137-474: Misogyny ( / m ɪ ˈ s ɒ dʒ ɪ n i / ) is hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women or girls . It is a form of sexism that can keep women at a lower social status than men , thus maintaining the social roles of patriarchy . Misogyny has been widely practised for thousands of years. It is reflected in art , literature , human societal structure, historical events, mythology , philosophy , and religion worldwide. An example of misogyny
274-749: A Kumhar (potter) vaidya were published in the Gentleman's Magazine by 1794. Joseph Constantine Carpue spent 20 years in India studying local plastic surgery methods. Carpue was able to perform the first major surgery in the Western world in the year 1815. Instruments described in the Sushruta Samhita were further modified in the Western world. In 1465, Sabuncu's book, description, and classification of hypospadias were more informative and up to date. Localization of
411-453: A different standard than those of male politicians, and for speaking about her in crudely sexual terms. She was criticised for systemic misogyny, because earlier in the day her Labour Party had passed legislation cutting $ 728 million in welfare benefits to single mothers. Gillard's usage of the word "misogyny" promoted re-evaluations of the word's published definitions. The Macquarie Dictionary revised its definition in 2012 to better match
548-464: A disease ; a dislike of something that is good. It is this issue of conflicted or alternating emotions that was philosophically contentious to the ancient writers. Ricardo Salles suggests that the general stoic view was that "[a] man may not only alternate between philogyny and misogyny, philanthropy and misanthropy, but be prompted to each by the other." In the Routledge philosophy guidebook to Plato and
685-579: A disease —an anti-social condition—in that it ran contrary to their perceptions of the value of women as wives and of the family as the foundation of society. These points are widely noted in the secondary literature. According to the Oxford English Dictionary the word entered English because of an anonymous proto-feminist play, Swetnam the Woman-Hater , published in 1620 in England. The play
822-400: A gender binary in which woman is one of the two genders, the other being man ; others have a third gender . Most women are cisgender , meaning they were assigned female at birth and have a female gender identity . Transgender women were assigned male at birth and have a female gender identity and may experience gender dysphoria (distress brought upon by the discrepancy between
959-407: A mastectomy for the treatment of cancer, cleft lip and palate surgery, contracture surgery for burn survivors, and creating a new outer ear when one is congenitally absent. Plastic surgeons use microsurgery to transfer tissue for coverage of a defect when no local tissue is available. Free flaps of skin, muscle, bone, fat, or a combination may be removed from the body, moved to another site on
1096-664: A 2 percent increase over 2014." A study from 2021 found that requests for cosmetic procedures had increased significantly since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, possibly due to the increase in videoconferencing ; cited estimates include a 10% increase in the United States and a 20% increase in France. The most popular aesthetic/cosmetic procedures include: In 2015, the most popular surgeries were Botox, liposuction, eyelid surgery, breast implants, nose jobs, and facelifts. According to
1233-456: A Centre for Plastic and Jaw Surgery. There, he treated very deep burns, and serious facial disfigurement, such as loss of eyelids, typical of those caused to aircrew by burning fuel. McIndoe is often recognized for not only developing new techniques for treating badly burned faces and hands but also for recognising the importance of the rehabilitation of the casualties and particularly of social reintegration back into normal life. He disposed of
1370-400: A combination of economic changes and the efforts of the feminist movement , in recent decades women in many societies have gained access to careers beyond the traditional homemaker . Despite these advances, modern women in Western society still face challenges in the workplace as well as with the topics of education, violence, health care, politics, and motherhood, and others. Sexism can be
1507-514: A comprehensive text on rhinoplasty, titled Operative Chirurgie , and introduced the concept of reoperation to improve the cosmetic appearance of the reconstructed nose. Dieffenbach has been called the "father of plastic surgery". Another case of plastic surgery for nose reconstruction from 1884 at Bellevue Hospital was described in Scientific American . In 1891, American otorhinolaryngologist John Roe presented an example of his work:
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#17328581090121644-550: A female gender identity , while intersex women have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of female biology. The spelling of woman in English has progressed over the past millennium from wīfmann to wīmmann to wumman , and finally, the modern spelling woman . In Old English , mann had the gender-neutral meaning of ' human ' , akin to the Modern ' person ' or ' someone ' . The word for ' woman '
1781-486: A free skin graft from the arm instead of the original delayed pedicle flap. The first American plastic surgeon was John Peter Mettauer , who, in 1827, performed the first cleft palate operation with instruments that he designed himself. Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach specialized in skin transplantation and early plastic surgery. His work in rhinoplastic and maxillofacial surgery established many modern techniques of reconstructive surgery . In 1845, Dieffenbach wrote
1918-570: A girl's coming of age , such as confirmation in some branches of Christianity , bat mitzvah in Judaism , or a custom of a special celebration for a certain birthday (generally between 12 and 21), like the quinceañera of Latin America. Male and female bodies have some differences . Some differences, such as the external sex organs , are visible, while other differences, such as internal anatomy and genetic characteristics, are not visible. Typically,
2055-526: A hatred of women, such as is displayed in the Woman-hater of Atilius; or the hatred of the whole human species, as Timon is reported to have done, whom they call the Misanthrope. Of the same kind is inhospitality. And all these diseases proceed from a certain dread of such things as they hate and avoid. In summary, despite considering women as generally inferior to men, Greek literature considered misogyny to be
2192-424: A jagged wound without thinking about the amount of flesh that had been lost, so scars after were hideous and disfigured soldiers. Some injured had important injuries and the stitches were not sufficient so some became blind, or were left with gaping holes instead of their nose. Harold Gillies , scared by the number of new facial injuries and the lack of good surgical techniques decided to dedicate an entire hospital to
2329-545: A lost play of Euripides in which the merits of a dutiful wife are praised. According to Tieleman other surviving use of the Ancient Greek word is by Chrysippus , in a fragment from On affections , quoted by Galen in Hippocrates on Affections . Here, misogyny is the first in a short list of three "disaffections"—women ( misogunia ), wine ( misoinia , μισοινία) and humanity ( misanthrōpia , μισανθρωπία). Chrysippus' point
2466-450: A main concern and barrier for women almost anywhere, though its forms, perception, and gravity vary between societies and social classes. There has been an increase in the endorsement of egalitarian gender roles in the home by both women and men. Although a greater number of women are seeking higher education, their salaries are often less than those of men. CBS News said in 2005 that in the United States women who are ages 30 to 44 and hold
2603-448: A manner perpetuating patriarchal arrangements. According to sociologist Allan G. Johnson , "misogyny is a cultural attitude of hatred for females because they are female". Johnson argues that: Misogyny .... is a central part of sexist prejudice and ideology and, as such, is an important basis for the oppression of females in male-dominated societies. Misogyny is manifested in many different ways, from jokes to pornography to violence to
2740-611: A married woman ( ' wife ' ). It is a popular misconception that the term "woman" is etymologically connected to "womb". "Womb" derives from the Old English word wamb meaning ' belly, uterus ' (cognate to the modern German colloquial term " Wamme " from Old High German wamba for ' belly, paunch, lap ' ). The word woman can be used generally, to mean any female human, or specifically, to mean an adult female human as contrasted with girl . The word girl originally meant "young person of either sex" in English; it
2877-499: A million people. The American Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS) estimates that more than 333,000 cosmetic procedures were performed on patients 18 years of age or younger in the US in 2005 compared to approx. 14,000 in 1996. In 2018, more than 226,994 patients between the ages of 13 and 19 underwent plastic surgery compared to just over 218,900 patients in the same age group in 2010. Concerns about young people undergoing plastic surgery include
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#17328581090123014-469: A moral tract known as On Marriage ( c . 150 BC) by the stoic philosopher Antipater of Tarsus . Antipater argues that marriage is the foundation of the state, and considers it to be based on divine ( polytheistic ) decree. He uses misogunia to describe the sort of writing the tragedian Euripides eschews, stating that he "reject[s] the hatred of women in his writing" (ἀποθέμενος τὴν ἐν τῷ γράφειν μισογυνίαν). He then offers an example of this, quoting from
3151-594: A nutritious secretion that is the most distinctive characteristic of mammals, along with live birth. In mature women, the breast is generally more prominent than in most other mammals; this prominence, not necessary for milk production, is thought to be at least partially the result of sexual selection . Estrogens , which are primary female sex hormones, have a significant impact on a female's body shape. They are produced in both men and women, but their levels are significantly higher in women, especially in those of reproductive age. Besides other functions, estrogens promote
3288-429: A pattern in which the wife is to emulate the church's submission to Christ and the husband is to emulate Christ's love for the church." In Christian Men Who Hate Women , clinical psychologist Margaret J. Rinck has written that Christian social culture often allows a misogynist "misuse of the biblical ideal of submission". However, she argues that this a distortion of the "healthy relationship of mutual submission" which
3425-439: A peaceful, autonomous existence as a companion to the gods before the creation of women. When Prometheus decides to steal the secret of fire from the gods, Zeus becomes infuriated and decides to punish humankind with an "evil thing for their delight". This "evil thing" is Pandora , the first woman, who carried a jar (usually described—incorrectly—as a box) which she was told to never open. Epimetheus (the brother of Prometheus)
3562-404: A person's gender identity and their sex assigned at birth). Gender dysphoria may be treated with gender-affirming care , which may include social or medical transition . Social transition may involve changes such as adopting a new name , hairstyle , clothing , and pronoun associated with the individual's affirmed female gender identity. A major component of medical transition for trans women
3699-558: A potential triggers of BDD. Recently, a phenomenon referred to as ' Snapchat dysmorphia ' has appeared to describe people who request surgery to resemble the edited version of themselves as they appear through Snapchat Filters. As a protest to the detrimental trend, Instagram banned all augmented reality (AR) filters that depict or promote cosmetic surgery. In some cases, people whose physicians refuse to perform any further surgeries, have turned to " do it yourself " plastic surgery, injecting themselves and running extreme safety risks. With
3836-416: A practice instituted in the early 20th century that lasted until the mid-1990s. Separate from surgery performed for medical need. In plastic surgery, the transfer of skin tissue ( skin grafting ) is a very common procedure. Skin grafts can be derived from the recipient or donors: Usually, good results would be expected from plastic surgery that emphasize careful planning of incisions so that they fall within
3973-483: A rapid increase in the number of mutilations to the faces and the heads of soldiers because the trenches mainly offered protection to the body. The surgeons, who were not prepared for these injuries, were even less prepared for a large number of injuries and had to react quickly and intelligently to treat the greatest number. Facial injuries were hard to treat on the front line because of the sanitary conditions many infections could occur. Sometimes, some stitches were made on
4110-576: A speech in the Australian Parliament , the Macquarie Dictionary (which documents Australian English and New Zealand English ) expanded its definition to include not only hatred of women but also "entrenched prejudices against women". Social psychology research describes overt misogyny as "blatant hostile sexism" that raises resistance in women, as opposed to "manifestations of benevolent sexism" or chivalry that lead women to behave in
4247-613: A study of his 4761 augmentation mammaplasty patients, Eisenberg reported that overfilling saline breast implants 10–13% significantly reduced the rupture-deflation rate to 1.83% at 8-years post-implantation. In 2011 FDA stated that one in five patients who received implants for breast augmentation will need them removed within 10 years of implantation. Though media and advertising do play a large role in influencing many people's lives, such as by making people believe plastic surgery to be an acceptable course to change our identities to our liking, researchers believe that plastic surgery obsession
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4384-551: A university degree make 62% of what similarly qualified men do, a lower rate than in all but three of the 19 countries for which numbers are available. Some Western nations with greater inequality in pay are Germany, New Zealand and Switzerland. Particular religious doctrines have specific stipulations relating to gender roles , social and private interaction between the sexes, appropriate dressing attire for women, and various other issues affecting women and their position in society. In many countries, these religious teachings influence
4521-504: A widespread cultural custom or system. Sometimes misogyny manifests in obvious and bold ways; other times it is more subtle or disguised in ways that provide plausible deniability. In feminist thought, misogyny also includes the rejection of feminine qualities. It holds in contempt institutions, work, hobbies, or habits associated with women. It rejects any aspects of men that are seen as feminine or unmanly. Racism and other prejudices may reinforce and overlap with misogyny. According to
4658-409: A woman have changed significantly since the early 20th century as women gained more rights and greater representation in the workforce, with scholarship in the 1970s moving toward a focus on the sex–gender distinction and social construction of gender . There are various words used to refer to the quality of being a woman. The term "womanhood" merely means the state of being a woman; " femininity "
4795-403: A young age differed according to gender. Traditionally, middle class women were involved in domestic tasks emphasizing child care. For poorer women, economic necessity compelled them to seek employment outside the home even if individual poor women may have preferred domestic tasks. Many of the occupations that were available to them were lower in pay than those available to men. As changes in
4932-438: A young woman on whom he reduced a dorsal nasal hump for cosmetic indications. In 1892, Robert Weir experimented unsuccessfully with xenografts (duck sternum) in the reconstruction of sunken noses. In 1896, James Israel , a urological surgeon from Germany, and in 1889 George Monks of the United States each described the successful use of heterogeneous free-bone grafting to reconstruct saddle nose defects. In 1898, Jacques Joseph,
5069-472: Is feminizing hormone therapy , which causes the development of female secondary sex characteristics (such as breasts , redistribution of body fat, and lower waist–hip ratio ). Medical transition may also involve gender-affirming surgery , and a trans woman may undergo one or more feminizing procedures which result in anatomy that is typically gendered female. Like cisgender women, trans women may have any sexual orientation. Factors that specifically affect
5206-494: Is violence against women , which includes domestic violence and, in its most extreme forms, misogynist terrorism and femicide . Misogyny also often operates through sexual harassment , coercion, and psychological techniques aimed at controlling women, and by legally or socially excluding women from full citizenship. In some cases, misogyny rewards women for accepting an inferior status. Misogyny can be understood both as an attitude held by individuals, primarily by men, and as
5343-531: Is a broad field, and may be subdivided further. In the United States, plastic surgeons are board certified by American Board of Plastic Surgery . Subdisciplines of plastic surgery may include: Aesthetic surgery is a central component of plastic surgery and includes facial and body aesthetic surgery. Plastic surgeons use cosmetic surgical principles in all reconstructive surgical procedures as well as isolated operations to improve overall appearance. Burn surgery generally takes place in two phases. Acute burn surgery
5480-428: Is a criticism of anti-woman writer Joseph Swetnam , who it represents with the pseudonym Misogynos. The character of Misogynos is the origin of the term misogynist in English. The term was fairly rare until the mid-1970s. The publication of feminist Andrea Dworkin 's 1974 critique Woman Hating popularised the idea. The term misogyny entered the lexicon of second-wave feminism . Dworkin and her contemporaries used
5617-605: Is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Although femininity is socially constructed, some behaviors considered feminine are biologically influenced. The extent to which femininity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological female sex, as both men and women can exhibit feminine traits. The earliest women whose names are known include: In recent history, gender roles have changed greatly. At some earlier points in history, children's occupational aspirations starting at
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5754-509: Is a surgical specialty involving the restoration, reconstruction, or alteration of the human body. It can be divided into two main categories: reconstructive surgery and cosmetic surgery . Reconstructive surgery covers a wide range of specialties, including craniofacial surgery , hand surgery , microsurgery , and the treatment of burns . This category of surgery focuses on restoring a body part or improving its function. In contrast, cosmetic (or aesthetic) surgery focuses solely on improving
5891-720: Is actually specified in Christian doctrine, where "[l]ove is based on a deep, mutual respect as the guiding principle behind all decisions, actions, and plans". Similarly, Catholic scholar Christopher West argues that "male domination violates God's plan and is the specific result of sin". The fourth chapter (or sura ) of the Quran is called "Women" ( an-nisa ). The 34th verse is a key verse in feminist criticism of Islam . The verse notes men's God-given advantages over women. They are consequently their protectors and maintainers. Where women are disobedient "admonish them, and leave them alone in
6028-502: Is also rising in popularity in Asian and Western countries due to their expertise in facial bone surgeries (see cosmetic surgery in South Korea ). Plastic surgery is increasing slowly, rising 115% from 2000 to 2015. "According to the annual plastic surgery procedural statistics, there were 15.9 million surgical and minimally-invasive cosmetic procedures performed in the United States in 2015,
6165-416: Is an important part of all plastic surgery training programs. Further training and subspecialisation is obtained via a craniofacial fellowship. Craniofacial surgery is also practiced by maxillofacial surgeons . Ethnic plastic surgery is plastic surgery performed to change ethnic attributes, often considered used as a way of "passing". Hand surgery is concerned with acute injuries and chronic diseases of
6302-522: Is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes." In 2008, noting that each year more than 500,000 women die of complications of pregnancy and childbirth and at least seven million experience serious health problems while 50 million more have adverse health consequences after childbirth,
6439-418: Is due to lower testosterone, which stimulates the production of erythropoietin by the kidney. The normal hematocrit level for a woman is 36% to 48% (for men, 41% to 50%). The normal level of hemoglobin (an oxygen-transport protein found in red blood cells) for women is 12.0 to 15.5 g/dL (for men, 13.5 to 17.5 g/dL). Women's hearts have finer-grained textures in the muscle compared to men's hearts, and
6576-766: Is generally longer than men's. This advantage begins from birth, with newborn girls more likely to survive the first year than boys. Worldwide, women live six to eight years longer than men. However, this varies by place and situation. For example, discrimination against women has lowered female life expectancy in some parts of Asia so that men there live longer than women. The difference in life expectancy are believed to be partly due to biological advantages and partly due to gendered behavioral differences between men and women. For example, women are less likely to engage in unhealthy behaviors like smoking and reckless driving , and consequently have fewer preventable premature deaths from such causes. In some developed countries,
6713-499: Is in reference to the concept of "reshaping" and comes from the Greek πλαστική (τέχνη), plastikē ( tekhnē ), "the art of modelling" of malleable flesh . This meaning in English is seen as early as 1598. In the surgical context, the word "plastic" first appeared in 1816 and was established in 1838 by Eduard Zeis, preceding the modern technical usage of the word as "engineering material made from petroleum " by 70 years. Treatments for
6850-426: Is linked to psychological disorders like body dysmorphic disorder . There exists a correlation between those with BDD and the predilection toward cosmetic plastic surgery in order to correct a perceived defect in their appearance. BDD is a disorder resulting in the individual becoming "preoccupied with what they regard as defects in their bodies or faces". Alternatively, where there is a slight physical anomaly, then
6987-499: Is misogynistic, and she lists what she says are specific examples of misogyny in the Pauline epistles . She states: The foundations of early Christian misogyny—its guilt about sex, its insistence on female subjection, its dread of female seduction—are all in St. Paul's epistles. In K. K. Ruthven's Feminist Literary Studies: An Introduction , Ruthven makes reference to Rogers' book and argues that
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#17328581090127124-402: Is more abstract than Antipater's, and Galen quotes the passage as an example of an opinion contrary to his own. What is clear, however, is that he groups hatred of women with hatred of humanity generally, and even hatred of wine. "It was the prevailing medical opinion of his day that wine strengthens body and soul alike." So Chrysippus, like his fellow stoic Antipater, views misogyny negatively, as
7261-430: Is not widely used. Words derived from the word misogyny and denoting connected concepts include misogynoir , the intersection of anti-black racism and misogyny faced by Black women; transmisogyny , the intersection of misogyny and transphobia faced by trans women and transfeminine people; and transmisogynoir, the confluence of these faced by black trans women and transfeminine people. Misogyny likely arose at
7398-552: Is often controversial . Some intersex conditions are associated with typical rates of female gender identity , while others are associated with substantially higher rates of identifying as LGBT compared compared to the general population. Female sexuality and attraction are variable, and a woman's sexual behavior can be affected by many factors, including evolved predispositions , personality , upbringing , and culture . While most women are heterosexual , significant minorities are lesbian or bisexual . Most cultures use
7535-571: Is only a distinction between optimists and pessimists, if not between idealists and realists... As we begin to realise, the term "Buddhism" does not designate a monolithic entity, but covers a number of doctrines, ideologies, and practices--some of which seem to invite, tolerate, and even cultivate "otherness" on their margins. Differences in tradition and interpretations of scripture have caused sects of Christianity to differ in their beliefs with regard to their treatment of women. In The Troublesome Helpmate , Katharine M. Rogers argues that Christianity
7672-441: Is overwhelmed by her beauty, disregards Prometheus' warnings about her, and marries her. Pandora cannot resist peeking into the jar, and by opening it she unleashes into the world all evil; labour , sickness , old age , and death . In his book The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender , professor Bernard Faure of Columbia University argued generally that "Buddhism is paradoxically neither as sexist nor as egalitarian as
7809-404: Is supplied to the skin and increases the chances of the skin graft being accepted by the body. At this time, we assisted also to improving in treating infections also meant that important injuries had become survivable mostly thanks to the new technique of Gillies. Some soldiers arrived at the hospital of Gillies without noses, chins, cheekbones, or even eyes. But for them, the most important trauma
7946-625: Is the treatment immediately after a burn. Reconstructive burn surgery takes place after the burn wounds have healed. Craniofacial surgery is divided into pediatric and adult craniofacial surgery. Pediatric craniofacial surgery mostly revolves around the treatment of congenital anomalies of the craniofacial skeleton and soft tissues, such as cleft lip and palate, microtia, craniosynostosis, and pediatric fractures. Adult craniofacial surgery deals mostly with reconstructive surgeries after trauma or cancer and revision surgeries along with orthognathic surgery and facial feminization surgery. Craniofacial surgery
8083-613: Is to restore both form and function. The most common reconstructive procedures are tumor removal, laceration repair, maxillofacial surgery, scar revision, hand surgery and breast reduction plasty . According to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons , the number of reconstructive breast reductions for women decreased in 2018 by 4 percent from the year before. Breast reduction in men decreased in 2018 by 8 percent. In 2018, there were 57,535 performed. Some other common reconstructive surgical procedures include breast reconstruction after
8220-490: Is used as the title of Heracles in the history of Phocion . It was the title of a play by Menander , which we know of from book seven (concerning Alexandria ) of Strabo 's 17 volume Geography , and quotations of Menander by Clement of Alexandria and Stobaeus that relate to marriage. A Greek play with a similar name, Misogunos (Μισόγυνος) or Woman-hater , is reported by Marcus Tullius Cicero (in Latin) and attributed to
8357-461: Is used to refer to a set of typical female qualities associated with a certain attitude to gender roles ; "womanliness" is like "femininity", but is usually associated with a different view of gender roles. "Distaff" is an archaic adjective derived from women's conventional role as a spinner, now used only as a deliberate archaism . Menarche, the onset of menstruation , occurs on average at age 12–13. Many cultures have rites of passage to symbolize
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#17328581090128494-412: Is usually thought." He remarked, "Many feminist scholars have emphasised the misogynistic (or at least androcentric) nature of Buddhism" and stated that Buddhism morally exalts its male monks while the mothers and wives of the monks also have important roles. Additionally, he wrote: While some scholars see Buddhism as part of a movement of emancipation, others see it as a source of oppression. Perhaps this
8631-706: The Oxford English Dictionary the English word "misogyny" was coined in the middle of the 17th century from the Greek misos 'hatred' + gunē 'woman'. The word was rarely used until it was popularised by second-wave feminism in the 1970s. English and American dictionaries define misogyny as "hatred of women" and as "hatred, dislike, or mistrust of women". The American Merriam-Webster Dictionary distinguishes misogyny, "a hatred of women", from sexism , which denotes sex-based discrimination, and "behavior, conditions, or attitudes that foster stereotypes of social roles based on sex." In 2012, primarily in response to
8768-667: The criminal law , or the family law of those jurisdictions (see Sharia law , for example). The relation between religion, law and gender equality has been discussed by international organizations. The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women defines "violence against women" as: any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. Plastic surgery Plastic surgery
8905-736: The female reproductive system , which includes the ovaries , fallopian tubes , uterus , vagina , and vulva . An adult woman generally has a wider pelvis , broader hips , and larger breasts than an adult man . These characteristics facilitate childbirth and breastfeeding . Women typically have less facial and other body hair, have a higher body fat composition, and are on average shorter and less muscular than men. Throughout human history , traditional gender roles within patriarchal societies have often defined and limited women's activities and opportunities, resulting in gender inequality ; many religious doctrines and legal systems stipulate certain rules for women. With restrictions loosening during
9042-411: The female sex and inherit a pair of X chromosomes , one from each parent, and fertile women are capable of pregnancy and giving birth from puberty until menopause . More generally, sex differentiation of the female fetus is governed by the lack of a present, or functioning, SRY gene on either one of the respective sex chromosomes. Female anatomy is distinguished from male anatomy by
9179-509: The genitalia and the skeleton —are of special interest to plastic surgery. Several ancient Sanskrit medical treatise mentions some types of plastic surgery in India such as the works of Sushruta and Charaka . These works were translated into the Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate in 750 AD. The Arabic translations made their way into Europe via intermediaries. In Italy ,
9316-643: The heart muscle 's overall shape and surface area also differs to men's when controlling for body size and age. In addition, women's hearts age more slowly compared to men's hearts. Girls are born slightly less frequently than boys (the ratio is around 1:1.05). Out of the total human population in 2015, there were 1018 men for every 1000 women. Intersex women have an intersex condition, usually defined as those born with ambiguous genitalia . Most individuals with ambiguous genitalia are assigned female at birth, and most intersex women are cisgender . The medical practices to assign binary female to intersex youth
9453-539: The status quo and punishes those who reject women's subordinate status. Manne distinguishes sexism , which she says seeks to rationalise and justify patriarchy , from misogyny, which she calls the "law enforcement" branch of patriarchy: [S]exist ideology will tend to discriminate between men and women, typically by alleging sex differences beyond what is known or could be known, and sometimes counter to our best current scientific evidence. Misogyny will typically differentiate between good women and bad ones, and punishes
9590-451: The urethral meatus was described in detail. Sabuncuoglu also detailed the description and classification of ambiguous genitalia. In mid-15th-century Europe, Heinrich von Pfolspeundt described a process "to make a new nose for one who lacks it entirely, and the dogs have devoured it" by removing skin from the back of the arm and suturing it in place. However, because of the dangers associated with surgery in any form, especially that involving
9727-416: The "convalescent uniforms" and let the patients use their service uniforms instead. With the help of two friends, Neville and Elaine Blond, he also convinced the locals to support the patients and invite them to their homes. McIndoe kept referring to them as "his boys" and the staff called him "The Boss" or "The Maestro". His other important work included the development of the walking-stalk skin graft , and
9864-632: The "legacy of Christian misogyny was consolidated by the so-called 'Fathers' of the Church, like Tertullian , who thought a woman was not only 'the gateway of the devil' but also 'a temple built over a sewer'." Several Christian institutions exclude women. For example, women are excluded from the Mount Athos region of Greece and from the governing hierarchy of the Catholic Church . Some Christian theologians, such as John Knox in his book The First Blast of
10001-420: The 1970s, many female academics, including scientists, avoided having children. Throughout the 1980s, institutions tried to equalize conditions for men and women in the workplace. Even so, the inequalities at home hampered women's opportunities: professional women were still generally considered responsible for domestic labor and child care, which limited the time and energy they could devote to their careers. Until
10138-779: The 2020 Plastic Surgery Statistics Report, which is published by the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, the most surgical procedure performed in the U.S. was Rhinoplasty (Nose reshaping) accounting for 15.2% of all cosmetic surgical procedures that year, followed by Blepharoplasty (Eyelid surgery), which accounted for 14% of all procedures. The third most populous procedure was Rhytidectomy (Facelift) (10% of all procedures), then Liposuction (9.1% of all procedures). All surgery has risks. Common complications of cosmetic surgery includes hematoma , nerve injury , infection , scarring , implant failure and end organ damage . Breast implants can have many complications , including rupture. In
10275-444: The 20th century in many societies, women have gained wider access to careers and the ability to pursue higher education. Violence against women , whether within families or in communities, has a long history and is primarily committed by men. Some women are denied reproductive rights . The movements and ideologies of feminism have a shared goal of achieving gender equality . Transgender women were assigned male at birth and have
10412-470: The 6th century BC. The Romans also performed plastic cosmetic surgery , using simple techniques, such as repairing damaged ears, from around the 1st century BC. For religious reasons, they did not dissect either human beings or animals, thus, their knowledge was based in its entirety on the texts of their Greek predecessors. Notwithstanding, Aulus Cornelius Celsus left some accurate anatomical descriptions, some of which—for instance, his studies on
10549-733: The Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi ( Bologna ) became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta. All fields of surgery, the Arab physician, surgeon, and chemist Al-Zahrawi talks of the use of silk thread suture to achieve good cosmesis . He describes what is thought to be the first attempt at reduction mammaplasty for the management of gynaecomastia . He gives detailed descriptions of other basic surgical techniques such as cautery and wound management. British physicians travelled to India to see rhinoplasties being performed by Indian methods. Reports on Indian rhinoplasty performed by
10686-601: The German orthopaedic -trained surgeon , published his first account of reduction rhinoplasty. In 1910, Alexander Ostroumov , the Russian pharmacist , and perfume and cosmetics manufacturer, founded a unique plastic surgery department in his Moscow Institute of Medical Cosmetics. In 1928, Jacques Joseph published Nasenplastik und Sonstige Gesichtsplastik . The development of weapons such as machine guns and explosive shells during World War I created trench warfare, which led to
10823-641: The Quran. The economic and social position of men and women was reflected in blood money to the family of a victim. The financial loss for a woman was pegged at half that of a man. Scholars William M. Reynolds and Julie A. Webber have written that Guru Nanak , the founder of the Sikh faith tradition, was a "fighter for women's rights" that was "in no way misogynistic" in contrast to some of his contemporaries. However, unconscious misogynistic attitudes in Sikh men have steadily reduced
10960-628: The Republic , Nickolas Pappas describes the "problem of misogyny" and states: In the Apology , Socrates calls those who plead for their lives in court "no better than women" (35b)... The Timaeus warns men that if they live immorally they will be reincarnated as women (42b-c; cf. 75d-e). The Republic contains a number of comments in the same spirit (387e, 395d-e, 398e, 431b-c, 469d), evidence of nothing so much as of contempt toward women. Even Socrates' words for his bold new proposal about marriage... suggest that
11097-525: The Romans, Greeks, and the tribes of the Amazon Basin and Melanesia , who did not follow a monotheistic religion. Nearly every human culture contains evidence of misogyny. Anthropologist David D. Gilmore argues that misogyny is rooted in men's conflicting feelings: men's existential dependence on women for procreation , and men's fear of women's power over them in their times of male weakness, contrasted against
11234-564: The Trumpet Against the Monstruous Regiment of Women , have written that women should be excluded from secular government institutions for religious reasons. However, some other scholars have argued that Christianity does not include misogynistic principles, or at least that a proper interpretation of Christianity would not include misogynistic principles. David M. Scholer, a biblical scholar at Fuller Theological Seminary , stated that
11371-572: The US ranked 12th of the 14 developed countries that were analyzed and since that time the death rates of every country have steadily improved while the US rate has spiked dramatically. While the others that were analyzed in 1990 show a 2017 death rate of fewer than 10 deaths per every 100,000 live births, the U.S. rate rose to 26.4. Furthermore, for every one of the 700 to 900 women who die in the U.S. each year during pregnancy or childbirth, 70 experience significant complications, totaling more than one percent of all births. The life expectancy for women
11508-923: The World Health Organization urged midwife training to strengthen maternal and newborn health services. To support the upgrading of midwifery skills the WHO established a midwife training program, Action for Safe Motherhood. In 2017, 94% of maternal deaths occur in low and lower middle-income countries. Approximately 86% of maternal deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia , with sub-Saharan Africa accounting for around 66% and Southern Asia accounting for around 20%. The main causes of maternal mortality include pre-eclampsia and eclampsia , unsafe abortion , pregnancy complications from malaria and HIV/AIDS , and severe bleeding and infections following childbirth. Most European countries, Australia, Japan, and Singapore are very safe in regard to childbirth. In 1990,
11645-463: The accessory glands ( Bartholin's and Skene's ), two pairs of glands that help lubricate during intercourse, and the vagina , an organ used in copulating and birthing. The vulva (external female genitalia) consists of the clitoris , labia majora , labia minora and vestibule . The vestibule is where the vaginal and urethral openings are located. The mammary glands are hypothesized to have evolved from apocrine-like glands to produce milk,
11782-431: The aid of their parents or guardians to fully mature. Sometimes humans have multiple births , most commonly twins . Usually between ages 49–52, a woman reaches menopause , the time when menstrual periods stop permanently, and they are no longer able to bear children. Unlike most other mammals, the human lifespan usually extends many years after menopause. Many women become grandmothers and contribute to
11919-402: The body of the soldier. One of the most successful techniques in skin grafting had the aim of not completely severing the connection to the body. It was possible by releasing and lifting a flap of skin from the wound. The flap of skin, still connected to the donor site would then be swung over the site of the wound, this technique allows the maintenance of physical connection and ensures that blood
12056-544: The body, and reconnected to a blood supply by suturing arteries and veins as small as 1 to 2 millimeters in diameter. Cosmetic surgery is a voluntary or elective surgery that is performed on normal parts of the body with the only purpose of improving a person's appearance or removing signs of aging. Some cosmetic surgeries such as breast reduction are also functional and can help to relieve symptoms of discomfort such as back ache or neck ache. Cosmetic surgeries are also undertaken following breast cancer and mastectomy to recreate
12193-448: The care of grandchildren and other family members. Many biologists believe that the extended human lifespan is evolutionarily driven by kin selection , though other theories have also been proposed. In terms of biology , the female sex organs are involved in the reproductive system, whereas the secondary sex characteristics are involved in breastfeeding children and attracting a mate. Humans are placental mammals , which means
12330-530: The cells of female humans contain two X chromosomes, while the cells of male humans have an X and a Y chromosome. During early fetal development , all embryos have phenotypically female genitalia up until week 6 or 7, when a male embryo's gonads differentiate into testes due to the action of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome. Sex differentiation proceeds in female humans in a way that is independent of gonadal hormones. Because humans inherit mitochondrial DNA only from
12467-524: The deep-seated needs of men for the love, care and comfort of women—a need that makes the men feel vulnerable. Angela Saini notes that a large proportion of women in ancient societies were kidnapped brides from other cultures. Such a woman was often forced to marry a man who had killed her family. Misogynistic suspicion in ancient Greece and elsewhere is to some degree explained by male anxiety that women would some day revolt against their captors. Saini argues that patriarchy and gender stereotyping emerged at
12604-586: The delicate hand, causing loss of dexterity and digit function if severe enough. There have been cases of surgery on women's hands in order to correct perceived flaws to create the perfect engagement ring photo. Microsurgery is generally concerned with the reconstruction of missing tissues by transferring a piece of tissue to the reconstruction site and reconnecting blood vessels. Popular subspecialty areas are breast reconstruction, head and neck reconstruction, hand surgery/replantation, and brachial plexus surgery. Children often face medical issues very different from
12741-438: The development of female secondary sexual characteristics , such as breasts and hips . As a result of estrogens, during puberty , girls develop breasts and their hips widen. Working against estrogen, the presence of testosterone in a pubescent female inhibits breast development and promotes muscle and facial hair development. Women have lower hematocrit (the volume percentage of red blood cells in blood) than men; this
12878-574: The discovery that immersion in saline promoted healing as well as improving survival rates for patients with extensive burns—this was a serendipitous discovery drawn from observation of differential healing rates in pilots who had come down on land and in the sea. His radical, experimental treatments led to the formation of the Guinea Pig Club at Queen Victoria Hospital , Sussex. Among the better-known members of his "club" were Richard Hillary , Bill Foxley and Jimmy Edwards . Plastic surgery
13015-473: The early 20th century, U.S. women's colleges required their women faculty members to remain single, on the grounds that a woman could not carry on two full-time professions at once. According to Schiebinger, "Being a scientist and a wife and a mother is a burden in society that expects women more often than men to put family ahead of career." (p. 93). Movements advocate equality of opportunity for both sexes and equal rights irrespective of gender. Through
13152-418: The eggs with sperm , via either sexual intercourse or artificial insemination , though in vitro fertilization allows fertilization to occur outside the human body. Humans are similar to other large mammals in that they usually give birth to a single offspring per pregnancy, but are unusual in being altricial compared to most other large mammals, meaning young are undeveloped at time of birth and require
13289-549: The experiences of an adult patient. Many birth defects or syndromes present at birth are best treated in childhood, and pediatric plastic surgeons specialize in treating these conditions in children. Conditions commonly treated by pediatric plastic surgeons include craniofacial anomalies , Syndactyly (webbing of the fingers and toes), Polydactyly (excess fingers and toes at birth), cleft lip and palate, and congenital hand deformities. Plastic surgery performed on an incarcerated population in order to affect their recidivism rate,
13426-595: The financial burden of additional surgical procedures needed to correct problems after the initial cosmetic surgery, long-term health complications from plastic surgery, and unaddressed mental health issues that may have led to surgery. The increased use of cosmetic procedures crosses racial and ethnic lines in the U.S., with increases seen among African-Americans, Asian Americans and Hispanic Americans as well as Caucasian Americans. In Asia, cosmetic surgery has become more popular, and countries such as China and India have become Asia's biggest cosmetic surgery markets. South Korea
13563-448: The five most common surgeries being Nose Reshaping, Eyelid surgery, Facelift, Liposuction, and breast augmentation. Breast augmentation continues to be one of the top 5 cosmetic surgical procedures and has been since 2006. Silicone implants were used in 84% and saline implants in 16% of all breast augmentations in 2020. The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery looks at the statistics for 34 different cosmetic procedures. Nineteen of
13700-469: The hand and wrist, correction of congenital malformations of the upper extremities, and peripheral nerve problems (such as brachial plexus injuries or carpal tunnel syndrome). Hand surgery is an important part of training in plastic surgery, as well as microsurgery, which is necessary to replant an amputated extremity. The hand surgery field is also practiced by orthopedic surgeons and general surgeons . Scar tissue formation after surgery can be problematic on
13837-467: The head or face, it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries that such surgery became common. In 1814, Joseph Carpue successfully performed an operative procedure on a British military officer who had lost his nose to the toxic effects of mercury treatments. In 1818, German surgeon Carl Ferdinand von Graefe published his major work entitled Rhinoplastik . Von Graefe modified the Italian method using
13974-620: The health of women in comparison with men are most evident in those related to reproduction , but sex differences have been identified from the molecular to the behavioral scale. Some of these differences are subtle and difficult to explain, partly due to the fact that it is difficult to separate the health effects of inherent biological factors from the effects of the surrounding environment they exist in. Sex chromosomes and hormones, as well as sex-specific lifestyles, metabolism, immune system function, and sensitivity to environmental factors are believed to contribute to sex differences in health at
14111-412: The influence of these thinkers, feminist scholars trace misogyny in Western culture to these philosophers and their ideas. Aristotle believed women were inferior and described them as "deformed males". In his work Politics , he states Woman A woman is an adult female human . Before adulthood, a female child or adolescent is referred to as a girl . Typically, women are of
14248-477: The labor market for women came about, availability of employment changed from only "dirty", long hour factory jobs to "cleaner", more respectable office jobs where more education was demanded. Married women's participation in the U.S. labor force rose from 5.6–6% in 1900 to 23.8% in 1923. These shifts in the labor force led to changes in the attitudes towards women at work, allowing for the revolution which resulted in women becoming career and education oriented. In
14385-466: The latter. […] Sexism wears a lab coat; misogyny goes on witch hunts . Misogynous and misogynistic can both be used as an adjectival form of the word. The noun misogynist can be used for a woman-hating person. The counterpart of misogyny is misandry , the hatred or dislike of men. Misandry is a minor issue, not equivalent to the widespread practice and extensive history of misogyny. The antonym of misogyny, philogyny —love or fondness toward women—
14522-449: The levels of physiology, perception, and cognition. Women can have distinct responses to drugs and thresholds for diagnostic parameters. Some diseases primarily affect or are exclusively found in women, such as lupus , breast cancer , cervical cancer , or ovarian cancer . The medical practice dealing with female reproduction and reproductive organs is called gynaecology ("science of women"). Maternal mortality or maternal death
14659-1141: The life expectancy is evening out. This is believed to caused both by worse health behaviors among women, especially an increased rate of smoking tobacco by women , and improved health among men, such as less cardiovascular disease . The World Health Organization (WHO) writes that it is "important to note that the extra years of life for women are not always lived in good health." Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health . The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics has stated that: The World Health Organization reports that based on data from 2010 to 2014, 56 million induced abortions occurred worldwide each year (25% of all pregnancies). Of those, about 25 million were considered as unsafe . The WHO reports that in developed regions about 30 women die for every 100,000 unsafe abortions and that number rises to 220 deaths per 100,000 unsafe abortions in developing regions and 520 deaths per 100,000 unsafe abortions in sub-Saharan Africa. The WHO ascribes these deaths to: Femininity (also called womanliness or girlishness )
14796-553: The line of natural skin folds or lines, appropriate choice of wound closure , use of best available suture materials, and early removal of exposed sutures so that the wound is held closed by buried sutures. Reconstructive plastic surgery is performed to correct functional impairments caused by burns; traumatic injuries, such as facial bone fractures and breaks; congenital abnormalities, such as cleft palates or cleft lips; developmental abnormalities; infection and disease; and cancer or tumors . The goal of reconstructive plastic surgery
14933-427: The mother carries the fetus in the uterus and the placenta facilitates the exchange of nutrients and waste between the mother and fetus. The internal female genitalia consist of the ovaries , gonads that produce female gametes called ova , the fallopian tubes , tubular structures that transport the egg cells, the uterus , an organ with tissue to protect and nurture the developing fetus and its cervix to expel it,
15070-623: The mother's ovum, genealogical researchers can trace maternal lineage far back in time. Female puberty triggers bodily changes that enable sexual reproduction via fertilization . In response to chemical signals from the pituitary gland , the ovaries secrete hormones that stimulate maturation of the body, including increased height and weight, body hair growth, breast development and menarche (the onset of menstruation). Most girls go through menarche between ages 12–13, and are then capable of becoming pregnant and bearing children . Pregnancy generally requires internal fertilization of
15207-438: The natural breast shape which has been lost during the process of removing the cancer. In 2014, nearly 16 million cosmetic procedures were performed in the United States alone. The number of cosmetic procedures performed in the United States has almost doubled since the start of the century. 92% of cosmetic procedures were performed on women in 2014, up from 88% in 2001. 15.6 million cosmetic procedures were performed in 2020, with
15344-416: The person's concern is markedly excessive. While 2% of people have body dysmorphic disorder in the United States, 15% of patients seeing a dermatologist and cosmetic surgeons have the disorder. Half of the patients with the disorder who have cosmetic surgery performed are not pleased with the aesthetic outcome. BDD can lead to suicide in some people with the condition. While many with BDD seek cosmetic surgery,
15481-407: The physical appearance of the body. A comprehensive definition of plastic surgery has never been established, because it has no distinct anatomical object and thus overlaps with practically all other surgical specialties. An essential feature of plastic surgery is that it involves the treatment of conditions that require or may require tissue relocation skills. The word plastic in plastic surgery
15618-632: The plastic repair of a broken nose are first mentioned in the c. 1600 BC Egyptian medical text called the Edwin Smith papyrus . The early trauma surgery textbook was named after the American Egyptologist , Edwin Smith. Reconstructive surgery techniques were being carried out in India by 800 BC. Sushruta was a physician who made contributions to the field of plastic and cataract surgery in
15755-478: The poet Marcus Atilius . Cicero reports that Greek philosophers considered misogyny to be caused by gynophobia , a fear of women. It is the same with other diseases; as the desire of glory, a passion for women, to which the Greeks give the name of philogyneia : and thus all other diseases and sicknesses are generated. But those feelings which are the contrary of these are supposed to have fear for their foundation, as
15892-530: The power of women in Sikhism, such that the Sikh community has been observed to contain toxic masculinity . Numerous influential Western philosophers have expressed ideas that have been characterised as misogynistic, including Aristotle , René Descartes , Thomas Hobbes , John Locke , David Hume , Jean-Jacques Rousseau , G. W. F. Hegel , Arthur Schopenhauer , Friedrich Nietzsche , Sigmund Freud , Otto Weininger , Oswald Spengler , and John Lucas . Because of
16029-502: The procedures are surgical, such as rhinoplasty or facelift. The nonsurgical procedures include Botox and laser hair removal . In 2010, their survey revealed that there were 9,336,814 total procedures in the United States. Of those, 1,622,290 procedures were surgical (p. 5). They also found that a large majority, 81%, of the procedures were done on Caucasian people (p. 12). In 1949, 15,000 Americans underwent cosmetic surgery procedures and by 1969 this number rose to almost half
16166-443: The procedures do not treat BDD, and can ultimately worsen the problem. The psychological root of the problem is usually unidentified; therefore causing the treatment to be even more difficult. Some say that the fixation or obsession with correction of the area could be a sub-disorder such as anorexia or muscle dysmorphia. The increased use of body and facial reshaping applications such as Snapchat and Facetune have been identified as
16303-475: The reconstruction of facial injuries as fully as possible. He took into account the psychological dimension. Gillies introduced skin grafts to the treatments of soldiers, so they would be less horrified by looking at themselves in the mirror. It is the multidisciplinary approach to the treatment of facial lesions, bringing together plastic surgeons , dental surgeons, technicians, and specialized nurses, which has made it possible to develop techniques leading to
16440-582: The reconstruction of injured faces. Harold Gillies identified the need to advance the specialty of maxillofacial surgery which would be directly dedicated to the management of war wounds at this time. He has developed a new technique using rotational and transposition flaps but also bone grafts from the ribs and tibia to reconstruct facial defects caused by the weapons during the war Gillies experimented with this technique so he knew that he had to start by moving back healthy tissue to its normal position and then he will be able to fill with tissue from another place on
16577-594: The renowned French oral and maxillofacial surgeon Hippolyte Morestin on skin grafts, he persuaded the army's chief surgeon, Arbuthnot-Lane , to establish a facial injury ward at the Cambridge Military Hospital , Aldershot , later upgraded to a new hospital for facial repairs at Sidcup in 1917. There Gillies and his colleagues developed many techniques of plastic surgery; more than 11,000 operations were performed on more than 5,000 men (mostly soldiers with facial injuries, usually from gunshot wounds). After
16714-527: The same time as patriarchy : three to five thousand years ago at the start of the Bronze Age . The three main monotheistic religions of Judaism , Christianity and Islam promoted patriarchal societal structures, and used misogyny to keep women at a lower status. Misogyny gained strength in the Middle Ages , especially in Christian societies. In parallel to these, misogyny was also practised in societies such as
16851-470: The same time as the state . In his book City of Sokrates: An Introduction to Classical Athens , J.W. Roberts argues that older than tragedy and comedy was a misogynistic tradition in Greek literature, reaching back at least as far as Hesiod . He claims that the term misogyny itself comes directly into English from the Ancient Greek word misogunia ( μισογυνία ), which survives in several passages. The earlier, longer, and more complete passage comes from
16988-790: The self-contempt women may be taught to feel toward their own bodies. Sociologist Michael Flood at the University of Wollongong defines misogyny as the hatred of women, and notes: Though most common in men, misogyny also exists in and is practiced by women against other women or even themselves. Misogyny functions as an ideology or belief system that has accompanied patriarchal, or male-dominated societies for thousands of years and continues to place women in subordinate positions with limited access to power and decision making. […] Aristotle contended that women exist as natural deformities or imperfect males […] Ever since, women in Western cultures have internalised their role as societal scapegoats, influenced in
17125-508: The sleeping-places and beat them; then if they obey you, do not seek a way against them..." In his book No god but God , University of Southern California , Professor Reza Aslan wrote that "misogynistic interpretation" has been persistently attached to An-Nisa, 34 because commentary on the Quran "has been the exclusive domain of Muslim men". In his book Popular Islam and Misogyny: A Case Study of Bangladesh , Taj Hashmi discusses misogyny in relation to Muslim culture, writing: [T]hanks to
17262-459: The subjective interpretations of the Quran (almost exclusively by men), the preponderance of the misogynic mullahs and the regressive Shariah law in most "Muslim" countries, Islam is synonymously known as a promoter of misogyny in its worst form.... we may draw a line between the Quranic texts and the corpus of avowedly misogynic writing and spoken words by the mullah having very little or no relevance to
17399-490: The term to include not only a hatred or contempt of women, but the practice of controlling women with violence and punishing women who reject subordination. Misogyny was discussed worldwide in 2012 because of a viral video of a speech by Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard . Her parliamentary address is known as the Misogyny Speech . In the speech, Gillard powerfully criticised her opponents for holding her policies to
17536-565: The twenty-first century by multimedia objectification of women with its culturally sanctioned self-loathing and fixations on plastic surgery , anorexia and bulimia . Philosopher Kate Manne of Cornell University defines misogyny as the attempt to control and punish women who challenge male dominance. Manne finds the traditional "hatred of women" definition of misogyny too simplistic, noting it does not account for how perpetrators of misogynistic violence may love certain women; for example, their mothers. Instead, misogyny rewards women who uphold
17673-662: The verse Galatians 3:28 ("There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus") is "the fundamental Pauline theological basis for the inclusion of women and men as equal and mutual partners in all of the ministries of the church." In his book Equality in Christ? Galatians 3:28 and the Gender Dispute , Richard Hove argues that—while Galatians 3:28 does mean that one's sex does not affect salvation—"there remains
17810-471: The war, Gillies developed a private practice with Rainsford Mowlem , including many famous patients, and travelled extensively to promote his advanced techniques worldwide. In 1930, Gillies' cousin, Archibald McIndoe , joined the practice and became committed to plastic surgery. When World War II broke out, plastic surgery provision was largely divided between the different services of the armed forces , and Gillies and his team were split up. Gillies himself
17947-414: The way the word has been used over the prior 30 years. The book Down Girl , which reconsidered the definition using the tools of analytic philosophy , was inspired in part by Gillard. In Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice , Jack Holland argues that there is evidence of misogyny in the mythology of the ancient world. In Greek mythology according to Hesiod, the human race had already experienced
18084-690: The women are to be "held in common" by men. He never says that the men might be held in common by the women... We also have to acknowledge Socrates' insistence that men surpass women at any task that both sexes attempt (455c, 456a), and his remark in Book 8 that one sign of democracy's moral failure is the sexual equality it promotes (563b). Misogynist is also found in the Greek— misogunēs ( μισογύνης )—in Deipnosophistae (above) and in Plutarch 's Parallel Lives , where it
18221-432: The word girl (or its equivalent in other languages) is still used to refer to a never-married woman; in this sense it is used in a fashion roughly analogous to the more-or-less obsolete English maid or maiden . Different countries have different laws, but age 18 is frequently considered the age of majority (the age at which a person is legally considered an adult). The social sciences' views on what it means to be
18358-494: Was wīf or wīfmann ( lit. ' woman-person ' ) whereas ' man ' was wer or wǣpnedmann (from wǣpn ' weapon; penis ' ). However, following the Norman Conquest , man began to mean ' male human ' , and by the late 13th century it had largely replaced wer . The consonants /f/ and /m/ in wīfmann coalesced into the modern woman , while wīf narrowed to specifically mean
18495-502: Was only around the beginning of the 16th century that it came to mean specifically a female child. The term girl is sometimes used colloquially to refer to a young or unmarried woman; however, during the early 1970s, feminists challenged such use because the use of the word to refer to a fully grown woman may cause offence. In particular, previously common terms such as office girl are no longer widely used. Conversely, in certain cultures which link family honor with female virginity ,
18632-600: Was psychological. The father of modern plastic surgery is generally considered to have been Sir Harold Gillies . A New Zealand otolaryngologist working in London, he developed many of the techniques of modern facial surgery in caring for soldiers with disfiguring facial injuries during the First World War . During World War I , he worked as a medical minder with the Royal Army Medical Corps . After working with
18769-620: Was sent to Rooksdown House near Basingstoke , which became the principal army plastic surgery unit; Tommy Kilner (who had worked with Gillies during the First World War, and who now has a surgical instrument named after him, the kilner cheek retractor) went to Queen Mary's Hospital, Roehampton; and Mowlem went to St Albans. McIndoe, consultant to the RAF, moved to the recently rebuilt Queen Victoria Hospital in East Grinstead , Sussex , and founded
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