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124-609: The Wilson Ornithological Society (WOS) is an ornithological organization that was formally established in 1886 as the Wilson Ornithological Chapter of the Agassiz Association . It is based at the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , United States. It was named after Alexander Wilson , a prominent early American ornithologist. The name of the group later evolved through being generally known as

248-610: A binomial name , categorising them into different genera. However, ornithology did not emerge as a specialised science until the Victorian era—with the popularization of natural history, and the collection of natural objects such as bird eggs and skins. This specialization led to the formation in Britain of the British Ornithologists' Union in 1858. In 1859, the members founded its journal The Ibis . The sudden spurt in ornithology

372-614: A menagerie and sponsored translations of Arabic texts, among which the popular Arabic work known as the Liber Moaminus by an unknown author which was translated into Latin by Theodore of Antioch from Syria in 1240-1241 as the De Scientia Venandi per Aves , and also Michael Scotus (who had removed to Palermo) translated Ibn Sīnā 's Kitāb al-Ḥayawān of 1027 for the Emperor, a commentary and scientific update of Aristotle's work which

496-606: A Latin translation of Aristotle's work on animals from Arabic here around 1215, which was disseminated widely and was the first time in a millennium that this foundational text on zoology became available to Europeans. Falconry was popular in the Norman court in Sicily, and a number of works on the subject were written in Palermo . Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1194–1250) learned about an falconry during his youth in Sicily and later built up

620-553: A centaur is indicative of the unstable alliance of Persian and Mede formulated by Cyrus. He cites the regression of the Persians directly after the death of Cyrus as the result of this instability, a union made possible only through Cyrus. The strength of Cyrus in holding the empire together is praiseworthy, according to Xenophon. However, the empire began to decline upon the death of Cyrus. By this example, Xenophon sought to show that empires lacked stability and could only be maintained by

744-692: A classification of birds, De Differentiis Avium (around 1572), that was based on structure and habits. Konrad Gesner wrote the Vogelbuch and Icones avium omnium around 1557. Like Gesner, Ulisse Aldrovandi , an encyclopedic naturalist, began a 14-volume natural history with three volumes on birds, entitled ornithologiae hoc est de avibus historiae libri XII , which was published from 1599 to 1603. Aldrovandi showed great interest in plants and animals, and his work included 3000 drawings of fruits, flowers, plants, and animals, published in 363 volumes. His Ornithology alone covers 2000 pages and included such aspects as

868-463: A follower of Socrates." Diogenes Laërtius also relates an incident "when in the battle of Delium Xenophon had fallen from his horse" and Socrates reputedly "stepped in and saved his life." Both Plato and Xenophon wrote Apology concerning the death of Socrates. Xenophon and Plato seem to be concerned with the failures of Socrates to defend himself. Xenophon asserts that Socrates dealt with his prosecution in an exceedingly arrogant manner, or at least

992-582: A horse, so much so that the Persians may actually seem to be centaurs (4.3.22–23). Xenophon plays upon the post-Persian-war propagandistic paradigm of using mythological imagery to represent the Greco-Persian conflict . Examples of this include the wedding of the Lapiths , Gigantomachy , Trojan War , and Amazonomachy on the Parthenon frieze . Johnson believes that the unstable dichotomy of man and horse found in

1116-448: A model for many studies in non-mammalian immunology. Studies in bird behaviour include the use of tamed and trained birds in captivity. Studies on bird intelligence and song learning have been largely laboratory-based. Field researchers may make use of a wide range of techniques such as the use of dummy owls to elicit mobbing behaviour, and dummy males or the use of call playback to elicit territorial behaviour and thereby to establish

1240-648: A person of remarkable prowess, such as Cyrus. Xenophon displays Cyrus as a lofty, temperate man. He is depicted as not subject to the foibles of others. He used the example of the Persians to decry the attempts at empire made by Athens and Sparta. Having written the Cyropaedia after the downfall of Athens in the Peloponnesian War , this work criticizes the Greek attempts at empire and "monarchy". Another passage that Johnson cites as criticism of monarchy and empire concerns

1364-556: A philosopher. Today, Xenophon is recognized as one of the greatest writers of antiquity. Xenophon's works span multiple genres and are written in plain Attic Greek , which is why they have often been used in translation exercises for contemporary students of the Ancient Greek language. In the Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers , Diogenes Laërtius observed that Xenophon was known as

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1488-582: A policy of the British Ornithologists' Union to keep out women. Unlike the RSPB, which was primarily conservation oriented, the British Trust for Ornithology was started in 1933 with the aim of advancing ornithological research. Members were often involved in collaborative ornithological projects. These projects have resulted in atlases which detail the distribution of bird species across Britain. In Canada, citizen scientist Elsie Cassels studied migratory birds and

1612-456: A pursuing enemy by the systematic devastation of the country traversed and the destruction of its villages to deprive him of food and shelter. And Xenophon is moreover the first who established in rear of the phalanx a reserve from which he could at will feed weak parts of his line. This was a superb first conception." The Ten Thousand eventually made their way into the land of the Carduchians ,

1736-586: A resource for taxonomic studies. The use of bird skins to document species has been a standard part of systematic ornithology. Bird skins are prepared by retaining the key bones of the wings, legs, and skull along with the skin and feathers. In the past, they were treated with arsenic to prevent fungal and insect (mostly dermestid ) attack. Arsenic, being toxic, was replaced by less-toxic borax . Amateur and professional collectors became familiar with these skinning techniques and started sending in their skins to museums, some of them from distant locations. This led to

1860-454: A rhetorical challenge worthy of the great persuader. By contrast, Plato argued that Socrates was attempting to demonstrate a higher moral standard and teach a lesson. Xenophon's lessons on leadership have been reconsidered for their modern-day value. The Cyropaedia , in outlining Cyrus as an ideal leader, is the work that O'Flannery suggests be used as a guide or example for those striving to be leaders. The linking of moral code and education

1984-403: A spurt of bird studies in this area. The study of imprinting behaviour in ducks and geese by Konrad Lorenz and the studies of instinct in herring gulls by Nicolaas Tinbergen led to the establishment of the field of ethology . The study of learning became an area of interest and the study of bird songs has been a model for studies in neuroethology. The study of hormones and physiology in

2108-510: A temporary truce, and the Greek army retired for a winter camp at Byzantium . In 398 BC, Xenophon captured the city of Lampsacus . The Spartan ephors officially cleared the Ten Thousand of any previous wrongdoing (the Ten Thousand were likely a part of the investigation of Thimbron's failure at Larissa) and integrated the Ten Thousand into Dercylidas' army. Hellenica mentions the response of

2232-924: A tract on falconry, and introduced the words "incubation" and "oviparous" into the English language. Towards the late 18th century, Mathurin Jacques Brisson (1723–1806) and Comte de Buffon (1707–1788) began new works on birds. Brisson produced a six-volume work Ornithologie in 1760 and Buffon's included nine volumes (volumes 16–24) on birds Histoire naturelle des oiseaux (1770–1785) in his work on science Histoire naturelle générale et particulière (1749–1804). Jacob Temminck sponsored François Le Vaillant [1753–1824] to collect bird specimens in Southern Africa and Le Vaillant's six-volume Histoire naturelle des oiseaux d'Afrique (1796–1808) included many non-African birds. His other bird books produced in collaboration with

2356-462: A transparent top and visible cues such as the direction of sunlight may be controlled using mirrors or the positions of the stars simulated in a planetarium . The entire genome of the domestic fowl ( Gallus gallus ) was sequenced in 2004, and was followed in 2008 by the genome of the zebra finch ( Taeniopygia guttata ). Such whole-genome sequencing projects allow for studies on evolutionary processes involved in speciation . Associations between

2480-457: A two-part article in The Auk , noting the tensions between amateurs and professionals, and suggested the possibility that the "vast army of bird lovers and bird watchers could begin providing the data scientists needed to address the fundamental problems of biology." The amateur ornithologist Harold F. Mayfield noted that the field was also funded by non-professionals. He noted that in 1975, 12% of

2604-506: A wild tribe inhabiting the mountains of modern southeastern Turkey. "Once the Great King had sent into their country an army of 120,000 men, to subdue them, but of all that great host not one had ever seen his home again." The Ten Thousand were shot at with stones and arrows for several days before they reached a defile where the main Carduchian host sat. Xenophon had 8,000 men feint and marched

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2728-502: A young boy (present at the banquet alongside his own father). In Oeconomicus , Socrates explains how to manage a household. Both the Apology and the Memorabilia defend Socrates' character and teachings. The former is set during the trial of Socrates, while the latter explains his moral principles and that he was not a corrupter of the youth. Although Xenophon claims to have been present at

2852-467: Is another technique that has the advantage of preserving stomach contents and anatomy, although it tends to shrink, making it less reliable for morphometrics. The study of birds in the field was helped enormously by improvements in optics. Photography made it possible to document birds in the field with great accuracy. High-power spotting scopes today allow observers to detect minute morphological differences that were earlier possible only by examination of

2976-456: Is best outlined in the Histories of Herodotus . Herodotus contradicts Xenophon at several other points. Herodotus says that Cyrus led a rebellion against his maternal grandfather, Astyages , king of Media, and defeated him, thereafter keeping Astyages in his court for the remainder of his life ( Histories 1.130). The Medes were thus "reduced to subjection" (1.130) and became "slaves" (1.129) to

3100-447: Is commonplace knowledge to the mere collector, such as that hunting parties often travel more or less in circles. David Lack's studies on population ecology sought to find the processes involved in the regulation of population based on the evolution of optimal clutch sizes. He concluded that population was regulated primarily by density-dependent controls , and also suggested that natural selection produces life-history traits that maximize

3224-612: Is extinct and all extant ostrich races are today restricted to Africa . Other old writings such as the Vedas (1500–800 BC) demonstrate the careful observation of avian life histories and include the earliest reference to the habit of brood parasitism by the Asian koel ( Eudynamys scolopaceus ). Like writing, the early art of China, Japan, Persia, and India also demonstrate knowledge, with examples of scientifically accurate bird illustrations. Aristotle in 350 BC in his History of animals noted

3348-547: Is often regarded as the greatest ornithological work in history. The emergence of ornithology as a scientific discipline began in the 18th century, when Mark Catesby published his two-volume Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands , a landmark work which included 220 hand-painted engravings and was the basis for many of the species Carl Linnaeus described in the 1758 Systema Naturae . Linnaeus' work revolutionised bird taxonomy by assigning every species

3472-576: Is the first such record of North American birds, significantly antedating Audubon. In the early 19th century, Lewis and Clark studied and identified many birds in the western United States. John James Audubon , born in 1785, observed and painted birds in France and later in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. From 1827 to 1838, Audubon published The Birds of America , which was engraved by Robert Havell Sr. and his son Robert Havell Jr. Containing 435 engravings, it

3596-563: The Bulo Burti boubou ( Laniarius liberatus , no longer a valid species) and the Bugun liocichla ( Liocichla bugunorum ), using blood, DNA and feather samples as the holotype material, has now become possible. Other methods of preservation include the storage of specimens in spirit. Such wet specimens have special value in physiological and anatomical study, apart from providing better quality of DNA for molecular studies. Freeze drying of specimens

3720-475: The Cyropaedia to outline his political and moral philosophy. He did this by endowing a fictional version of the boyhood of Cyrus the Great , founder of the first Persian Empire , with the qualities of what Xenophon considered the ideal ruler. Historians have asked whether Xenophon's portrait of Cyrus was accurate or if Xenophon imbued Cyrus with events from Xenophon's own life. There is a consensus that Cyrus's career

3844-483: The Nabonidus Chronicle , there is mention of the death of the wife of the king (name not given) within a month after the capture of Babylon. It has been conjectured that this was Cyrus's first wife; Cyropaedia' s stated (8.5.19) that Cyaxares II gave his daughter in marriage to Cyrus soon after the fall of the city, with the kingdom of Media as her dowry. The Cyropaedia praises the first Persian emperor, Cyrus

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3968-524: The Symposium , he was only a young boy at the date on which he proposes. Xenophon was not present at the trial of Socrates, having been on campaign in Anatolia and Mesopotamia . It seems that Xenophon wrote his Apology and Memorabilia as defences of his former teacher and to further the philosophic project, not to present a literal transcript of Socrates' response to the historical charges incurred. Xenophon

4092-644: The Ten Thousand while in the service of Cyrus the Younger , Cyrus's failed campaign to claim the Persian throne from Artaxerxes II of Persia , and the return of Greek mercenaries after Cyrus's death in the Battle of Cunaxa . Xenophon wrote Cyropaedia , outlining both military and political methods used by Cyrus the Great to conquer the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC. Anabasis and Cyropaedia inspired Alexander

4216-467: The chicken and poultry techniques. He used a number of traits including behaviour, particularly bathing and dusting, to classify bird groups. William Turner 's Historia Avium ( History of Birds ), published at Cologne in 1544, was an early ornithological work from England. He noted the commonness of kites in English cities where they snatched food out of the hands of children. He included folk beliefs such as those of anglers. Anglers believed that

4340-586: The deme (local district) of Erchia in Athens ; his father was called Gryllus ( Γρύλλος ) and belonged to an Athenian aristocratic family. The Peloponnesian War was being waged throughout Xenophon's childhood and youth. A contemporary of Plato , Xenophon associated with Socrates , as was common for wealthy young men in this period, and probably served in the Athenian cavalry. He appears to have remained in Athens during

4464-421: The osprey emptied their fishponds and would kill them, mixing the flesh of the osprey into their fish bait. Turner's work reflected the violent times in which he lived, and stands in contrast to later works such as Gilbert White 's 1789 The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne that were written in a tranquil era. In the 17th century, Francis Willughby (1635–1672) and John Ray (1627–1705) created

4588-642: The "Attic Muse" because of the sweetness of his diction. Despite being born an Athenian citizen, Xenophon came to be associated with Sparta , the traditional opponent of Athens. Much of what is known today about the Spartan society comes from Xenophon's royal biography of the Spartan king Agesilaus and the Constitution of the Lacedaemonians . The sub-satrap Mania is primarily known through Xenophon's writings. Xenophon's Anabasis recounts his adventures with

4712-506: The 1820s and 1830s, with pioneers such as J. Dovaston (who also pioneered in the use of bird feeders), but instruction manuals did not begin to insist on the use of optical aids such as "a first-class telescope" or "field glass" until the 1880s. The rise of field guides for the identification of birds was another major innovation. The early guides such as Thomas Bewick's two-volume guide and William Yarrell's three-volume guide were cumbersome, and mainly focused on identifying specimens in

4836-454: The 19th century. In 1901, Robert Ridgway wrote in the introduction to The Birds of North and Middle America that: There are two essentially different kinds of ornithology: systematic or scientific, and popular. The former deals with the structure and classification of birds, their synonymies, and technical descriptions. The latter treats of their habits, songs, nesting, and other facts pertaining to their life histories. This early idea that

4960-527: The Birds by Roger Tory Peterson in 1934, to Birds of the West Indies published in 1936 by Dr. James Bond - the same who inspired the amateur ornithologist Ian Fleming in naming his famous literary spy . The interest in birdwatching grew in popularity in many parts of the world, and the possibility for amateurs to contribute to biological studies was soon realized. As early as 1916, Julian Huxley wrote

5084-596: The Elder described birds, among other creatures, in his Historia Naturalis . The earliest record of falconry comes from the reign of Sargon II (722–705 BC) in Assyria . Falconry is thought to have made its entry to Europe only after AD 400, brought in from the east after invasions by the Huns and Alans . Starting from the eighth century, numerous Arabic works on the subject and general ornithology were written, as well as translations of

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5208-592: The Great and other Greeks to conquer Babylon and the Achaemenid Empire in 331 BC. The Hellenica continues directly from the final sentence of Thucydides ' History of the Peloponnesian War covering the last seven years of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) and the subsequent forty-two years (404–362 BC) ending with the Second Battle of Mantinea . Xenophon was born c.  430 BC in

5332-666: The Great , and it was through his greatness that the Persian Empire held together. However, following the lead of Leo Strauss , David Johnson suggests that there is a subtle layer to the book in which Xenophon conveys criticism of the Persians, the Spartans, and the Athenians. In section 4.3 of the Cyropaedia , Cyrus wrote his desire to institute cavalry. He wrote that he desires that no Persian kalokagathos ("noble and good man" literally, or simply "noble") ever be seen on foot but always on

5456-579: The Greeks led by Thimbron lay siege to Larissa . Failing to capture Larissa, the Greeks fall back to Caria . As a result, the ephors of Sparta recall Thimbron and send Dercylidas to lead the Greek army. After facing the court at Sparta, Thimbron is banished. Xenophon describes Dercylidas as a significantly more experienced commander than Thimbron. Led by Dercylidas, Xenophon and the Greek army march to Aeolis and capture nine cities in 8 days, including Larissa , Hamaxitus , and Kolonai . The Persians negotiated

5580-590: The Greeks made an alliance with the locals and fought one last battle against the Colchians , vassals of the Persians. Xenophon ordered his men to deploy the line extremely thin so as to overlap the enemy. The Colchians divided their army to check the Greek deployment, opening a gap in their line through which Xenophon rushed in his reserves. They then made their way westward back to Greek territory via Chrysopolis ( Anabasis 6.3.16). Once there, they helped Seuthes II make himself king of Thrace before being recruited into

5704-473: The Greeks reached the Great Zab river, one of the men devised a plan: goats, cows, sheep, and donkeys were to be slaughtered and their bodies stuffed with hay, sewn up, laid across the river, and covered with dirt so as not to be slippery and be used as a bridge to cross the river. This plan was discarded as impractical. Dodge notes, "On this retreat also was first shown the necessary, if cruel, means of arresting

5828-484: The Greeks to Leucophrys . Dercylidas proposed the new terms of truce to Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus and the three parties submitted the truce proposal to Sparta and the Persian king for ratification. Under Dercylidas' proposal, the Persians abandoned claims to independent Greek cities in Ionia, and the Spartans withdrew the army. In 396 BC, the newly appointed Spartan king, Agesilaus , arrived at Ephesus and assumed command of

5952-686: The Medes were the strongest of the kingdoms that opposed the Babylonians (1.5.2). In the Harran Stele, a document from the court of Nabonidus wrote the same point. In the entry for year 14 or 15 of his reign (542–540 BC), Nabonidus speaks of his enemies as the kings of Egypt, the Medes, and the Arabs. There is no mention of the Persians; according to Herodotus and the current consensus, the Medians had been made "slaves" of

6076-533: The Mediterranean, and Pierre Belon , who described the fish and birds that he had seen in France and the Levant. Belon's Book of Birds (1555) is a folio volume with descriptions of some 200 species. His comparison of the skeleton of humans and birds is considered as a landmark in comparative anatomy . Volcher Coiter (1534–1576), a Dutch anatomist, made detailed studies of the internal structures of birds and produced

6200-499: The Persians 20 years before the capture of Babylon in 539 BC. The Cyropaedia relates instead that Astyages died and was succeeded by his son, Cyaxares II , the maternal uncle of Cyrus (1.5.2). In the initial campaign against the Lydians, Babylonians, and their allies, the Medians were led by Cyaxares and the Persians by Cyrus, who was crown prince of the Persians since his father was still alive (4.5.17). Xenophon relates that at this time

6324-457: The Persians several years previously. An archaeological bas-reliefs in the stairway at Persepolis shows no distinction in official status between the Persian and Median. Olmstead nevertheless wrote, "Medes were honored equally with Persians; they were employed in high office and were chosen to lead Persian armies." Both Herodotus (1.123,214) and Xenophon (1.5.1,2,4, 8.5.20) present Cyrus as about 40 years old when his forces captured Babylon. In

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6448-413: The Persians to detach a major part of their force parallel. Xenophon overwhelmed the force at his ford. Winter has arrived as the Greeks marched through Armenia "absolutely unprovided with clothing suitable for such weather". The Greeks decided to attack a wooden castle known to have had storage. The castle was stationed on a hill surrounded by forest. Xenophon ordered small parties of his men to appear on

6572-486: The Victorian era observed the variations in bird forms and habits across geographic regions, noting local specialization and variation in widespread species. The collections of museums and private collectors grew with contributions from various parts of the world. The naming of species with binomials and the organization of birds into groups based on their similarities became the main work of museum specialists. The variations in widespread birds across geographical regions caused

6696-539: The WOS Annual Meeting. Additional awards from WOS are William and Nancy Klamm Service Award, Edwards Prize, Olson Prize, Early Professional Avian Conservation and Community Impact Award, and Student Presentation Awards (Alexander Wilson Prize, Lynds Jones Prize, and Nancy Klamm Undergraduate Presentation Awards). This article about an ornithological organization is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Ornithology While early ornithology

6820-882: The Wilson Ornithological Club (or just the Wilson Club) until it became the WOS in 1955. It publishes the Wilson Journal of Ornithology (previously the Wilson Bulletin ). It is a member of the Ornithological Council . The premier award made by WOS is the Margaret Morse Nice Medal , first awarded in 1997, commemorating notable ornithologist Margaret Morse Nice . The recipient gives the Plenary lecture at

6944-596: The army from Dercylidas. Xenophon joined Agesilaus' campaign for the Ionian Greece independence of 396–394 BC. In 394 BC, Agesilaus' army returned to Greece, taking the route of the Persian invasion eighty years earlier and fought in the Battle of Coronea . Athens banished Xenophon for fighting on the Spartan side. Xenophon probably followed Agesilaus' march to Sparta in 394 BC and finished his military journey after seven years. Xenophon received an estate in Scillus where he spent

7068-501: The army of the Spartan general Thimbron (whom Xenophon refers to as Thibron). Xenophon's conduct of the retreat caused Dodge to name the Athenian knight the greatest general that preceded Alexander the Great. Xenophon's Anabasis ends in 399 BC in the city of Pergamon with the arrival of the Spartan commander Thimbron . Thimbron's campaign is described in Hellenica . In the describtors, after capturing Teuthrania and Halisarna ,

7192-492: The artist Barraband are considered among the most valuable illustrated guides ever produced. Louis Pierre Vieillot (1748–1831) spent 10 years studying North American birds and wrote the Histoire naturelle des oiseaux de l'Amerique septentrionale (1807–1808?). Vieillot pioneered in the use of life histories and habits in classification. Alexander Wilson composed a nine-volume work, American Ornithology , published 1808-1814, which

7316-440: The behaviour, with many names being onomatopoeic , and still in use. Traditional knowledge may also involve the use of birds in folk medicine and knowledge of these practices are passed on through oral traditions (see ethno-ornithology ). Hunting of wild birds as well as their domestication would have required considerable knowledge of their habits. Poultry farming and falconry were practised from early times in many parts of

7440-431: The boundaries of bird territories. Studies of bird migration including aspects of navigation, orientation, and physiology are often studied using captive birds in special cages that record their activities. The Emlen funnel , for instance, makes use of a cage with an inkpad at the centre and a conical floor where the ink marks can be counted to identify the direction in which the bird attempts to fly. The funnel can have

7564-455: The captains in Cyrus's mercenary army, Xenophon, sailed to Ephesus to meet Cyrus the Younger and participate in Cyrus's military campaign against Tissaphernes , the Persian satrap of Ionia . Xenophon describes his life in 401 BC and 400 BC in the memoir Anabasis . Written years after the events it recounts, Xenophon's book Anabasis (Greek: ἀνάβασις, literally "going up") is his record of

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7688-427: The categories of those that are applicable to specimens and those that are used in the field, but the classification is rough and many analysis techniques are usable both in the laboratory and field or may require a combination of field and laboratory techniques. The earliest approaches to modern bird study involved the collection of eggs, a practice known as oology . While collecting became a pastime for many amateurs,

7812-498: The commander of the Ten Thousand, "But men of Lacedaemon, we are the same men now as we were last year; but the commander now is one man (Dercylidas), and in the past was another (Thimbron). Therefore you are at once able to judge for yourselves the reason why we are not at fault now, although we were then." In 397 BC, Dercylidas' force mirrored the movement of Tissaphernes ' and Pharnabazus ' forces near Ephesus but did not engage in battle. The Persian army retreated to Tralles and

7936-528: The control of behaviour has also been aided by bird models. These have helped in finding the proximate causes of circadian and seasonal cycles. Studies on migration have attempted to answer questions on the evolution of migration, orientation, and navigation. The growth of genetics and the rise of molecular biology led to the application of the gene-centered view of evolution to explain avian phenomena. Studies on kinship and altruism, such as helpers , became of particular interest. The idea of inclusive fitness

8060-530: The cooperation of people and organizations in different countries. Wild birds impact many human activities, while domesticated birds are important sources of eggs, meat, feathers, and other products. Applied and economic ornithology aim to reduce the ill effects of problem birds and enhance gains from beneficial species. Xenophon Xenophon of Athens ( / ˈ z ɛ n ə f ən , ˈ z iː n ə -, - ˌ f ɒ n / ; Ancient Greek : Ξενοφῶν ; c.  430  – probably 355 or 354 BC)

8184-412: The descriptions of bird species. These skin collections have been used in more recent times for studies on molecular phylogenetics by the extraction of ancient DNA . The importance of type specimens in the description of species make skin collections a vital resource for systematic ornithology. However, with the rise of molecular techniques, establishing the taxonomic status of new discoveries, such as

8308-573: The devaluation of the homotīmoi ("equal", or "same honours", i.e., "peers"). Homotīmoi were highly educated and thus became the core of the soldiers as heavy infantry. Their band (1000 when Cyrus fought the Assyrians ) shared equally in the spoils of war. However, in the face of overwhelming numbers against the Assyrians, Cyrus armed the commoners with similar arms instead of their normal light ranged armament ( Cyropaedia 2.1.9). Argument ensued as to how

8432-478: The development of the discipline of landscape ecology . John Hurrell Crook studied the behaviour of weaverbirds and demonstrated the links between ecological conditions, behaviour, and social systems. Principles from economics were introduced to the study of biology by Jerram L. Brown in his work on explaining territorial behaviour. This led to more studies of behaviour that made use of cost-benefit analyses . The rising interest in sociobiology also led to

8556-559: The distribution patterns of birds. For Darwin, the problem was how species arose from a common ancestor, but he did not attempt to find rules for delineation of species. The species problem was tackled by the ornithologist Ernst Mayr , who was able to demonstrate that geographical isolation and the accumulation of genetic differences led to the splitting of species . Early ornithologists were preoccupied with matters of species identification. Only systematics counted as true science and field studies were considered inferior through much of

8680-492: The editorial policy of the journal, leading both to a unification of field and laboratory studies and a shift of research from museums to universities. Ornithology in the United States continued to be dominated by museum studies of morphological variations, species identities, and geographic distributions, until it was influenced by Stresemann's student Ernst Mayr . In Britain, some of the earliest ornithological works that used

8804-457: The emperor for positions and honours; from this point, they were referred to as entīmoi , no longer of the "same honours" but having to be "in" to get the honour. The Spartans wrote nothing about themselves, or if they did it, it is lost. Xenophon, in the Constitution of the Spartans, wrote: It occurred to me one day that Sparta, though among the most thinly populated of states, was evidently

8928-492: The environment. Camera traps have been found to be a useful tool for the detection and documentation of elusive species, nest predators and in the quantitative analysis of frugivory, seed dispersal and behaviour. Many aspects of bird biology are difficult to study in the field. These include the study of behavioural and physiological changes that require a long duration of access to the bird. Nondestructive samples of blood or feathers taken during field studies may be studied in

9052-625: The expedition of Cyrus and the Greek mercenaries' journey to home. Xenophon writes that he asked Socrates for advice on whether to go with Cyrus and that Socrates referred him to the Pythia . Xenophon's query to the oracle, however, was not whether or not to accept Cyrus' invitation, but "to which of the gods he must pray and do sacrifice, so that he might best accomplish his intended journey and return in safety, with good fortune". The oracle answered his question and told him which gods to pray and sacrifice to. When Xenophon returned to Athens and told Socrates of

9176-511: The expression of Bmp4 have been shown to be associated with changes in the growth and shape of the beak. The chicken has long been a model organism for studying vertebrate developmental biology . As the embryo is readily accessible, its development can be easily followed (unlike mice ). This also allows the use of electroporation for studying the effect of adding or silencing a gene. Other tools for perturbing their genetic makeup are chicken embryonic stem cells and viral vectors . With

9300-508: The expression of genes and behaviour may be studied using candidate genes. Variations in the exploratory behaviour of great tits ( Parus major ) have been found to be linked with a gene orthologous to the human gene DRD4 (Dopamine receptor D4) which is known to be associated with novelty-seeking behaviour. The role of gene expression in developmental differences and morphological variations have been studied in Darwin's finches . The difference in

9424-457: The first major system of bird classification that was based on function and morphology rather than on form or behaviour. Willughby's Ornithologiae libri tres (1676) completed by John Ray is sometimes considered to mark the beginning of scientific ornithology. Ray also worked on Ornithologia , which was published posthumously in 1713 as Synopsis methodica avium et piscium . The earliest list of British birds, Pinax Rerum Naturalium Britannicarum ,

9548-439: The fitness of individuals. Others, such as Wynne-Edwards , interpreted population regulation as a mechanism that aided the "species" rather than individuals . This led to widespread and sometimes bitter debate on what constituted the "unit of selection". Lack also pioneered the use of many new tools for ornithological research, including the idea of using radar to study bird migration. Birds were also widely used in studies of

9672-487: The formation of huge collections of bird skins in museums in Europe and North America. Many private collections were also formed. These became references for comparison of species, and the ornithologists at these museums were able to compare species from different locations, often places that they themselves never visited. Morphometrics of these skins, particularly the lengths of the tarsus, bill, tail, and wing became important in

9796-403: The genre of Socratic dialogue . These works include Xenophon's Apology , Memorabilia , Symposium , and Oeconomicus . The Symposium outlines the character of Socrates as he and his companions discuss what attributes they take pride in. One of the main plots of the Symposium is about the type of loving relationship ( noble or base ) a rich aristocrat will be able to establish with

9920-576: The habit of bird migration , moulting, egg laying, and lifespans, as well as compiling a list of 170 different bird species. However, he also introduced and propagated several myths, such as the idea that swallows hibernated in winter, although he noted that cranes migrated from the steppes of Scythia to the marshes at the headwaters of the Nile . The idea of swallow hibernation became so well established that even as late as in 1878, Elliott Coues could list as many as 182 contemporary publications dealing with

10044-471: The hand. The earliest of the new generation of field guides was prepared by Florence Merriam , sister of Clinton Hart Merriam , the mammalogist. This was published in 1887 in a series Hints to Audubon Workers: Fifty Birds and How to Know Them in Grinnell's Audubon Magazine . These were followed by new field guides, from the pioneering illustrated handbooks of Frank Chapman to the classic Field Guide to

10168-504: The hibernation of swallows and little published evidence to contradict the theory. Similar misconceptions existed regarding the breeding of barnacle geese . Their nests had not been seen, and they were believed to grow by transformations of goose barnacles , an idea that became prevalent from around the 11th century and noted by Bishop Giraldus Cambrensis ( Gerald of Wales ) in Topographia Hiberniae (1187). Around 77 AD, Pliny

10292-486: The hill road, and when the defenders shot at them, one soldier would leap into the trees. Then, "the other men followed his example [...] When the stones were almost exhausted, the soldiers raced one another over the exposed part of the road", storming the fortress with most of the garrison now neutralized. Soon after, Xenophon's men reached Trapezus on the coast of the Black Sea ( Anabasis 4.8.22). Before their departure,

10416-439: The introduction of trinomial names. The search for patterns in the variations of birds was attempted by many. Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854), his student Johann Baptist von Spix (1781–1826), and several others believed that a hidden and innate mathematical order existed in the forms of birds. They believed that a "natural" classification was available and superior to "artificial" ones. A particularly popular idea

10540-476: The labels associated with these early egg collections made them unreliable for the serious study of bird breeding. To preserve eggs, a tiny hole was made and the contents extracted. This technique became standard with the invention of the blow drill around 1830. Egg collection is no longer popular; however, historic museum collections have been of value in determining the effects of pesticides such as DDT on physiology. Museum bird collections continue to act as

10664-530: The laboratory and out in the field, and innovations are constantly made. Most biologists who recognise themselves as "ornithologists" study specific biology research areas, such as anatomy , physiology , taxonomy , ecology , or behaviour . The word "ornithology" comes from the late 16th-century Latin ornithologia meaning "bird science" from the Greek ὄρνις ornis ("bird") and λόγος logos ("theory, science, thought"). The history of ornithology largely reflects

10788-510: The laboratory. For instance, the variation in the ratios of stable hydrogen isotopes across latitudes makes establishing the origins of migrant birds possible using mass spectrometric analysis of feather samples. These techniques can be used in combination with other techniques such as ringing. The first attenuated vaccine developed by Louis Pasteur , for fowl cholera, was tested on poultry in 1878. Anti-malarials were tested on birds which harbour avian-malarias. Poultry continues to be used as

10912-452: The larger army of King Artaxerxes II ( Anabasis 1.1.8–11). At Tarsus , the soldiers became aware of Cyrus's plans to depose the king and, as a result, refused to continue ( Anabasis 1.3.1). However, Clearchus , a Spartan general, convinced the Greeks to continue with the expedition. The army of Cyrus met the army of Artaxerxes II in the Battle of Cunaxa . Cyrus was killed in the battle ( Anabasis 1.8.27–1.9.1). Shortly thereafter, Clearchus

11036-456: The most powerful and most celebrated city in Greece; and I fell to wondering how this could have happened. But when I considered the institutions of the Spartans, I wondered no longer. Xenophon goes on to describe in detail the main aspects of Laconia . A short treatise on the Constitution of the Athenians exists that was once thought to be written by Xenophon was probably written when Xenophon

11160-552: The next twenty-three years. In 371 BC, after the Battle of Leuctra , the Elians confiscated Xenophon's estate, and, according to Diogenes Laërtius , Xenophon moved to Corinth . Diogenes writes that Xenophon lived in Corinth until his death in 354 BC, at around the age of 74 or 75. Pausanias mentions Xenophon's tomb in Scillus . Xenophon took a keen interest in political philosophy and his work often examines leadership. Xenophon wrote

11284-454: The niche hypothesis and Georgii Gause 's competitive exclusion principle. Work on resource partitioning and the structuring of bird communities through competition were made by Robert MacArthur . Patterns of biodiversity also became a topic of interest. Work on the relationship of the number of species to area and its application in the study of island biogeography was pioneered by E. O. Wilson and Robert MacArthur . These studies led to

11408-463: The oldest indications of an interest in birds. Birds were perhaps important as food sources, and bones of as many as 80 species have been found in excavations of early Stone Age settlements. Waterbird and seabird remains have also been found in shell mounds on the island of Oronsay off the coast of Scotland . Cultures around the world have rich vocabularies related to birds. Traditional bird names are often based on detailed knowledge of

11532-469: The oracle's advice, Socrates chastised him for asking so disingenuous a question ( Anabasis 3.1.5–7). Under the pretext of fighting Tissaphernes , the Persian satrap of Ionia , Cyrus assembled a massive army composed of native Persian soldiers and Greeks. Prior to waging war against Artaxerxes, Cyrus proposed that the enemy was the Pisidians , and so the Greeks were unaware that they were to battle against

11656-498: The order within the crow family. Where he failed to find five genera, he left a blank insisting that a new genus would be found to fill these gaps. These ideas were replaced by more complex "maps" of affinities in works by Hugh Edwin Strickland and Alfred Russel Wallace . A major advance was made by Max Fürbringer in 1888, who established a comprehensive phylogeny of birds based on anatomy, morphology, distribution, and biology. This

11780-474: The other 2,000 to a pass revealed by a prisoner under the cover of a rainstorm, and at daylight, they pushed in. After the fighting, the Greeks went to the northern foothills of the mountains at the Centrites River, later finding a Persian force blocking the route north. Xenophon's scouts found another ford, but the Persians blocked this as well. Xenophon sent a small force back toward the other ford, causing

11904-499: The overthrow of Athenian democracy under the Thirty Tyrants , and fought democratic insurgents in the civil war of 403-404. Accounts of events in Hellenica suggest that Xenophon personally witnessed tumultuous political events such as the return of Alcibiades in 407 BC, the trial of the generals in 406 BC, and the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants in 403 BC. Personally invited by Proxenus of Beotia ( Anabasis 3.1.9), one of

12028-661: The papers in American ornithology journals were written by persons who were not employed in biology related work. Organizations were started in many countries, and these grew rapidly in membership, most notable among them being the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) in Britain and the Audubon Society in the US, which started in 1885. Both these organizations were started with

12152-468: The primary objective of conservation. The RSPB, born in 1889, grew from a small Croydon -based group of women, including Eliza Phillips , Etta Lemon , Catherine Hall and Hannah Poland . Calling themselves the "Fur, Fin, and Feather Folk", the group met regularly and took a pledge "to refrain from wearing the feathers of any birds not killed for the purpose of food, the ostrich only exempted." The organization did not allow men as members initially, avenging

12276-505: The relative lengths of wing feathers in warblers) are vital in establishing identity. Captured birds are often marked for future recognition. Rings or bands provide long-lasting identification, but require capture for the information on them to be read. Field-identifiable marks such as coloured bands, wing tags, or dyes enable short-term studies where individual identification is required. Mark and recapture techniques make demographic studies possible. Ringing has traditionally been used in

12400-1032: The specimen "in the hand". The capture and marking of birds enable detailed studies of life history. Techniques for capturing birds are varied and include the use of bird liming for perching birds, mist nets for woodland birds, cannon netting for open-area flocking birds, the bal-chatri trap for raptors, decoys and funnel traps for water birds. The bird in the hand may be examined and measurements can be made, including standard lengths and weights. Feather moult and skull ossification provide indications of age and health. Sex can be determined by examination of anatomy in some sexually nondimorphic species. Blood samples may be drawn to determine hormonal conditions in studies of physiology, identify DNA markers for studying genetics and kinship in studies of breeding biology and phylogeography. Blood may also be used to identify pathogens and arthropod-borne viruses . Ectoparasites may be collected for studies of coevolution and zoonoses . In many cryptic species, measurements (such as

12524-401: The spoils would now be split, and Cyrus enforced a meritocracy . Many homotīmoi found this unfair because their military training was no better than the commoners, only their education, and hand-to-hand combat was less a matter of skill than strength and bravery. As Johnson asserts, this passage decries imperial meritocracy and corruption, for the homotīmoi now had to ingratiate themselves to

12648-600: The study of living birds was merely recreation held sway until ecological theories became the predominant focus of ornithological studies. The study of birds in their habitats was particularly advanced in Germany with bird ringing stations established as early as 1903. By the 1920s, the Journal für Ornithologie included many papers on the behaviour, ecology, anatomy, and physiology, many written by Erwin Stresemann . Stresemann changed

12772-499: The study of migration. In recent times, satellite transmitters provide the ability to track migrating birds in near-real time. Techniques for estimating population density include point counts , transects , and territory mapping. Observations are made in the field using carefully designed protocols and the data may be analysed to estimate bird diversity, relative abundance, or absolute population densities. These methods may be used repeatedly over large timespans to monitor changes in

12896-446: The system of retreat [...] He reduced its management to a perfect method." Xenophon and his men initially had to deal with volleys by a minor force of harassing Persian missile cavalry. One night, Xenophon formed a body of archers and light cavalry. When the Persian cavalry arrived the next day, now firing within several yards, Xenophon unleashed his new cavalry, killing many and routing the rest. Tissaphernes pursued Xenophon, and when

13020-457: The trends in the history of biology , as well as many other scientific disciplines, including ecology , anatomy , physiology , paleontology , and more recently, molecular biology. Trends include the move from mere descriptions to the identification of patterns, thus towards elucidating the processes that produce these patterns. Humans have had an observational relationship with birds since prehistory , with some stone-age drawings being amongst

13144-1044: The widespread interest in birds, use of a large number of people to work on collaborative ornithological projects that cover large geographic scales has been possible. These citizen science projects include nationwide projects such as the Christmas Bird Count , Backyard Bird Count, the North American Breeding Bird Survey , the Canadian EPOQ or regional projects such as the Asian Waterfowl Census and Spring Alive in Europe. These projects help to identify distributions of birds, their population densities and changes over time, arrival and departure dates of migration, breeding seasonality, and even population genetics. The results of many of these projects are published as bird atlases . Studies of migration using bird ringing or colour marking often involve

13268-463: The word ecology appeared in 1915. The Ibis , however, resisted the introduction of these new methods of study, and no paper on ecology appeared until 1943. The work of David Lack on population ecology was pioneering. Newer quantitative approaches were introduced for the study of ecology and behaviour, and this was not readily accepted. For instance, Claud Ticehurst wrote: Sometimes it seems that elaborate plans and statistics are made to prove what

13392-562: The works of ancient writers from Greek and Syriac . In the 12th and 13th centuries, crusades and conquest had subjugated Islamic territories in southern Italy, central Spain, and the Levant under European rule, and for the first time translations into Latin of the great works of Arabic and Greek scholars were made with the help of Jewish and Muslim scholars, especially in Toledo , which had fallen into Christian hands in 1085 and whose libraries had escaped destruction. Michael Scotus from Scotland made

13516-568: The world. Artificial incubation of poultry was practised in China around 246 BC and around at least 400 BC in Egypt. The Egyptians also made use of birds in their hieroglyphic scripts, many of which, though stylized, are still identifiable to species. Early written records provide valuable information on the past distributions of species. For instance, Xenophon records the abundance of the ostrich in Assyria (Anabasis, i. 5); this subspecies from Asia Minor

13640-474: Was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian. At the age of 30, he was elected as one of the leaders of the retreating Greek mercenaries , the Ten Thousand , who had been part of Cyrus the Younger 's attempt to seize control of the Achaemenid Empire . As the military historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge wrote, "the centuries since have devised nothing to surpass the genius of this warrior". Xenophon established precedents for many logistical operations and

13764-545: Was a student of Socrates. In his Lives of Eminent Philosophers , the Greek biographer Diogenes Laërtius (who writes many centuries later) reports how Xenophon met Socrates. "They say that Socrates met [Xenophon] in a narrow lane, and put his stick across it and prevented him from passing by, asking him where all kinds of necessary things were sold. And when he had answered him, he asked him again where men were made good and virtuous. And as he did not know, he said, 'Follow me, then, and learn.' And from this time forth, Xenophon became

13888-483: Was about five years old. The author, often called in English the "Old Oligarch" or Pseudo-Xenophon, detests the democracy of Athens and the poorer classes, but he argues that the Periclean institutions are well designed for their deplorable purposes. Xenophon's works include a selection of Socratic dialogues; these writings are preserved. Except for the dialogues of Plato , they are the only surviving representatives of

14012-446: Was also due in part to colonialism . At 100 years later, in 1959, R. E. Moreau noted that ornithology in this period was preoccupied with the geographical distributions of various species of birds. No doubt the preoccupation with widely extended geographical ornithology, was fostered by the immensity of the areas over which British rule or influence stretched during the 19th century and for some time afterwards. The bird collectors of

14136-594: Was among the first to describe strategic flanking maneuvers and feints in combat. For at least two millennia, it has been debated whether or not Xenophon was first and foremost a general, historian, or philosopher. For the majority of time in the past two millennia, Xenophon was recognized as a philosopher. Quintilian in The Orator's Education discusses the most prominent historians, orators and philosophers as examples of eloquence and recognizes Xenophon's historical work, but ultimately places Xenophon next to Plato as

14260-400: Was developed further by Hans Gadow and others. The Galapagos finches were especially influential in the development of Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution. His contemporary Alfred Russel Wallace also noted these variations and the geographical separations between different forms leading to the study of biogeography . Wallace was influenced by the work of Philip Lutley Sclater on

14384-406: Was invited by Tissaphernes to a feast, where, alongside four other generals and many captains, including Xenophon's friend Proxenus, he was captured and executed ( Anabasis 2.5.31–32). The mercenaries , known as the Ten Thousand , had no leadership in territory near Mesopotamia . They elected new leaders, including Xenophon himself. Dodge says of Xenophon's generalship, "Xenophon is the father of

14508-684: Was involved in establishing Gaetz Lakes bird sanctuary. In the United States, the Breeding Bird Surveys , conducted by the United States Geological Survey , have also produced atlases with information on breeding densities and changes in the density and distribution over time. Other volunteer collaborative ornithology projects were subsequently established in other parts of the world. The tools and techniques of ornithology are varied, and new inventions and approaches are quickly incorporated. The techniques may be broadly dealt under

14632-488: Was part of Ibn Sīnā's massive Kitāb al-Šifāʾ . Frederick II eventually wrote his own treatise on falconry, the De arte venandi cum avibus , in which he related his ornithological observations and the results of the hunts and experiments his court enjoyed performing. Several early German and French scholars compiled old works and conducted new research on birds. These included Guillaume Rondelet , who described his observations in

14756-421: Was perceived to have spoken arrogantly. Conversely, while not omitting it completely, Plato worked to temper that arrogance in his own Apology . Xenophon framed Socrates' defense, which both men admit was not prepared at all, not as a failure to argue, but as striving for death even in the light of unconvincing charges. As Danzig interprets it, convincing the jury to condemn him even on unconvincing charges would be

14880-668: Was pioneered by Charles Sibley and Jon Edward Ahlquist , resulting in what is called the Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy . These early techniques have been replaced by newer ones based on mitochondrial DNA sequences and molecular phylogenetics approaches that make use of computational procedures for sequence alignment , construction of phylogenetic trees , and calibration of molecular clocks to infer evolutionary relationships. Molecular techniques are also widely used in studies of avian population biology and ecology. The use of field glasses or telescopes for bird observation began in

15004-445: Was principally concerned with descriptions and distributions of species, ornithologists today seek answers to very specific questions, often using birds as models to test hypotheses or predictions based on theories. Most modern biological theories apply across life forms, and the number of scientists who identify themselves as "ornithologists" has therefore declined. A wide range of tools and techniques are used in ornithology, both inside

15128-530: Was the Quinarian system popularised by Nicholas Aylward Vigors (1785–1840), William Sharp Macleay (1792–1865), William Swainson , and others. The idea was that nature followed a "rule of five" with five groups nested hierarchically. Some had attempted a rule of four, but Johann Jakob Kaup (1803–1873) insisted that the number five was special, noting that other natural entities such as the senses also came in fives. He followed this idea and demonstrated his view of

15252-426: Was used to interpret observations on behaviour and life history, and birds were widely used models for testing hypotheses based on theories postulated by W. D. Hamilton and others. The new tools of molecular biology changed the study of bird systematics, which changed from being based on phenotype to the underlying genotype . The use of techniques such as DNA–DNA hybridization to study evolutionary relationships

15376-436: Was written by Christopher Merrett in 1667, but authors such as John Ray considered it of little value. Ray did, however, value the expertise of the naturalist Sir Thomas Browne (1605–82), who not only answered his queries on ornithological identification and nomenclature, but also those of Willoughby and Merrett in letter correspondence. Browne himself in his lifetime kept an eagle, owl, cormorant, bittern, and ostrich, penned

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