tolerance to the chronotropic cardiac effects of cocaine begins after about 10 minutes, while acute tolerance to

1469-477: A long period of time who do not hydrate sufficiently may experience demineralization of their teeth due to the pH of the tooth surface dropping too low (below 5.5). Cocaine use also promotes the formation of blood clots . This increase in blood clot formation is attributed to cocaine-associated increases in the activity of plasminogen activator inhibitor , and an increase in the number, activation, and aggregation of platelets . Chronic intranasal usage can degrade

1582-473: A marked elevation of blood pressure, which can be life-threatening, abnormal heart rhythms , and death. Anxiety, paranoia , and restlessness can also occur, especially during the comedown. With excessive dosage, tremors, convulsions and increased body temperature are observed. Severe cardiac adverse events, particularly sudden cardiac death , become a serious risk at high doses due to cocaine's blocking effect on cardiac sodium channels. Incidental exposure of

1695-626: A moderate dose of oxycodone . Analgesics are drugs that relieve pain . There are two main types: non-narcotic analgesics for mild pain, and narcotic analgesics for severe pain. Narcotic analgesics tend to be opioids . They bind to opioid receptors which are G protein-coupled receptors distributed in brain, spinal cord, digestive tract, peripheral neurons. There are three types of opioid receptors: mu ( μ-opioid receptors ), delta, and kappa ( κ-opioid receptor ). Endogenous opioids ( enkephalins , dynorphin , endorphin ) do not bind specifically to any particular opioid receptor. Receptor binding of

1808-421: A narcotic. Research acknowledges that alcohol can have similar effects to narcotics in head and/or trunk trauma situations. The adoption of this convention is regarded as a milestone in the history of the international drug ban. The Single Convention codified all existing multilateral treaties on drug control and extended the existing control systems to include the cultivation of plants that were grown as

1921-611: A narcotic. From a U.S. legal perspective, narcotics refer to opium, opium derivatives, and their semi-synthetic substitutes, though in U.S. law, due to its numbing properties, cocaine is also considered a narcotic. The definition encompassing "any illegal drug" was first recorded in 1926. Its first use as an adjective is first attested to c.  1600 . There are many different types of narcotics. The two most common forms of narcotic drugs are morphine and codeine . Both are synthesized from opium for medicinal use. The most commonly used drug for recreational purposes created from opium

2034-489: A pipe made from a small glass tube, often taken from " love roses ", small glass tubes with a paper rose that are promoted as romantic gifts. These are sometimes called "stems", "horns", "blasters" and "straight shooters". A small piece of clean heavy copper or occasionally stainless steel scouring pad – often called a "brillo" (actual Brillo Pads contain soap, and are not used) or "chore" (named for Chore Boy brand copper scouring pads) – serves as

2147-438: A reduction base and flow modulator in which the "rock" can be melted and boiled to vapor. Crack is smoked by placing it at the end of the pipe; a flame held close to it produces vapor, which is then inhaled by the smoker. The effects felt almost immediately after smoking, are very intense and do not last long — usually 2 to 10 minutes. When smoked, cocaine is sometimes combined with other drugs, such as cannabis , often rolled into

2260-631: A severed finger. Barbara Lee Easton (married Walter Richardson in 1977 after graduating from Sacramento Cordova high school in 1976) Richardson, who was 22 at the time of her death, was associated with David Lind. Lind claimed she was his girlfriend, though he was 20 years older than her, and she was married. Both Richardson and Lind were said to be police informants in the Sacramento area not long before they traveled to southern California. Richardson's official autopsy report documented that she possessed intravenous drug injection site scars. On June 29, 1981,

2373-437: A stroke, irreversible brain damage, or a heart attack. Persons with regular or problematic use of cocaine have a significantly higher rate of death, and are specifically at higher risk of traumatic deaths and deaths attributable to infectious disease. The extent of absorption of cocaine into the systemic circulation after nasal insufflation is similar to that after oral ingestion. The rate of absorption after nasal insufflation

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2486-466: Is heroin . Synthesized drugs created with an opium base for use in pain management are fentanyl , oxycodone, tramadol, pethidine (Demerol), hydrocodone, methadone, and hydromorphone. New forms of existing pain medications are being created regularly. The newest formulation to come out was in 2014 when zohydro, an increased dosage formula of hydrocodone, was released; this is so far the strongest hydrocodone formulation created for pain management, on par with

2599-418: Is a central nervous system stimulant. Its effects can last from 15 minutes to an hour. The duration of cocaine's effects depends on the amount taken and the route of administration. Cocaine can be in the form of fine white powder and has a bitter taste. Crack cocaine is a smokeable form of cocaine made into small "rocks" by processing cocaine with sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and water. Crack cocaine

2712-412: Is also systemic, relating to disputes between crack dealers and users. Acute exposure may induce cardiac arrhythmias, including atrial fibrillation , supraventricular tachycardia , ventricular tachycardia , and ventricular fibrillation . Acute exposure may also lead to angina , heart attack , and congestive heart failure . Cocaine overdose may cause seizures , abnormally high body temperature and

2825-631: Is based on the Greek word ναρκωσις (narcosis) , the term used by Hippocrates for the process of numbing or the numbed state. Galen listed mandrake root , altercus (eclata), seeds, and poppy juice ( opium ) as the chief examples. It originally referred to any substance that relieved pain, dulled the senses, or induced sleep. Now, the term is used in many ways. Some people might define narcotics as substances that bind at opioid receptors (cellular membrane proteins activated by substances like heroin or morphine), while others refer to any illicit substance as

2938-463: Is both the sole survivor of the Wonderland murders and the only living member of the Wonderland Gang. The fates of others allegedly involved in the Nash robbery or Wonderland attacks are: Any other assailants who might have participated in the bludgeoning attack on the Wonderland Gang have neither been identified nor prosecuted; their fate and whereabouts are unknown. Numerous television shows have covered

3051-400: Is colloquially referred to as a "bell ringer". In a study of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was 3.1 minutes. The euphoria passes quickly. Aside from the toxic effects of cocaine, there is also the danger of circulatory emboli from the insoluble substances that may be used to cut the drug. As with all injected illicit substances , there is a risk of

3164-470: Is limited by cocaine-induced vasoconstriction of capillaries in the nasal mucosa. Onset of absorption after oral ingestion is delayed because cocaine is a weak base with a pKa of 8.6, and is thus in an ionized form that is poorly absorbed from the acidic stomach and easily absorbed from the alkaline duodenum. The rate and extent of absorption from inhalation of cocaine is similar or greater than with intravenous injection, as inhalation provides access directly to

3277-420: Is not disputed. Stieren was convicted after special agents testified that he had and attempted to sell them a large quantity of cocaine. Defendant urges that the testimony and reports by physicians and scientists demonstrate that cocaine is not a narcotic. He also cites cases that hold that cocaine is not a narcotic under the pharmacological definition of the term. State v. Erickson , 574 P.2d 1 (Alaska 1978). It

3390-425: Is not what is involved in the habituation of the substance so much as the conformation and binding properties to where and how on the transporter the molecule binds. Conflicting findings have challenged the widely accepted view that cocaine functions solely as a reuptake inhibitor. To induce euphoria an intravenous dose of 0.3-0.6 mg/kg of cocaine is required, which blocks 66-70% of dopamine transporters (DAT) in

3503-511: Is part of the reason why he stayed in the gang. The autopsy performed after his murder identified numerous injection scars on his forearms, in addition to hyperplasia of the lymph nodes – a common sign of narcotics abuse. David Clay Lind was a biker, heroin addict , and member of the Aryan Brotherhood who befriended Launius when the two men served time in prison together. In 1981, at Launius' behest, Lind traveled to Los Angeles to join

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3616-417: Is possible in regular users until after the sections of hair grown during the period of cocaine use are cut or fall out. The pharmacodynamics of cocaine involve the complex relationships of neurotransmitters (inhibiting monoamine uptake in rats with ratios of about: serotonin :dopamine = 2:3, serotonin: norepinephrine = 2:5). The most extensively studied effect of cocaine on the central nervous system

3729-521: Is referred to as "crack" because of the crackling sounds it makes when heated. Cocaine use leads to increases in alertness, feelings of well-being and euphoria , increased energy and motor activity, and increased feelings of competence and sexuality. Analysis of the correlation between the use of 18 various psychoactive substances shows that cocaine use correlates with other " party drugs " (such as ecstasy or amphetamines ), as well as with heroin and benzodiazepines use, and can be considered as

3842-434: Is that the smoking of cocaine chemically breaks down tooth enamel and causes tooth decay . Cocaine can cause involuntary tooth grinding, known as bruxism , which can deteriorate tooth enamel and lead to gingivitis . Additionally, stimulants like cocaine, methamphetamine, and even caffeine cause dehydration and dry mouth . Since saliva is an important mechanism in maintaining one's oral pH level, people who use cocaine over

3955-404: Is the blockade of the dopamine transporter protein. Dopamine neurotransmitter released during neural signaling is normally recycled via the transporter; i.e., the transporter binds the transmitter and pumps it out of the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron , where it is taken up into storage vesicles . Cocaine binds tightly at the dopamine transporter forming a complex that blocks

4068-462: Is within the legislative prerogative to classify cocaine, which is a non-narcotic central nervous system stimulant, as a narcotic for penalty and regulatory purposes. 21 U.S.C. § 802(16)(A). The use of cocaine poses serious problems for the community and has a high potential for abuse. Congress's choice of penalty reflects a societal policy that must be adhered to by the courts.2 Congress has the power to reclassify cocaine. This power has been delegated to

4181-406: The 5-HT 3 receptor , which is a ligand-gated ion channel . An overabundance of 5-HT 3 receptors is reported in cocaine-conditioned rats, though 5-HT 3 's role is unclear. The 5-HT 2 receptor (particularly the subtypes 5-HT 2A , 5-HT 2B and 5-HT 2C ) are involved in the locomotor-activating effects of cocaine. Cocaine has been demonstrated to bind as to directly stabilize

4294-445: The DAT transporter on the open outward-facing conformation. Further, cocaine binds in such a way as to inhibit a hydrogen bond innate to DAT. Cocaine's binding properties are such that it attaches so this hydrogen bond will not form and is blocked from formation due to the tightly locked orientation of the cocaine molecule. Research studies have suggested that the affinity for the transporter

4407-631: The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs has required countries to make recreational use of cocaine a crime . In the United States, cocaine is regulated as a Schedule II drug under the Controlled Substances Act , meaning that it has a high potential for abuse but has an accepted medical use. While rarely used medically today, its accepted uses are as a topical local anesthetic for the upper respiratory tract as well as to reduce bleeding in

4520-534: The cartilage separating the nostrils (the septum nasi ), leading eventually to its complete disappearance. Due to the absorption of the cocaine from cocaine hydrochloride, the remaining hydrochloride forms a dilute hydrochloric acid. Illicitly-sold cocaine may be contaminated with levamisole. Levamisole may accentuate cocaine's effects. Levamisole-adulterated cocaine has been associated with autoimmune disease. Cocaine use leads to an increased risk of hemorrhagic and ischemic strokes . Cocaine use also increases

4633-520: The invasion and robbery, while McCourt waited outside in a stolen Ford Granada and served as lookout. To avoid leaving any identifying traces, the men had previously dipped their fingers in a product known as "Liquid Band-Aid " so as to not leave any fingerprints behind. The men entered the property through the sliding glass door Holmes had left unlocked, and confronted Nash and his bodyguard, Gregory Diles, pretending to be police officers. As they were handcuffing both men, Lind accidentally shot Diles in

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4746-604: The liver to form cocaethylene . Studies have suggested cocaethylene is more euphoric , and has a higher cardiovascular toxicity than cocaine by itself. Depending on liver and kidney functions, cocaine metabolites are detectable in urine between three and eight days. Generally speaking benzoylecgonine is eliminated from someone's urine between three and five days. In urine from heavy cocaine users, benzoylecgonine can be detected within four hours after intake and in concentrations greater than 150 ng/mL for up to eight days later. Detection of cocaine metabolites in hair

4859-437: The mouth , or dissolved and injected into a vein . It can also then be turned into free base form (typically crack cocaine ), in which it can be heated until sublimated and then the vapours can be inhaled . Cocaine stimulates the mesolimbic pathway in the brain. Mental effects may include an intense feeling of happiness , sexual arousal , loss of contact with reality , or agitation . Physical effects may include

4972-547: The mouth against the inner cheek ; it has traditionally been used to combat the effects of cold, hunger, and altitude sickness . Cocaine was first isolated from the leaves in 1860. Globally, in 2019, cocaine was used by an estimated 20 million people (0.4% of adults aged 15 to 64 years). The highest prevalence of cocaine use was in Australia and New Zealand (2.1%), followed by North America (2.1%), Western and Central Europe (1.4%), and South and Central America (1.0%). Since 1961,

5085-616: The Andes to prevent altitude sickness . Its actual effectiveness has never been systematically studied. In 1986 an article in the Journal of the American Medical Association revealed that U.S. health food stores were selling dried coca leaves to be prepared as an infusion as "Health Inca Tea". While the packaging claimed it had been "decocainized", no such process had actually taken place. The article stated that drinking two cups of

5198-551: The Attorney General. 21 U.S.C. § 811(a)(1). If cocaine is to be reclassified, the defendant's arguments should be made to the legislative branch, not the courts. We hold that Congress had a rational legislative purpose when it classified cocaine as a Schedule II narcotic drug to impose penalties. JUDGMENT AFFIRMED. The term "narcotic" is believed to have been coined by the Greek physician Galen to refer to agents that numb or deaden, causing paralysis or loss of feeling . It

5311-443: The D 1 dopamine receptor. Cocaine also blocks sodium channels , thereby interfering with the propagation of action potentials ; thus, like lignocaine and novocaine , it acts as a local anesthetic. It also functions on the binding sites to the dopamine and serotonin sodium dependent transport area as targets as separate mechanisms from its reuptake of those transporters; unique to its local anesthetic value which makes it in

5424-547: The Global Burden of Disease study found that cocaine use caused around 7,300 deaths annually. Coca leaves have been used by Andean civilizations since ancient times . In ancient Wari culture , Inca culture, and through modern successor indigenous cultures of the Andes mountains , coca leaves are chewed, taken orally in the form of a tea , or alternatively, prepared in a sachet wrapped around alkaline burnt ashes, and held in

5537-713: The Permanent Central Board and the Drug Supervisory Board. The 1961 Convention seeks to control over 116 drugs that it classifies as narcotic. These include: The Convention divides drugs into four groups, or schedules, to enforce a greater or lesser degree of control for the various substances and compounds. Opium smoking and eating, coca leaf chewing, cannabis resin smoking, and the non-medical use of cannabis are prohibited. The 1972 Protocol to this Convention calls for increased efforts to prevent illicit production of, traffic in, and use of narcotics as defined by

5650-660: The Schedules of the convention. If it is on some of the Schedules, it is narcotic. The term usually refers to opiates or opioids, which are called narcotic analgesics. In common parlance and legal usage, it is often used imprecisely to mean illicit drugs, irrespective of their pharmacology. For example, narcotics control legislation in Canada, the US, and certain other countries includes cocaine and cannabis as well as opioids (see also conventions, international drug). Because of this variation in usage,

5763-638: The United States in December 2017, and is indicated for the introduction of local anesthesia of the mucous membranes for diagnostic procedures and surgeries on or through the nasal cavities of adults. Cocaine hydrochloride ( Numbrino ) was approved for medical use in the United States in January 2020. The most common adverse reactions in people treated with Goprelto are headache and epistaxis . The most common adverse reactions in people treated with Numbrino are hypertension, tachycardia, and sinus tachycardia. Cocaine

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5876-516: The United States in the coffins of American service members. Reportedly, at the time of his death, police investigators in California, largely in the Sacramento area, had 27 open homicide cases they believed were perpetrated by Launius. In May 1974, he was arrested for and charged with the 1973 murder of a reputed police drug informant who had been killed over a botched drug deal. After a key witness for

5989-419: The United States warned about health risks while cautioning against stereotyping: Many recall that "crack babies", or babies born to mothers who used crack cocaine while pregnant, were at one time written off by many as a lost generation. They were predicted to suffer from severe, irreversible damage, including reduced intelligence and social skills. It was later found that this was a gross exaggeration. However,

6102-450: The Wonderland Gang, comprising Ron Launius, Billy DeVerell, David Lind, Tracy McCourt, and their associate, John Holmes , conspired to launch a home invasion and robbery upon Eddie Nash , a reputedly powerful organized crime figure who usually referred to himself in the third person as "The Nash". The robbery was an inside job set up by Holmes, who was a close associate of Nash's, and whom Nash regularly referred to as "my brother". Early in

6215-472: The Wonderland gang and assist them in running drugs. By the time of the Wonderland murders, Lind had been incarcerated several times for armed burglary, forgery, assault, and assault with the intent to commit rape. Specifically at the time of the murder, Lind testified in court that he was at a motel in the San Fernando Valley , consuming drugs with a male prostitute. Lind's position in the drug underworld

6328-410: The Wonderland house on Lind's motorcycle and slept on the living room sofa. Adult-entertainment legend John Holmes , famous at the time for his portrayal of the detective character Johnny Wadd in a series of pornographic films, was a frequent visitor who would purchase or scrounge cocaine from the gang. Although the Wonderland Gang was mainly known for its drug sales, which concentrated on cocaine and

6441-491: The Wonderland murders, such as: Cocaine Cocaine (from French cocaïne , from Spanish coca , ultimately from Quechua kúka ) is a tropane alkaloid that acts as a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant . As an extract, it is mainly used recreationally and often illegally for its euphoric and rewarding effects. It is also used in medicine by Indigenous South Americans for various purposes and rarely, but more formally, as

6554-455: The acetylation or methylation of histones at the sites of repair. These alterations can be epigenetic scars in the chromatin that contribute to the persistent epigenetic changes found in cocaine addiction . In humans, cocaine abuse may cause structural changes in brain connectivity, though it is unclear to what extent these changes are permanent. Cocaine dependence develops after even brief periods of regular cocaine use and produces

6667-674: The baby to grow poorly. As a result, cocaine-exposed babies are more likely than unexposed babies to be born with low birth weight (less than 5.5 lb or 2.5 kg). Low-birthweight babies are 20 times more likely to die in their first month of life than normal-weight babies, and face an increased risk of lifelong disabilities such as mental retardation and cerebral palsy. Cocaine-exposed babies also tend to have smaller heads, which generally reflect smaller brains. Some studies suggest that cocaine-exposed babies are at increased risk of birth defects, including urinary tract defects and, possibly, heart defects. Cocaine also may cause an unborn baby to have

6780-431: The back after Launius bumped into him, injuring the bodyguard. Nash asked to pray for his children but was instead forced to open his safe. The robbery was seemingly successful, having yielded a lucrative haul for the gang; they absconded with more than $ 1.2 million ($ 4 million today) worth of cocaine , heroin, quaaludes , cash, the antique guns , and jewelry. However, the events of the next several days would reveal this

6893-449: The brain. Re-administering cocaine beyond this threshold does not significantly increase DAT occupancy but still results in an increase of euphoria which cannot be explained by reuptake inhibition alone. This discrepancy is not shared with other dopamine reuptake inhbitors like bupropion , sibutramine , mazindol or tesofensine , which have similar or higher potencies than cocaine as dopamine reuptake inhibitors. These findings have evoked

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7006-625: The breakdown of the blood–brain barrier. Physical side effects from chronic smoking of cocaine include coughing up blood , bronchospasm , itching , fever , diffuse alveolar infiltrates without effusions, pulmonary and systemic eosinophilia , chest pain, lung trauma, sore throat, asthma , hoarse voice, dyspnea (shortness of breath), and an aching, flu -like syndrome. Cocaine constricts blood vessels , dilates pupils , and increases body temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure. It can also cause headaches and gastrointestinal complications such as abdominal pain and nausea. A common but untrue belief

7119-482: The burgeoning cocaine trade of the era, but despite its role as the most influential and feared cocaine distributorship of its time in Los Angeles, some of its members were heroin addicts. Drugs were regularly dealt from the residence at 8763 Wonderland Avenue in the Laurel Canyon area of Los Angeles. The two bedroom split-level house was leased in Joy Miller's name. Miller and her live-in boyfriend, Billy DeVerell, were

7232-530: The context of international drug control, "narcotic drug" means any drug defined as such under the 1961 Convention. 4. Assessment of the definitions of counterfeit medicines (or equivalent) in the Member States 4.2 The nature of legal definitions: the unambiguity requirement In order to avoid room for difference in interpretation, lawmakers ( codificators ) sometimes deviate from etymological (definiendum plus definientia) definitions. In doing so, they approach

7345-585: The convention, while highlighting the need to provide treatment and rehabilitation services to drug abusers. This document contains the current list of narcotic drugs under international control and additional information to assist governments in filling in the International Narcotics Control Board questionnaires related to narcotic drugs, namely, form A, form B and form C. In medicine, a chemical agent that induces stupor, coma, or insensibility to pain (also called narcotic analgesic). In

7458-447: The drug-fueled Wonderland parties often included loud, violent screaming and disruptive noise, so when they heard the murders occurring, they simply believed another party was taking place. The house was notorious for round-the-clock mayhem and debauchery. John Holmes was arrested and charged with four counts of murder in March 1982, after his handprint was found in one of the bedrooms. Holmes

7571-764: The euphoric effects of cocaine begins after about one hour. With excessive or prolonged use, the drug can cause itching , fast heart rate , and paranoid delusions or sensations of insects crawling on the skin . Intranasal cocaine and crack use are both associated with pharmacological violence. Aggressive behavior may be displayed by both addicts and casual users. Cocaine can induce psychosis characterized by paranoia, impaired reality testing , hallucinations , irritability, and physical aggression. Cocaine intoxication can cause hyperawareness, hypervigilance , and psychomotor agitation and delirium . Consumption of large doses of cocaine can cause violent outbursts, especially by those with preexisting psychosis. Crack-related violence

7684-512: The eye to sublimated cocaine while smoking crack cocaine can cause serious injury to the cornea and long-term loss of visual acuity. Although it has been commonly asserted, the available evidence does not show that chronic use of cocaine is associated with broad cognitive deficits. Research is inconclusive on age-related loss of striatal dopamine transporter (DAT) sites, suggesting cocaine has neuroprotective or neurodegenerative properties for dopamine neurons. Exposure to cocaine may lead to

7797-504: The fact that most of these children appear normal should not be over-interpreted as indicating that there is no cause for concern. Using sophisticated technologies, scientists are now finding that exposure to cocaine during fetal development may lead to subtle, yet significant, later deficits in some children, including deficits in some aspects of cognitive performance, information-processing, and attention to tasks—abilities that are important for success in school. There are also warnings about

7910-419: The group, Miller had been arrested seven times, been treated for breast cancer, and six months before had had a double mastectomy . Holmes claimed this did nothing to reduce her opiate usage. Susan A. Murphy Launius, then 30, while not an official member of the gang, was married to gang member Ron Launius and had a drug habit. She was the sole survivor of the attack – suffering severe head injuries, amnesia, and

8023-401: The judgment of conviction for possession of cocaine with intent to distribute and dispense under 21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1). Stieren contends that the statute is unconstitutional because "cocaine is classified as a narcotic under Schedule II of 21 U.S.C. § 812(c) when as a matter of scientific and medical fact cocaine is not a narcotic but is a non-narcotic stimulant." The sufficiency of the evidence

8136-436: The mechanisms of cocaine addiction. The onset of cocaine's euphoric effects is fastest with inhalation, beginning after 3–5 seconds. This gives the briefest euphoria (5–15 minutes). Cocaine is smoked by inhaling the vapor produced when crack cocaine is heated to the point of sublimation. In a 2000 Brookhaven National Laboratory medical department study, based on self-reports of 32 people who used cocaine who participated in

8249-593: The morning of the robbery, Holmes visited Nash's mansion ostensibly to party and to buy drugs, but on his way out, left the patio door to the kitchen unlatched. The objective of the robbery was to steal a hoard of cash, heroin, and cocaine that Holmes claimed was in a safe embedded in Nash's bedroom floor, as well as to retrieve some antique guns the Wonderland Gang had stolen from another businessman and then subsequently, using Holmes as an intermediary, sold to Nash in exchange for drugs. Holmes actually went to Nash's three times that morning. The first time, he forgot to unlatch

8362-399: The mouth, throat and nasal cavities. Cocaine eye drops are frequently used by neurologists when examining patients suspected of having Horner syndrome . In Horner syndrome, sympathetic innervation to the eye is blocked. In a healthy eye, cocaine will stimulate the sympathetic nerves by inhibiting norepinephrine reuptake, and the pupil will dilate; if the patient has Horner syndrome,

8475-404: The nose to control pain, bleeding, and vocal cord spasm . Cocaine crosses the blood–brain barrier via a proton-coupled organic cation antiporter and (to a lesser extent) via passive diffusion across cell membranes . Cocaine blocks the dopamine transporter , inhibiting reuptake of dopamine from the synaptic cleft into the pre-synaptic axon terminal ; the higher dopamine levels in

8588-414: The nose by about five minutes. This occurs because cocaine's absorption is slowed by its constricting effect on the blood vessels of the nose. Insufflation of cocaine also leads to the longest duration of its effects (60–90 minutes). When insufflating cocaine, absorption through the nasal membranes is approximately 30–60% In a study of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects

8701-492: The number of dendritic branches and spines present on neurons involved with the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex areas of the brain. This change can be identified rather quickly, and may be sustained weeks after the last dose of the drug. Transgenic mice exhibiting inducible expression of ΔFosB primarily in the nucleus accumbens and dorsal striatum exhibit sensitized behavioural responses to cocaine. They self-administer cocaine at lower doses than control, but have

8814-553: The occasional heroin deal, the gang also gained revenues through burglaries and armed robberies of rival drug dealers. It was this last line of "business", particularly the armed robbery of Eddie Nash , that ultimately led to the group's sudden and violent end. Members of the gang included: Their associates included: Ronald Lee Launius was a United States Air Force veteran of the Vietnam era , who had been dishonorably discharged and convicted of smuggling heroin from Vietnam back to

8927-464: The opioid causes a cascade leading to the channel opening and hyperpolarization of the neuron. The opioid receptors have the following channel types: mu, K channel; l delta, K channel; kappa, Ca channel. Hyperpolarization can lead to post-synaptic neural inhibition and presynaptic inhibition of neurotransmitter release. Post-synaptic neural inhibition can reduce analgesia and central hyperactivity may reduce its efficacy. The mechanism of kappa receptors

9040-499: The overall risk of death, and intravenous use potentially increases the risk of trauma and infectious diseases such as blood infections and HIV through the use of shared paraphernalia . It also increases risk of stroke , heart attack , cardiac arrhythmia, lung injury (when smoked), and sudden cardiac death . Illicitly sold cocaine can be adulterated with fentanyl , local anesthetics , levamisole , cornstarch, quinine , or sugar, which can result in additional toxicity. In 2017,

9153-449: The patio door; the second time, he did so but returned to the Wonderland hideout only to find some of the gang members were extremely high on heroin. After the members recovered, Holmes was worried that the patio door may have been locked again, so he returned to Nash's a third time, purchased some crack cocaine , ensured the door was unlatched, and notified the gang that the home was ready for invasion. Launius, DeVerell, and Lind performed

9266-516: The peak effects are attained. Cocaine crosses the blood–brain barrier via both a proton-coupled organic cation antiporter and (to a lesser extent) via passive diffusion across cell membranes . As of September 2022, the gene or genes encoding the human proton-organic cation antiporter had not been identified. Cocaine has a short elimination half life of 0.7–1.5 hours and is extensively metabolized by plasma esterases and also by liver cholinesterases , with only about 1% excreted unchanged in

9379-639: The policeman explained: "A trash can only has two handles". Launius was known for remaining composed under pressure. His associate, David Lind, once said of him: "You could put a gun to his head and his pulse would never break 70". Launius' brazen and fearless nature led both to his dominance in the drug trade as well as his demise, stemming from the events leading up to his death in the Wonderland Murders . Launius and Susan Murphy, were married in Carson City, Nevada , on April 16, 1971. William Raymond DeVerell

9492-584: The post-synaptic neuron, contributing to the mental and physical effects of cocaine exposure. A single dose of cocaine induces tolerance to the drug's effects. Repeated use is likely to result in addiction . Addicts who abstain from cocaine may experience prolonged craving lasting for many months. Abstaining addicts also experience modest drug withdrawal symptoms lasting up to 24 hours, with sleep disruption, anxiety, irritability, crashing, depression , decreased libido , decreased ability to feel pleasure , and fatigue being common. Use of cocaine increases

9605-578: The prosecution died in an unrelated police shootout, the murder charges against Launius were dropped. That year, however, Launius was convicted of smuggling heroin and cocaine across the US/Mexico border and eventually served three years of an eight-year sentence in a federal prison. A California police officer described the blond, bearded Launius as "one of the coldest people I ever met". Another officer commented, upon hearing of Launius' death, "I suppose they won't need many pall bearers". When asked to elaborate,

9718-578: The pulmonary capillary bed. The delay in absorption after oral ingestion may account for the popular belief that cocaine bioavailability from the stomach is lower than after insufflation. Compared with ingestion, the faster absorption of insufflated cocaine results in quicker attainment of maximum drug effects. Snorting cocaine produces maximum physiological effects within 40 minutes and maximum psychotropic effects within 20 minutes. Physiological and psychotropic effects from nasally insufflated cocaine are sustained for approximately 40–60 minutes after

9831-506: The raw material of narcotic drugs. The principal objectives of the convention are to limit the possession, use, trade, distribution, import, export, manufacture, and production of drugs exclusively for medical and scientific purposes, and to address drug trafficking through international cooperation to deter and discourage drug traffickers. The convention also established the International Narcotics Control Board, merging

9944-598: The risk of having a heart attack . Relatives of persons with cocaine addiction have an increased risk of cocaine addiction. Cocaine addiction occurs through ΔFosB overexpression in the nucleus accumbens , which results in altered transcriptional regulation in neurons within the nucleus accumbens . ΔFosB levels have been found to increase upon the use of cocaine. Each subsequent dose of cocaine continues to increase ΔFosB levels with no ceiling of tolerance. Elevated levels of ΔFosB leads to increases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) levels, which in turn increases

10057-452: The robbery. Around 3:00 AM, on July 1, two days after the Nash robbery, it is believed Holmes, Diles, and a number of unidentified men entered the Wonderland house and bludgeoned to death Launius, DeVerell, Miller, and Richardson; the weapons were believed to be either hammers or striated metal pipes. Launius' wife, Susan, survived the attack, although she was left with permanent brain damage and lost part of one finger. Neither Lind nor McCourt

10170-401: The same as chewing tobacco is chewed) and sucked of its juices. The juices are absorbed slowly by the mucous membrane of the inner cheek and by the gastrointestinal tract when swallowed. Alternatively, coca leaves can be infused in liquid and consumed like tea. Coca tea , an infusion of coca leaves, is also a traditional method of consumption. The tea has often been recommended for travelers in

10283-415: The same negative connotations. Statutory classification of a drug as a narcotic often increases the penalties for violation of drug control statutes. For example, although U.S. federal law classifies both cocaine and amphetamines as "Schedule II" drugs, the penalty for possession of cocaine is greater than the penalty for possession of amphetamines because cocaine, unlike amphetamines, is classified as

10396-451: The study, "peak high" was found at a mean of 1.4 ± 0.5 minutes. Pyrolysis products of cocaine that occur only when heated/smoked have been shown to change the effect profile, i.e. anhydroecgonine methyl ester , when co-administered with cocaine, increases the dopamine in CPu and NAc brain regions, and has M 1 — and M 3 — receptor affinity. People often freebase crack with

10509-410: The substances referred to in paragraphs (b)(31)(i) through (v) of this section. A 1984 amendment to 21 USC ( Controlled Substances Act ), Section 802 expanded and revised definition of "narcotic drug", including within term poppy straw, cocaine, and ecgonine. 608 F.2d 1135 United States Court of Appeals, Eighth Circuit . Decided Oct. 31, 1979. LAY, Circuit Judge. John Arthur Stieren appeals from

10622-491: The sympathetic nerves are blocked, and the affected eye will remain constricted or dilate to a lesser extent than the opposing (unaffected) eye which also receives the eye drop test. If both eyes dilate equally, the patient does not have Horner syndrome. Topical cocaine is sometimes used as a local numbing agent and vasoconstrictor to help control pain and bleeding with surgery of the nose, mouth, throat or lacrimal duct . Although some absorption and systemic effects may occur,

10735-405: The synaptic cleft increase dopamine receptor activation in the post-synaptic neuron, causing euphoria and arousal. Cocaine also blocks the serotonin transporter and norepinephrine transporter , inhibiting reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine from the synaptic cleft into the pre-synaptic axon terminal and increasing activation of serotonin receptors and norepinephrine receptors in

10848-437: The tea per day gave a mild stimulation , increased heart rate , and mood elevation, and the tea was essentially harmless. Nasal insufflation (known colloquially as "snorting", "sniffing", or "blowing") is a common method of ingestion of recreational powdered cocaine. The drug coats and is absorbed through the mucous membranes lining the nasal passages . Cocaine's desired euphoric effects are delayed when snorted through

10961-413: The term "narcotic" may be imprecisely defined and typically has negative connotations. When used in a legal context in the U.S., a narcotic drug is totally prohibited, such as heroin , or one that is used in violation of legal regulation (in this word sense , equal to any controlled substance or illicit drug ). In the medical community, the term is more precisely defined and generally does not carry

11074-469: The term from the law enforcement point of view. The best example is the definition of narcotics in the United Nations Conventions. Narcotics are substances and preparations that induce drowsiness, sleep, stupor, insensibility, etc., and that these effects (and their rate) are complicated to prove, e.g. during litigation. Thus, the legal definition of a narcotic is whether or not it is listed on

11187-464: The term is best replaced by one with a more specific meaning (e.g. opioid). Section 1300.01 Definitions relating to controlled substances: (b) As used in parts 1301 through 1308 and part 1312 of this chapter, the following terms shall have the meanings specified: (30) The term narcotic drug means any of the following whether produced directly or indirectly by extraction from substances of vegetable origin or independently using chemical synthesis or by

11300-470: The threat of breastfeeding : The March of Dimes said "it is likely that cocaine will reach the baby through breast milk," and advises the following regarding cocaine use during pregnancy: Cocaine use during pregnancy can affect a pregnant woman and her unborn baby in many ways. During the early months of pregnancy, it may increase the risk of miscarriage. Later in pregnancy, it can trigger preterm labor (labor that occurs before 37 weeks of pregnancy) or cause

11413-432: The transporter's function. The dopamine transporter can no longer perform its reuptake function, and thus dopamine accumulates in the synaptic cleft . The increased concentration of dopamine in the synapse activates post-synaptic dopamine receptors, which makes the drug rewarding and promotes the compulsive use of cocaine. Cocaine affects certain serotonin (5-HT) receptors; in particular, it has been shown to antagonize

11526-486: The urine. The metabolism is dominated by hydrolytic ester cleavage, so the eliminated metabolites consist mostly of benzoylecgonine (BE), the major metabolite , and other metabolites in lesser amounts such as ecgonine methyl ester (EME) and ecgonine . Further minor metabolites of cocaine include norcocaine , p-hydroxycocaine, m-hydroxycocaine, p-hydroxybenzoylecgonine (pOHBE), and m-hydroxybenzoylecgonine. If consumed with alcohol , cocaine combines with alcohol in

11639-408: The use of cocaine as a topical anesthetic and vasoconstrictor is generally safe, rarely causing cardiovascular toxicity, glaucoma , and pupil dilation . Occasionally, cocaine is mixed with adrenaline and sodium bicarbonate and used topically for surgery, a formulation called Moffett's solution . Cocaine hydrochloride ( Goprelto ), an ester local anesthetic, was approved for medical use in

11752-648: The user contracting blood-borne infections if sterile injecting equipment is not available or used. An injected mixture of cocaine and heroin , known as " speedball ", is a particularly dangerous combination, as the converse effects of the drugs actually complement each other, but may also mask the symptoms of an overdose. It has been responsible for numerous deaths, including celebrities such as comedians/actors John Belushi and Chris Farley , Mitch Hedberg , River Phoenix , grunge singer Layne Staley and actor Philip Seymour Hoffman . Experimentally, cocaine injections can be delivered to animals such as fruit flies to study

11865-414: The usual residents; Ron Launius and his wife, Susan, were house guests. David Lind, ordinarily a resident of the Sacramento area, came to Los Angeles in the summer of 1981 at Launius' behest, to aid in their growing drug-distribution business. Lind and Launius had become friends while in prison and promised to deal drugs together upon their release. Lind and his girlfriend, Barbara Richardson, rode down to

11978-411: Was 14.6 minutes. Any damage to the inside of the nose is due to cocaine constricting blood vessels — and therefore restricting blood and oxygen/nutrient flow — to that area. Rolled up banknotes , hollowed-out pens , cut straws , pointed ends of keys, specialized spoons , long fingernails , and (clean) tampon applicators are often used to insufflate cocaine. The cocaine typically is poured onto

12091-465: Was Launius' right-hand man and a voice of reason. David Lind characterized him as an otherwise decent individual who had been lured into the drug world because of the easy money and indicated that DeVerell experienced periods of self-loathing for his actions, during which he expressed a desire to stop dealing and using illegal drugs. DeVerell was an overhead crane operator – and heroin user – who had been arrested 13 times in relation to his addiction, which

12204-455: Was a Pyrrhic victory , precipitating a chain of events that led to the demise of the gang. Following the robbery, Holmes ended up back at Nash's home. Accounts vary as to how and why Holmes arrived there; according to some sources, Holmes went there himself to try to make himself appear innocent, whereas others claim Holmes was kidnapped by Nash's henchmen when they recognized him walking around wearing some of Nash's jewelry. Scott Thorson , who

12317-565: Was acquitted in June 1982, after a three-week trial. It determined that he was an unwilling participant who was forced to watch the attack. He spent 110 days in jail for contempt of court. Holmes died on March 13, 1988, from AIDS complications in Los Angeles. In 1990, Nash was charged in California state court with having planned the murders, and Diles was charged with participating in the murders, but both men were acquitted in 1991. Diles died in 1997 from liver failure. As of January 2017, Susan Launius

12430-494: Was and remains murky due to allegations by rival drug dealers that he worked as a police informant . Tracy Raymond McCourt was the driver of the stolen 1975 Ford Granada that carried the Wonderland Gang to Eddie Nash 's home on the night of the robbery. Originally, McCourt was designated to take part in the home invasion itself, but a day or so before the event, conspirator David Lind (who derisively referred to McCourt as "Titmouse Tracy") took away McCourt's handgun, and McCourt

12543-402: Was buying drugs at Nash's home, wrote in his memoir My Life with Liberace (1988) that Nash had ordered Diles to bring Holmes to Nash's house, which Diles did after finding Holmes walking around Hollywood wearing one of Nash's rings. Thorson claimed to have witnessed Nash order Diles to beat Holmes, and said Nash threatened to kill Holmes and his family, until Holmes identified the people behind

12656-428: Was present for the attack, as Lind was consuming drugs with a prostitute in the San Fernando Valley , and McCourt was at his own home. Although neighbors would later report having heard screams, no phone calls were placed to the police until 4:00 pm on July 1, over 12 hours later, when furniture movers working at the house next door heard Susan Launius moaning and went to investigate. When questioned, neighbors said

12769-512: Was relegated to driving duty. In the years following the Wonderland murders, McCourt was reported to have moved to Colorado. He spent considerable time in the Colorado prison system, but when he was free he operated a successful mobile phone franchise. In 2001, he reportedly had been wanted by the Colorado Springs Police Department for "assault with a deadly weapon and failure to comply on the original charge of distribution of

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