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178-647: Nkrumah founded WANS in December 1945, immediately following the Manchester Pan-African Congress , becoming the new organisation's Secretary-General. Other founder members included I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson (who was elected as Chairman), Bankole Akpata , Kojo Botsio and Bankole Awoonor-Renner (the organisation's first President). Many of the initial members of WANS were also members of the West African Students' Union (WASU). WANS aimed to build

356-659: A big entrepreneurial class in the East from the 1950s. The bank also played a critical part in the rise of the former Biafrans at the cessation of hostilities in 1970. He instituted education program that enabled Nigeria becoming the leading exporter of study abroad in Africa. Azikiwe set up the Eastern Nigerian Development Corporation, which played a critical role in the building of the University of Nigeria at Nsukka,

534-510: A book titled "from Log Cabin to the White House", a biography of James A. Garfield , former president of the United States , who rose from grass to grace. The book inspired him to be determined to succeed in life. Azikiwe heard a lecture by James Aggrey , an educator who believed that Africans should receive a college education abroad and return to effect change. After the lecture, Aggrey gave

712-651: A clerk in a trading company, but only held the job for a year before travelling to Nigeria. In 1930, he helped form the Nigerian Workers' Union, the first trade union in Nigeria . The founder of the union, Frank Macauley, had Communist affiliations, and it is believed that Wallace-Johnson engaged in Communist-related activities during this time. He represented the Sierra Leone Railway Workers' Union at

890-624: A corruption scandal, which resulted in the incarceration of top officials, including the mayor. After being fired from this job in 1926, he left Sierra Leone and became a sailor. He joined a national seamen union and it is believed that he also joined the Communist Party. In 1930, he helped form the first trade union in Nigeria and attended the International Trade Union Conference of Negro Workers in Hamburg , where he established

1068-571: A deal with him to become a stowaway. However, one of his friends on the ship became ill and they were advised to disembark in Sekondi . In Ghana , Azikiwe worked as a police officer; his mother visited, and asked him to return to Nigeria. He returned, and his father was willing to sponsor his trip to America . Azikiwe attended Storer College's two-year preparatory school in Harpers Ferry, West Virginia . To fund his living expenses and tuition, he worked

1246-475: A federating unit. Azikiwe became the premier of the Eastern Region in 1954 after a new constitution was put into effect. Azikiwe's Eastern region economic commission collaborated with Europe and North America in order promote investment for developments in textile, vegetable oil refineries, steel and chemicals in the region. He built the famous Nigeria Cement Company at Nkalagu in today's Ebonyi State , and it

1424-601: A government. Governor General Robertson called on Tafawa Balewa to form a government. On 16 December, Ahmadu Bello and Tafawa Balewa tried to reach a compromise on a possible coalition government between NPC and NCNC . Governor General was informed about the partnership, hence he approved a sixteen-member cabinet proposed by Balewa. On 29 July 1960, the United Kingdom parliament passed the Nigerian Independence Act, 1960, which provided for independent Nigeria. At

1602-560: A gradual change occurred. As he did in the African Morning Post , Azikiwe began writing a column entitled "Inside Stuff", which he sometimes tried to raise political consciousness. The paper's editorials called for African independence, particularly after the rise of the Indian independence movement . Although the paper supported Great Britain during the war, it criticized austerity measures such as price controls and wage ceilings. In 1943

1780-552: A great deal of anti-WAYL propaganda. He wanted to return to the Gold Coast as soon as possible to resuscitate the organisation, but he lacked the necessary funds for travel. His insufficient funds also affected his work in London, but nonetheless, he pursued claims on behalf of Gold Coast citizens. Eventually, his financial situation was so poor that he couldn't afford bus fare or meals and was even evicted from his room after he failed to pay

1958-576: A group interested in establishing a branch of the WAYL there. The Sierra Leoneans expressed genuine interest in the WAYL, but they hesitated to establish a branch there before obtaining a copy of the league's constitution. Wallace-Johnson then continued on his journey before stopping in Paris, where he contacted the International Bureau of Youth in hopes of setting up a meeting with its general secretary. However,

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2136-526: A job as an officer in the customs department in 1913. He was dismissed for helping organize a labour strike but was reinstated to his position a year later. After resigning from his job, he enlisted as a clerk with the Carrier Corps during World War I. After being demobilized in 1920, Wallace-Johnson moved from job to job, before settling as a clerk in the Freetown municipal government. He claimed to have exposed

2314-571: A job as either a sailor on an American ocean liner sailing between the United States and Africa or as an engine hand for Elder Dempster Lines ; in an interview, he stated the former, while in a lecture at the Easter School he claimed the latter. He normally travelled to English-speaking areas, but on occasion, he journeyed to French, Spanish and Portuguese territories on the African continent. He joined

2492-483: A justification for slavery and colonialism by some politicians. By 1936, the WAYL had established 17 branches in major cities throughout the Gold Coast. The WAYL made their entrance into the political arena by supporting the Mambii Party and its candidate, Kojo Thompson, in his candidacy for the 1935 Legislative Council elections. Afterward, Wallace-Johnson equipped himself with new political tactics. He began attacking

2670-449: A membership of 25,000 in the colony and 17,000 in the protectorate, although these figures are believed to be exaggerated, according to Spitzer & Denzer 1973b . The Freetown chapter held biweekly meetings at Wilberforce Memorial Hall where Wallace-Johnson exercised his oratorical skill and urged mass support for the League's initiatives. The government downplayed the immense popularity of

2848-531: A monthly journal, The New African , containing articles in English, French and Belgian, on West African issues, but also incorporating stories from the Moscow New Times . In September 1946, WANS held a joint conference with WASU, which Nkrumah convinced Léopold Sédar Senghor and Sourou Migan Apithy to attend. WANS was considerably weakened after Nkrumah returned to Africa in 1947, and appears to have dissolved

3026-484: A number of contacts. He published articles and edited the Negro Worker , a journal devoted to uniting black workers around the world. He travelled to Moscow, where he claimed to have attended classes on Marxism-Leninism theory, union organisation and political agitation . Shortly after his return to Nigeria in 1933, he was expelled by authorities due to his involvement in unlawful trade union activities. He travelled to

3204-671: A number of menial jobs before enrolling in Howard University in Washington, D.C. in 1927 to obtain a bachelor's degree in political science. In 1929, he transferred from Howard University to Lincoln University to complete his undergraduate studies and graduated in 1930 with a BA in political science. Azikwe took courses with Alain Locke . Azikiwe was a member of Phi Beta Sigma . He then enrolled at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania and in

3382-541: A paper that was susbsequently banned in Sierra Leone. Wallace-Johnson returned to Freetown in April 1938 for what he believed would be a short visit. He planned to return to England to pack up his belongings and then move to the United States, where he would not have to "bother about Africa any more as it is apparent that the people of Africa were not prepared to make a move". He was still upset about his political experiences in

3560-648: A period of significant economic development and expansion. This was countered by negative industrial and social changes, which gave many working class Sierra Leoneans feelings of resentment and disappointment in the government. They were eager for change and a new face of leadership—something that Wallace-Johnson could provide. He offered the same promise for the Gold Coast, but since he was considered an outsider by many, he had limited success and many misfortunes while spreading his philosophies. After landing in Freetown, customs agents seized from Wallace-Johnson 2,000 copies of

3738-623: A regional assembly seat from Lagos, but the opposition party claimed a majority in the House of Assembly and Azikiwe did not represent Lagos in the federal House of Representatives. In 1951, he became leader of the Opposition to the government of Obafemi Awolowo in the Western Region's House of Assembly. Azikiwe's non-selection to the national assembly caused chaos in the west. An agreement by elected NCNC members from Lagos to step down for Azikiwe if he

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3916-578: A revision of the Clifford constitution of 1922. Included in the proposal was an increase in the number of nominated African members to the Legislative Council. However, the changes were opposed by nationalists such as Azikiwe. NCNC politicians opposed unilateral decisions made by Arthur Richards and a constitutional provision allowing only four elected African members; the rest would be nominated candidates. The nominated African candidates were loyal to

4094-646: A speech at Race Course (now Tafawa Balewa Square ) in Lagos at the Independence Ceremony. In his speech he said, "Today's ceremony marks the culmination of a process which began fifteen years ago and has now reached a happy and successful conclusion. It is with justifiable pride that we claim the achievement of our Independence to be unparalleled in the annals of history. Each step of our constitutional advance has been purposefully and peacefully planned with full and open consultation, not only between representatives of all

4272-567: A teaching post at King's College, Lagos ), he accepted an offer from Ghanaian businessman Alfred Ocansey to become the founding editor of the African Morning Post , a new daily newspaper in Accra, Ghana . He was given a free hand to run the newspaper, and recruited many of its original staff. Azikiwe wrote "The Inside Stuff by Zik", a column in which he wrote radical nationalism and black pride which raised some alarm in colonial circles. As

4450-576: A united movement throughout West Africa for independence, on a platform of anti-imperialism . Its view of West Africa was broad, and aimed to include countries as distant as Kenya and Sudan . A major congress was planned, but never came to fruition. Within WANS, Nkrumah organised a secret socialist revolutionary group, known as "The Circle". This group worked closely with the Communist Party of Great Britain . During 1946, WANS published five issues of

4628-441: A village adjoining the capital city, Freetown. His father was a farmer, while his mother was a fishwife who sold her goods in markets in neighbouring villages. Many of his relatives held low-status jobs involving craftsmanship , carpentry and masonry . His poor upbringing and low social status influenced his understanding and empathy of the working class, as seen in his early association with communism and later, his leadership in

4806-477: A written statement that he had been freed. The government was reluctant to take such action until Azikiwe pointed out that the government had opened themselves to this dilemma with their initial deportation proposal to Wallace-Johnson. Shortly after, they agreed to £50 to Wallace-Johnson, with the promise that the rest would be paid once he arrived in England. However, the situation unfolded differently. Wallace-Johnson

4984-464: A young boy, Azikiwe spoke Hausa , the regional language. His father, concerned about his son's fluency in Igbo and not Hausa, sent him to Onitsha in 1912 to live with his paternal grandmother and aunt to learn the Igbo language and culture . In Onitsha, Azikiwe attended Holy Trinity School (a Roman Catholic mission school) and Christ Church School (an Anglican primary school). In 1914, while his father

5162-421: Is a crime to fight for freedom, then by all means, condemn me to death. Were I to be set free today, I cannot give assurance to muzzle my tongue. As for me, my conscience being clear, I shall be satisfied to leave the final verdict to God and His unfathomable river of time. So, proceed to fulfill the pleasure of those who put you here. I shall leave the final verdict to God." His famous phrases travelled beyond

5340-567: Is just but a tool, The Producer as well is only a fool. I employ the Worker at a miserable wage, And pay the Producer the price of a slave. The Declaration of Capitalism by I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson. Besides publishing articles in the Negro Worker and other newspapers, Wallace-Johnson also wrote poetry and essays. Many of his writings have been lost, but those that are available offer insight into his innermost thoughts. He typically portrayed

5518-503: Is to be challenged and liquidated, and if in this mission I am compelled to pay the supreme penalty, then there is no need for me to quake or to quiver. I am becoming convinced day by day that the New Africa is destined to become a reality. No force under the heavens can stem it. Even my death cannot postpone its crystallization.” He was later acquitted by the supreme West African Court of Appeal. Azikiwe returned to Lagos in 1937 and founded

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5696-747: The West African Pilot , a newspaper which he used to promote nationalism in Nigeria, while the Zik Group established newspapers treating topics in politics and economy in important cities throughout the country. The group's flagship newspaper was the West African Pilot , which used Dante Alighieri 's "Show the light and the people will find the way" as its motto. Other publications were the Southern Nigeria Defender from Warri (later Ibadan ),

5874-464: The African Morning Post , Wallace-Johnson decided that the league would have to establish its own newspaper, to be called the Dawn , to cover its activities, ideas and goals. He believed that the league's dwindling support issues would be resolved once the Dawn began publication. The first issue of the weekly newspaper was published on 24 October 1936, but only published on occasion over the next few months as

6052-634: The African Sentinel , a publication that the government considered seditious. Douglas James Jardine, the Governor of Sierra Leone, supported the seize, writing that "[i]t is most undesirable that such nonsense should be circulated among the population of Sierra Leone". Although the Colonial Office rejected the suggestion that the African Sentinel fell under the provisions of the Sedition Ordinance,

6230-499: The British Parliament about working conditions and rights in the colonies. Wallace-Johnson also established a new form of mass demonstrations, in which members of the traditional elite no longer dominated African politics. In Wallace-Johnson's reformation of mass meetings, ordinary citizens could vocalise their political opinions. These people took full advantage of the new system; they frequently lambasted colonial authorities and

6408-512: The British West Africa , Azikiwe advocated as a political activist and journalist, for Nigerian and African nationalism . Azikiwe was born on 16 November 1904 in Zungeru , Northern Nigeria . His first name, "Nnamdi", given to him by his parents is an Igbo name which literally means "my father is alive". His father, Obed-Edom Chukwuemeka Azikiwe (1879–3 March 1958), a native of Onitsha ,

6586-751: The Eastern Guardian (founded in 1940 and published in Port Harcourt), and the Nigerian Spokesman in Onitsha. In 1944, the group acquired Dusé Mohamed Ali 's The Comet . Azikiwe's newspaper venture was a business, as well as a tool for politics and advocacy. The Pilot focused less on advertising than on circulation, largely because expatriate firms dominated the Nigerian economy. Many of Azikiwe's newspapers emphasized sensationalism and human-interest stories;

6764-651: The Fabian Society 's Colonial Bureau, the Labor Imperial Committee and the West African Students' Union to raise awareness of its proposals for amendments to the 1922 constitution. Included in the NCNC proposals was consultation with Africans about changes to the Nigerian constitution, more power to the regional House of Assemblies and limiting the powers of the central Legislative Council to defense, currency and foreign affairs. The delegation submitted its proposals to

6942-543: The Gold Coast , where he quickly established himself as a political activist and a journalist. An agitator, he managed a fund to finance the appeal of the nine African Americans given the death penalty in the Scottsboro case and also campaigned for legislation on workers' compensation and strict safety regulations after the deadly Prestea mining disaster of June 1934. In his writings during this era, Wallace-Johnson glorified

7120-561: The Gold Coast . Colonial governments perceived the Negro Worker to be a threat to peace and stability in the regions and quickly banned the distribution of the publication. In 1933, he became a member of the editorial board of the Negro Worker . Afterward, he met many prominent black Communists and attended the International Labor and Defence Conference in Moscow, where he remained for almost 18 months. He claimed that he pursued studies at

7298-485: The Gold Coast Independent , in which they reminded the WAYL that freedom of opinion did not entitle someone to "go out of their way to insult, abuse, slander, or libel any one". Wallace-Johnson was subjected to more attacks in the press; the Gold Coast Independent referred to Wallace-Johnson as a "jobless extremist" and stated that as a foreigner, he had no right to involve in Gold Coast elections. In July 1935,

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7476-624: The Gold Coast Spectator and the Vox Populi . Wallace-Johnson had the final word after publishing a group of articles in the Vox Populi profiling the conflict, entitled "The Gold Coast Independent and Myself". He also briefly associated with the Friends of Ashanti Freedom Society, a group composed of young educated men who opposed the restoration of the Ashanti Empire . The men believed that if

7654-587: The Negro Welfare Association and Reginald Bridgeman of the League Against Imperialism , two strong contacts he had made years before in Accra. Ward and Bridgeman sought to publicise Wallace-Johnson's objectives for colonial reform. Using a cautionary approach, the two men suggested that Wallace-Johnson seek the support of sympathetic members of Parliament, make another attempt at meeting with

7832-554: The Negro Worker and others had attended the First International Conference of Negro Workers. Many individuals voiced their anticolonial sentiments in privately operated newspapers. One noteworthy group of men who had strong anticolonial sentiments met at the house of Joseph Ocquaye, the founder of a private school in Nsawam and manager of the Vox Populi newspaper. These men, all respected in their communities, belonged to

8010-463: The Negro Worker , the Conference's journal devoted to creating solidarity among black workers around the world. The journal advocated workers to take a proactive approach in addressing their work-related problems, instead of waiting for their employers or governments to address the issues. The publication's platform greatly influenced Wallace-Johnson's later union-related activities in Sierra Leone and

8188-531: The Pilot introduced sports coverage and a women's section, increasing coverage of Nigerian events compared with the competing news source Daily Times (which emphasized expatriate and foreign-news-service stories). The Pilot 's initial run was 6,000 copies daily; at its peak in 1950, it was printing over 20,000 copies. Azikiwe founded other business ventures (such as the African Continental Bank and

8366-698: The Second Italo-Abyssinian War , Wallace-Johnson and the WAYL vocalised their harsh sentiments toward European imperialism and helped establish the Ethiopian Defense Fund with the purpose of educating the populaces on matters of national and racial importance. In 1936, Wallace-Johnson was arrested for sedition after publishing an article in the African Morning Post condemning Christianity, European civilisation and imperialism. The colonial governor proposed that he be deported in lieu of being put on trial. After Wallace-Johnson accepted this offer,

8544-488: The Secretary of State for the Colonies assessed the case. During the one-year break, he held jobs as a surveyor , farmer, fisher and a clerk in a law office. He was very popular as a lay preacher among rural villagers. He was interested in joining the ministry, but he lacked the proper education needed to enter the occupation. All during this time, he wrote articles in the Aurora , a newspaper edited by H. C. Bankole-Bright . Wallace-Johnson considered Bankole-Bright to be

8722-445: The Soviet Union as a haven of freedom or capitalist systems like the one in the United States as corrupt. His two most famous works, Das Sdrarstwuiet and The Declaration of Capitalism , were published multiple times in the Negro Worker and were widely received by the general public. In Das Sdrarstwuiet , Wallace-Johnson praised the freedoms given to citizens in the Soviet Union, while in The Declaration of Capitalism , he described

8900-423: The United States where he was called Ben Azikiwe , and attended Storer College , Columbia University , the University of Pennsylvania and Howard University . He contacted colonial authorities with a request to represent Nigeria at the 1932 Los Angeles Olympics since he was also an athlete. He returned to Africa in 1934, where he started working as a journalist in Gold Coast (present day Ghana ). During

9078-401: The University of Pennsylvania simultaneously in 1930, receiving a master's degree in religion and philosophy from Lincoln University in 1932 and a master's degree in anthropology from the University of Pennsylvania in 1933. Azikiwe became a graduate-student instructor in the history and political-science departments at Lincoln University , where he created a course in African history. He

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9256-416: The "old school" generation of politicians, who he believed couldn't lead the future generations. He stated that "the work needs renewed zeal and energy. It needs new ideas and new visions." In one of the rare occasions that he agreed with Wallace-Johnson, Azikiwe voiced support for his colleague's statements in the African Morning Post . The political elite responded to Wallace-Johnson in a scathing article in

9434-432: The Aborigines Rights Protection Society, a once popular political force. They intended to either revive the political influence the society carried or to create a new organisation altogether. The group, which became the predecessor to the Gold Coast chapter of the West African Youth League, found a fresh dynamic leader in Wallace-Johnson. Wallace-Johnson did not immediately involve himself in Gold Coast politics. He surveyed

9612-427: The Anti-Colour Bar Movement (ACBM) in Kano, which was opposed to racial discrimination segregating whites and blacks in Nigeria. The ACBM later dissolved into the larger Zikist Movement. Similar to Balogun, in 1948, Abdallah was dismissed from his job with the Kano Rediffusion Service, a radio broadcasting service. The dismissal led him to get more involved with the Zikist Movement. He was fired because his involvement in

9790-422: The British Council sponsored eight West African editors (including Azikiwe), and he and six other editors used the opportunity to raise awareness of possible political independence. The journalists signed a memorandum calling for gradual socio-political reforms, including abrogation of the crown colony system, regional representation and independence for British West African colonies by 1958 or 1960. The memorandum

9968-410: The Communist government of the Soviet Union and expressed his disdain for capitalist societies. Soon, the colonial government passed the Sedition Act, a piece of legislation prohibiting the importation of "seditious" literature, which included works from the Negro Worker . In 1934, Wallace-Johnson became the subject of scathing articles in the Gold Coast Independent , in which he was accused of ruining

10146-445: The Conservative government regarding how they intended to address the matter. I am a fraud! I swindle the people and steal all their good. I extort from the poor and pilfer his food. I reap where I sow not, nor ever had strewn, And gather from where another had sown. I cheat and extort throughout the long day, And grab for my pocket from wherever I may. I look at the beggar, with an eye, – just "a fun." The Worker, as well,

10324-407: The Emergency Act adopted at the start of World War II earlier that day. Wallace-Johnson was put on trial without a jury (who would have been sympathetic to his cause, as had been seen in previous cases against him) and received a 12-month prison sentence. He was held at Sherbro Island before being released in 1944. He returned to political activism, but found the WAYL in a state of disarray. He merged

10502-425: The Ethiopia Defense Committee, with the specific goal of educating the Gold Coast of the plight of the Ethiopians and on "matters of racial and national importance" once the war was over. However, soon after, the league encountered some internal conflicts. Some members of the Ex-Servicemen's Association accused Wallace-Johnson of taking some of the money raised for the Ethiopian Defense Fund. Immediately, he resigned as

10680-709: The European has a god in whom he believes and whom he is representing in his churches all over Africa. He believes in the god whose name is spelt Deceit. He believes in the god whose law is "Ye strong, you must weaken the weak". Ye "civilised" Europeans, you must "civilise" the "barbarous" Africans with machine guns. Ye "Christian" Europeans, you must "Christianise" the "pagan" Africans with bombs, poison gases, etc. — Excerpt from May 1936 African Morning Post article which led to sedition trial The women’s resistance against British taxation in 1929 witnessed an extraordinary massacre of women in Opobo by British commanded soldiers and other areas in eastern region. Azikiwe, hearing of

10858-401: The Gold Coast and even considered withdrawing from political activism entirely, but he came to realise that his homeland Sierra Leone would be a perfect breeding ground for his political ideas and philosophies. The people of Sierra Leone, mostly the Krios, had lost confidence in their leaders and British colonial authorities during the 1920s. After the Great Depression , Sierra Leone experienced

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11036-433: The House of Representatives. Azikiwe's National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) came first with 2,594,577 votes and 89 seats. Awolowo’s Action Group (AG), came 2nd with 1,992, 364 votes and 75 seats. Tafawa Balewa’s Northern People’s Congress (NPC) came 3rd with 1,922,179 and 148 of the 312 seats in the House of Representatives. The three major political parties in the election could not get enough seats to form

11214-403: The International Trade Union Conference of Negro Workers in Hamburg , Germany in July 1930 under the alias E. Richards. Speakers at the conference addressed concerns "relating to the economic situations and working conditions of the Negro workers". He established a number of contacts at the conference and was elected to its presidium . Under the alias Wal. Daniels, he began publishing articles in

11392-418: The King Tom Docks Workers' Union, the All Seamen's Union, the Bonthe Amalgamated Workers' Union, the Pepel and Marampa Miners Workers' Union, and the Motorists' Union. Each union's objective was to obtain increased wages and better working conditions through collective bargaining . Nnamdi Azikiwe Nnamdi Benjamin Azikiwe (16 November 1904 – 11 May 1996), commonly referred to as Zik of Africa ,

11570-497: The Nigerian Youth Movement, creating a rift between the factions and a press war between Azikiwe's Pilot and the NYM's Daily Service. The youth rallied to fight against the colonial autocracy of Great Britain. One such group of young people were the Zikists. A non violent youth movement - led by Kolawole Balogun, Raji Abdallah , Osita Agwuna , M. C. K. Ajuluchukwu and Abiodun Aloba - was established in 1946 to defend Azikiwe's life and his ideals of self-government. Kola Balogun

11748-415: The Penny Restaurant) at this time, and used his newspapers to advertise them. Before World War II , the West African Pilot was seen as a paper trying to build a circulation base rather than overtly radical. The paper's editorials and political coverage focused on injustice to Africans, criticism of the colonial administration and support for the ideas of the educated elites in Lagos. However, by 1940,

11926-399: The People's University of the East in Marxist-Leninist theory, political activism, and trade union organisation and roomed with Jomo Kenyatta , the future first President of Kenya . It was here that he became influenced by the pan-Africanist George Padmore , who was the Comintern -appointed coordinator of Communist activities among blacks. He returned to Lagos , Nigeria, in 1933, but

12104-406: The Union Jack with all my heart. Because save in Britain, wherever it goes; far from uniting, it divides the people. I have nothing against King George VI of England. But hate the Crown of Britain with all my heart. Because to me and my countrymen, it is a symbol of oppression, a symbol of persecution and in short, a material manifestation of iniquity. We have passed the age of petition. We have passed

12282-500: The United Kingdom National Seamen's Union and supposedly edited the Seafarer , a newsletter which he and other black sailors distributed among ship crews. During his time off, he studied the working conditions for employees at ports along the western coast of Africa. It is believed that he joined the Communist Party during his time as a sailor, as the party had a history of recruiting among sailors who frequently visited seamen's clubs in port cities. In 1929, he began working in Sekondi as

12460-533: The WAYL started to unravel, as no individual was capable of leading the organisation as Wallace-Johnson had. Membership declined as employers and government officials threatened members with job dismissal or physical violence. The acting organising secretary stated that it was difficult to get back these members, since they were so dependent on their employers or the government. It was reported that in some branches, only five or six members would show up at meetings. In his absence, Wallace-Johnson's political enemies spread

12638-424: The WAYL, believing that the massive attendance at meetings was due to the "entertainment value" of speeches. In spite of that, the government had police spies keep track of the goings-on of the meetings. According to Spitzer & Denzer 1973b , Wallace-Johnson's success with the WAYL was attributed to his "concrete militant efforts to publicize and combat the economic, political, and social dissatisfaction which by

12816-509: The West African labour movement. Wallace-Johnson received his primary education at Centenary Tabernacle Day School before entering United Methodist Collegiate School in 1911. There, he engaged in numerous leadership activities. On one such occasion, he led his classmates in a protest against unreasonable punishment by school authorities. He also edited the school's newspaper, Wall Paper . He dropped out two years later to support his family. He

12994-590: The West African newspaper industry, demonstrating that English-language journalism could be successful. By 1950, the five leading African-run newspapers in the Eastern Region (including the Nigerian Daily Times ) were outsold by the Pilot . On 8 July 1945, the Nigerian government banned Azikiwe's West African Pilot and Daily Comet for misrepresenting information about a general strike. Although Azikiwe acknowledged this, he continued publishing articles about

13172-425: The West African people through "economic, social and political emancipation". As Wallace-Johnson wrote in the Negro Worker , the league was trying to drive "towards the establishing of a foundation for national independence". The rhetoric of Wallace-Johnson and the WAYL used Marxist phraseology and Christian imagery in their political thought, but opposed European interpretations of Christianity because of its use as

13350-581: The Western Region (where Azikiwe stood), two parties were dominant: Azikiwe's NCNC and the Action Group . Elections for the Western Regional Assembly were held in September and December 1951 because the constitution allowed an electoral college to choose members of the national legislature; an Action Group majority in the house might prevent Azikiwe from going to the House of Representatives. He won

13528-579: The Zikist Movement was considered too overtly political for a civil servant. Abdallah was later arraigned on November 7, 1948 at the Lagos High Court, where he gave a speech, thus saying, "This is an important day indeed. The most important, perhaps in the history of our country. I call it the most-important because it is today that we have to decide, whether we are to be free or remain hereditary bondsmen, who knows not that they must be free?" "I hate

13706-615: The Zikist Movement, allowing Nduka Eze to emerge as president, after Abdallah's imprisonment, and Mokwugo Okoye as secretary-general. Zikists, in time, outgrew the NCNC, becoming more nationalist than their parent organization. Colonial officers deemed the Zikist movement an unlawful society and promulgated an Order-in-Council, outrightly banning the Zikist Movement on April 12, 1950. The group later dismantled and its members transitioned to politics, business, and traditional rulership. In 1945, British governor Arthur Richards presented proposals for

13884-537: The absence of any' government of the people by the people and for the people of Nigeria'; I am henceforth, not bound to obey any law, other than the Nigerian Native Laws, Customs and International Laws. Therefore, I shall pay no more tax to this Government.Because if you pay, they will use that money to perpetuate their domination over you." Upon his sentence, he reacted in mitigation to the presiding judge, Justice Gregg, saying, "if you sincerely believe that it

14062-523: The affairs of Africa's most populous nation, attaining the rare status of a truly national hero who came to be admired across the regional and ethnic lines dividing his country." Azikiwe became active in the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM), the country's first nationalist organization. Although he supported Samuel Akisanya as the NYM candidate for a vacant seat in the Legislative Council in 1941, while

14240-473: The age of resolution. We have passed the age of diplomacy. This is the age of action. Plain, blunt and positive action. Therefore, I am here this evening, to call a spade a spade, an axe an axe, and a machete, a machete." "Today, I, Habibu Raji Abdallah, by the grace of God, President General of the Zikist Movement and Field Secretary of the NCNC, do hereby, declare myself a free and independent citizen of Nigeria. I owe no allegiance to any foreign Government, and in

14418-535: The biographies of President A. Garfield and Abraham Lincoln, the Marcus Garvey Pan Africanism and the existence of assistances for indigent students, which was not available in Britain. Determined to travel abroad for further education, Azikiwe applied to universities in the U.S. He was admitted by Storer College , contingent on his finding a way to America. To reach America, he contacted a seaman and made

14596-425: The borders of Nigeria and was adopted by Kwame Nkrumah 's Convention Peoples Party (CPP) of the Gold Coast (now Ghana ). The Colonial Government did not take kindly to the revolutionary undertones of Abdallah's message. As a result, Abdallah along with nine other leaders of the Zikist Movement were arrested and charged with sedition. This crackdown on Zikist leadership led to another round of reorganization within

14774-561: The bureau's general secretary and edited its paper, Africa and the World . He used the new affiliation between the WAYL and the bureau to address West African problems to the British general public. The bureau, similar in design and organisation to the WAYL, intended to inform the public about the grievances faced by those in West Africa and created a list of desired reforms and freedoms that would help

14952-524: The club went on to win both the Lagos League and the War Memorial Cup. After these victories, Nnamdi opened up more ZAC branches throughout Nigeria. During the war years ZAC would go on tours. They would usually play a match in front of a couple thousand fans and after the match, they would speak out about the injustices that was brought about by the British colonization. ZAC matches would happen all over

15130-487: The colonial government, and would not aggressively seek self-government. Another basis of opposition was little input for the advancement of Africans to senior civil-service positions. The NCNC prepared to argue its case to the new Labour government of Clement Attlee in Britain. A tour of the country was begun to raise awareness of the party's concerns and to raise money for the UK protest. NCNC president Herbert Macaulay died during

15308-535: The colonial secretary, but little was done to change to Richards' proposals. The Richards constitution took effect in 1947, and Azikiwe contested one of the Lagos seats to delay its implementation. Under the Richards constitution, Azikiwe was elected to the Legislative Council in a Lagos municipal election from the National Democratic Party (an NCNC subsidiary). He and the party representative did not attend

15486-585: The colonies' problems could apply pressure on their government to get the laws revoked. Wallace-Johnson's plan worked: two members of Parliament, who felt that the new laws were unreasonable, questioned the colonial secretary about the Sedition Act. From September 1934, Wallace-Johnson became the subject of scathing articles in the Gold Coast Independent . The headline of one such article read "Meddlesome Wallace-Johnson Must Either Shut Up or Get Out: The Gold Coast Wants Helpers Not Rabid Confusionists." The author of

15664-646: The colonies. The bureau also hoped to encourage new West African trade unions to affiliate themselves with the British labour movement. To further its interests, the bureau held weekly meetings at Hyde Park , where members discussed labour strikes in the Caribbean and Ethiopia . It also supplied speakers to branches of the Labour Party, trade unions and the League of Nations Union and provided questions to be asked in front of Parliament regarding legislation, working conditions and trade union regulations. During this time,

15842-704: The corruption. His exact role in the affair is not known, but no Sierra Leoneans ever challenged the veracity of his claim. In the aftermath of the scandal, the British revoked Freetown's rights to complete municipal self-government, believing that Africans, no matter how educated they were, could not govern themselves. After being fired from his municipal government job in 1926, Wallace-Johnson left Sierra Leone to pursue other activities. According to Spitzer & Denzer 1973a , biographical details regarding Wallace-Johnson's activities during this time period are hard to discern, as Wallace-Johnson contradicted himself in his autobiographical notes and his personal reminisces. He took

16020-531: The cost of taking a case to the Privy Council was approximately 1,000 pounds, Wallace-Johnson immediately suspected that Gold Coast authorities had known that the cost of appeal would place the league in financial ruin. Wallace-Johnson left for London in February 1937 to appeal his case in front of the Privy Council and to also establish contacts for the WAYL. On his journey, he first stopped at Freetown to meet with

16198-551: The council's secretary-general in 1946. NCNC was made up of nationalist parties, cultural associations, and labour movements including National Democratic Party, Nigerian Union of Students, Market Women Unions, etc. The party was the third political party formed in Nigeria after the Nigerian National Democratic Party (also founded by Herbert Macaulay), and the Nigerian Youth Movement. Notable members of

16376-735: The country's first indigenous, full fledged university, in 1960. The University of Nigeria was founded on 18 May 1955, after a law to establish the University was passed under the joint auspices of the Inter-University Council for Higher Education and Overseas and the International Co-operation Administration (now USAID), J.W. Cook (VC of University of Exeter), Dr John A. Hannah (President of Michigan State University), and Dr Glen L. Taggart, Dean of International Programmes (MSU), came to Nigeria in 1958. The team surveyed

16554-461: The country, and it made the people of Nigeria feel a sense of unity and nationalism that would help them fight for freedom. In 1949, some ZAC players participated in a tour of England. On the return from the tour they stopped in Freetown, Sierra Leone, and Nigeria defeated the locals by 2 goals. This victory was more than a decade before Nigerian independence, but it marked the birth of Nigeria's National Team. Finally, after years of struggle, in 1959

16732-483: The country. Governor Arnold Weinholt Hodson wrote to the Colonial Office, asking for suggestions: I do wish that you could suggest some plan whereby I could get rid of Wallace Johnson. He is in the employ of the Bolsheviks and is doing a certain amount of harm by getting hold of young men for his "Youth League." He just keeps within the law; but only just. At many of his meetings he says outrageous and criminal things but

16910-603: The criteria of seditious literature were the Negro Worker , publications of the International Committee of Negro Workers and the League against Imperialism , and all works by George Padmore and Nancy Cunard . Attached to the seditions legislation was a waterworks bill, which would tax the municipalities of Accra, Sekondi, and Cape Coast . These bills sparked political agitation by the social elite, who didn't want their freedom of speech and expression to be restricted, and by

17088-405: The editor, he promoted pro-African nationalist agendas. Yuri Smertin described his writing as, "passionately denunciatory articles and public statements which censured the existing colonial order: the restrictions on the African's right to express their opinions, and racial discrimination ". Yuri also criticized those Africans who belonged to the 'elite' of colonial society and favoured retaining

17266-432: The elite, but they were for Thompson's supporters. To combat this deficiency, the league employed some legal and illegal practices to make sure his supporters would be able to cast their vote. In one practice, the supporters who lacked suffrage were given fraudulent town council receipts, which stated their eligibility to vote. They were also given campaign badges for the opposing candidate to avoid possible discrimination at

17444-607: The empire was restored, they would be denied a voice in political decision-making. Wallace-Johnson forwarded the group's petition against restoration to the League against Imperialism, but the league refused to support the group's request. Afterward, he wrote a pamphlet, describing his support for the restoration of the Ashanti Empire. In 1935, Wallace-Johnson met Nnamdi Azikiwe , the future nationalist President of Nigeria , in Accra. Azikiwe tried to dissociate himself from Wallace-Johnson's Marxist ideologies, as he believed that there

17622-452: The end of the colonial period. In 1934, Zik was denied the right to compete in a track and field event because Nigeria was not allowed to participate. This happened another time because of his Igbo background, and Zik had decided that enough was enough, and wanted to create his own club. Nnamdi founded Zik's Athletic Club (ZAC) which would open its doors to sportsmen and women of all races, nationalities, tribes, and classes of Nigeria. In 1942,

17800-564: The executive council selected Ernest Ikoli . Azikiwe resigned from the NYM, accusing the majority Yoruba leadership of discriminating against the Ijebu-Yoruba members and Igbos. Some Ijebu members followed him, splitting the movement along ethnic lines. He entered politics, co-founding the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) with Herbert Macaulay in 1944. Azikiwe became

17978-566: The existing order, as they regarded it as the "basis of their well-being. During Azikiwe's stay in Accra , he advanced his New Africa philosophy later explored in his book, Renascent Africa . In the philosophic ideal, Azikiwe argued that "it is a state where Africans would be divorced from ethnic affiliations and traditional authorities and transformed by five philosophical pillars : spiritual balance, social regeneration, economic determinism, mental emancipation and risorgimento nationalism". Azikiwe did not shy away from Gold Coast politics, and

18156-564: The experience to further his agenda in an article featured in the "Negro Worker". He stated that "British imperialists and white-washed missionaries" had tried to impede his fundraising activities. He increased his campaigning for civil liberties and improved working conditions after a June 1934 mining disaster in Prestea killed 41 people. At the time, there was no legislation providing the conditions and guidelines for workers' compensation . Mining companies had poor safety records and they underpaid

18334-548: The families of miners injured or killed on the job. Wallace-Johnson disguised himself as a miner to witness first-hand the working conditions there. His experiences gained him some political leverage, which he used to convince the colonial government and the Colonial Office to pass legislation that would improve working conditions and increase workers' compensation. Miners and relatives of the killed miners also protested at mass meetings, and liberal members of Parliament questioned

18512-524: The first branch of the WAYL in Sierra Leone. The league was an instant success and greatly exceeded Wallace-Johnson's own expectations. The league organised public gatherings, established the African Standard newspaper, founded trade unions and contested local elections. Its program included equality for women, unity for people of all tribes, co-operation between the Sierra Leone colony and protectorate, and higher wages for workers. Wallace-Johnson claimed

18690-701: The first indigenous Governor-General. However, under the Independent Constitution of Nigeria, the governor-general was only a ceremonial head of state. The positions of Governor-General and membership of the Queen's Privy Council placed Azikiwe above party politics. Nigeria's first indigenous Executive Cabinet of Tafawa Balewa included; M Johnson, Bukar Dipcharima, Ayo Rosiji, Aja Wachukwu, Kolawole Balogun, and Victor Mukete (Cameroon), Samuel Akintola, Raymond Njoku, Alhaji Ribadu, Kingsley O. Mbadiwe, Festus Okotie-Eboh, and Allaji Inua Wada. Sir Tafawa Balewa delivered

18868-426: The first political group to make an effort toward including the general population in the electoral process. Wallace-Johnson also campaigned for improved salaries and working conditions for workers, national unity and an increased civic role for women. Through the WAYL newspaper, the African Standard , he published a number of articles highly critical of top government officials. He was arrested on 1 September 1939 under

19046-476: The first session of the council, and agitation for changes to the Richards constitution led to the Macpherson constitution. The Macpherson constitution took effect in 1951 and, like the Richards constitution, called for elections to the regional House of Assembly. Azikiwe opposed the changes, and contested for the chance to change the new constitution. Staggered elections were held from August to December 1951. In

19224-501: The first university established by a Nigerian Regional Government, and in 1963, the first University to award Nigerian degrees. In 1957, Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe addressed British and Nigerian delegates at the 1957 Lancaster House Conference, where the federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was prepared. The meeting which was chaired by the British Colonial Secretary had some Nigerian delegates represented. The delegation

19402-575: The following year. Isaac Theophilus Akunna Wallace-Johnson Isaac Theophilus Akunna Wallace-Johnson (1894 – 10 May 1965) was a Sierra Leonean , British West African workers' leader, journalist, activist and politician. Born into a poor Creole family in British Sierra Leone , he emerged as a natural leader in school. After attending the United Methodist Collegiate School for two years, he dropped out and took

19580-462: The fund's organiser and joint secretary. He then proved to the league that he had not handled the accounts personally, so he could not have taken any money from the fund; however, some members of the Ex-Servicemen's Association remained unconvinced. The WAYL also lost support from Azikiwe, who had become disenchanted with the league's radical activities. Since he refused to cover their activities in

19758-635: The general secretary of the International Bureau of Youth, and contact leaders of the youth movement in England. He immediately started working on Ward and Bridgeman's suggestions. He met with interest groups and Labour Party politicians during the day and delivered speeches at public gatherings and rallies at night. To create a lobby for the WAYL, Wallace-Johnson helped found International African Service Bureau (IASB), with several West Indian political and intellectual figures, including George Padmore , C. L. R. James , Chris Braithwaite , Amy Ashwood Garvey , Jomo Kenyatta and T. Ras Makonnen . He served as

19936-502: The governor had made such a proposition. Hodson claimed that the government did not have a very good case and that they feared the influence Wallace-Johnson and the WAYL had over the populace. He finally decided to accept the proposal after the governor offered him £ 100. He feared that the government was going to set him up by arresting him for "fleeing justice" after his release. He told authorities to demonstrate their act of good faith by releasing his bail bondsman and providing him with

20114-547: The governor had withdrawn his deal and now wanted Wallace-Johnson to stand trial. The activist claimed that the "whole arrangement was a hoax and a dastardly conspiracy to round me up in a more serious charge" and suspected that Thompson was somehow involved in the plot. Wallace-Johnson was put on trial in front of the Assize Court in July and quickly convicted and fined £50. Not all was lost for Wallace-Johnson—the publicity received by

20292-465: The governor went back on his word and had the political activist placed on trial in front of the Assize Court . Wallace-Johnson travelled to London to appeal his conviction and to also establish connections for the WAYL. He returned to Sierra Leone in 1938 and established a number of labour unions, a newspaper and a political movement. He significantly raised membership for the WAYL and helped pioneer issue-oriented politics in Sierra Leone. The WAYL became

20470-501: The ideals of the African-American press, Garveyism and pan-Africanism . Associations & Societies At the start of his career, Azikiwe competed in boxing, athletics, swimming, football and tennis. Football was brought to Nigeria by the British as they colonized Africa. However, any leagues that were formed were segregated. Nnamdi saw this as an injustice and he emerged as a leader in terms of connection sports and politics at

20648-531: The incident generated much publicity and convinced Wallace-Johnson to pursue his political exploits in Sierra Leone. He frequented town meetings to deliver speeches critical of the government's actions. In his articles for the Sierra Leone Weekly News , he criticised major politicians, praised the working class, and urged for the creation of an alliance determined toward fighting for rights and civil liberties. In no other Colony in West Africa do I find

20826-472: The intercepted message, Azikiwe went into hiding in Onitsha . The Pilot published sympathetic editorials during his absence, and many Nigerians believed the assassination story. Azikiwe's popularity, and his newspaper circulation, increased during this period. The allegations were doubted by some Nigerians, who believed that he made them up to raise his profile. The skeptics were primarily Yoruba politicians from

21004-521: The interest of the masses of the motherland, to, sacrifice, if need be, all we have for the progress and liberty of our Country, and Race, and to, ensure happiness to ourselves and our posterity." The WAYL was intended to be an all-West African organisation, even incorporating the people of nearby French and Portuguese colonies, however, this never came about. The WAYL focused on political and economic objectives, which, if reached, would produce "a standard of living worth humanity". Their most important goal

21182-468: The last British official left the NFA, and on 22 August 1960, a few weeks prior to its formal independence, Nigeria joined the world football body of FIFA. None of this would have been possible if it was not for Nnamdi Azikiwe. He united Nigeria through sport and brought about a sense of nationalism that was referred to as 'Nigerian-ness'. Sports Achievements/Honors Membership Personally, I believe

21360-507: The late 1930s affected the lives of the majority of the population". One source of frustration stemmed from the lack of change in unemployment and wages despite the recent discovery of mineral wealth in Sierra Leonean mines. Wallace-Johnson exploited this popular sense of "imbalance between rising expectations and actual living conditions" to rally support for the WAYL. Exploitative mining companies, both public and private, that profited from

21538-419: The law officers tell me that it is almost impossible to get a conviction on the spoken word. While the Colonial Office discussed the possibility of deportation, Wallace-Johnson wrote an article entitled "Has the African a God?" in the African Morning Post . In the article, he condemned Christianity, European civilisation and imperialism and told Africans to go back to worshipping Ethiopia's God. On 6 June 1936,

21716-560: The league into the National Council of Sierra Leone and formed his own political parties during the 1950s, embracing Pan-Africanism and distancing himself from his earlier radicalism. He served as a delegate for Sierra Leone during independence talks in London in 1960. He died in a car crash in Ghana in May 1965. Wallace-Johnson was born to poor Creole parents in Wilberforce , British Sierra Leone ,

21894-519: The league struggled financially to maintain the newspaper. Mary Lokko served as Wallace-Johnson's assistant for a time beginning in 1936, becoming likely the first woman in West Africa to hold a position in a political organization. By 1936, the league had established itself as a powerful force in the Gold Coast political scene. Colonial authorities and the elite class tried to find ways to get Wallace-Johnson out of local politics and possibly out of

22072-613: The league took the motto "Liberty or Death", which caused some alarm among colonial authorities. The league's manifesto was heavily influenced by the Preamble to the United States Constitution : "We the Youth of the Gold Coast (or whatever the section may be established) and of West Africa in general, in order to form a more united body to watch carefully and sincerely, affairs political, educational, economical and otherwise that may be to

22250-511: The lower-middle class, who had resisted the government's prior attempts to levy direct taxes . Mass meetings were held, protests were organised, resolutions were passed and delegations to address the issues were proposed to be sent to England. However, Wallace-Johnson urged the populace not to send a delegation to England. He believed that more could be accomplished if people launched a grassroots movement by organising protests and demonstrations in their home towns. Then, English people sympathetic to

22428-536: The masses in such a miserable state of economic and social disabilities. [ sic ] Instead of progress, after a lapse of twelve years, I find conditions within the colony rapidly declining.... As a people, we have been too lethargic, drowsy and happy-go-lucky.... A very wide margin has been provided for the foreign exploiters—capitalists and imperialists alike—to drive the wedge of divide-and-rule within our social circle: and while we keep grasping at shadows, they [the foreign invaders] are busy rapidly draining out

22606-680: The mineral wealth of Sierra Leone while ignoring the very poor living and working conditions of the workers were consistent targets of his message. Utilizing his previous experiences in the Gold Coast labour movement, Wallace-Johnson helped organise eight trade unions in Sierra Leone: the Public Works Workers' Union, the War Department Amalgamated Workers' Union, the Mabella Coaling Company Workers' Union,

22784-554: The most influential person in his life at the time. Following a 1938 feud, Bankole-Bright would become Wallace-Johnson's political nemesis. A year after being reinstated to his job in the customs department, he quit and enlisted as a clerk for the Carrier Corps during World War I . During the war, he served with a British infantry during military campaigns in Cameroon, East Africa and the Middle East. Wallace-Johnson received exposure to

22962-580: The natural resources of the land for their personal benefits, leaving us in poverty and want.... Now is the time and now is the hour. There is only one way out of our difficulties, and that is to organise and move. Although it has always been asserted by our so-called benefactors that we should take what we get and be satisfied, I maintain as [James] Aggrey did that we should not be satisfied with taking what we get or what has been given us but to use what we have been given to gain what we ought to have. Less than three weeks after his arrival, Wallace-Johnson opened

23140-653: The night of 30 September 1960 the British Union Jack was lowered in a celebration ceremony attended by dignitaries. On 3 October 1960, Princess Alexandra who represented the Queen, opened the country's first Parliament. A new constitution, establishing a federal system with an elected prime minister and a ceremonial head of state was created. The coalition government of NCNC and NPC was in power when Nigeria attained independence in 1960 with Sir Tafawa Balewa as Prime Minister and Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe as Senate President. Soon after, Azikiwe succeeded Sir James Robertson as

23318-553: The occasion, at the eastern house of assembly, to give a speech honoring Prime Minister Nkrumah and recalled how Kwame has been dedicated to the African course. On 1 October 1959, Azikiwe was succeeded by Michael Okpara as the premier of eastern region. On 28 October 1959, Governor general Robertson announced the dissolution of 184-member Federal House of Representatives with effect from 1 November 1959, so that independence election would be held. On 12 December 1959, parliamentary elections were held in Nigeria to contest for 312 seats in

23496-403: The paper supported the local Mambii party. The Post , a local newspaper published a 15 May 1936 article, "Has the African a God?" by I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson , and Azikiwe (as editor) was tried for sedition . He was originally found guilty and sentenced to six months imprisonment. On his conviction, Zik declared, “if because I am an instrument of destiny through which imperialism in West Africa

23674-468: The paper went as far as to say that Wallace-Johnson was responsible for the passing of the Sedition Bill, which they claimed had been introduced just after he had entered the country. Prior to the Legislative Council elections, the biggest problem facing the WAYL and the Mambii Party was the lack of suffrage for many of their supporters. Property and literacy requirements for voting were not a problem for

23852-458: The party included; Fumilayo Ransome-Kuti , M.I.Okpara , J.O. Fadahunsi, Eyo Ita , Margaret Ekpo , Raymond Njoku , F.S. McEwen, Festus Okotie-Eboh , A.K. Blankson, Dennis Osadebay , and T.O.S. Benson. As a result of Azikiwe's support for a general strike in June 1945 and his attacks on the colonial government, publication of the West African Pilot was suspended on 8 July of that year. He praised

24030-504: The police arrested Wallace-Johnson and Azikiwe, who had to be forced by the paper's proprietor to print the article, for sedition, in what the Negro Worker called "another dastardly plot intended to smash the Youth League". While he was imprisoned, Wallace-Johnson was told that Governor Hodson would drop the charges against him if he accepted terms for deportation. Wallace-Johnson was suspicious by this unusual gesture, so he questioned why

24208-820: The political atmosphere and reestablished connections he had made in his trips to Europe. Most of his activities involved political agitation , as he began working with the Gold Coast Drivers' Union, and started contributing articles to local newspapers like the Gold Coast Spectator , the Vox Populi and the Gold Coast Provincial Pioneer . He also helped workers who suffered injustice by preparing legal documentation for cases. Overall, he tried to raise political expectations regarding peoples' rights and their ability to influence political decision-making. Through contacts in London, he arranged for questions to be asked by sympathetic left-wing Labour Party members in

24386-469: The political atmosphere in the country. After meeting Nnamdi Azikiwe in 1935, he formed the West African Youth League , an organisation dedicated to obtaining more liberties and privileges for the Gold Coast population. Wallace-Johnson and the WAYL entered the Gold Coast political scene by supporting Kojo Thompson in his successful candidacy in the Legislative Council elections of 1935. During

24564-433: The political establishment, in general. The idea won Wallace-Johnson widespread acclaim and adulation. He also initiated a fund to assist the legal appeal team in the Scottsboro case in the United States. The case, in which nine young African-Americans were sentenced to death for raping two white women (who were found to have fabricated the entire story), sent shockwaves to liberal and radical political organisations around

24742-405: The political oppression faced by those living in a capitalist society. His writings made him popular in Accra and other major cities in the Gold Coast. Colonial authorities were alarmed by Wallace-Johnson's support base, so they passed legislation prohibiting the importation of "dangerous" literature. Colonial governor Thomas Shenton W. Thomas proposed a sedition bill in 1934, which he believed

24920-538: The polls, as election officials were against the Mambii party and the WAYL. The government and social elite were outraged after Thompson was declared the winner of the election. F. V. Nanka-Bruce , a representative in the Legislative Council, filed a petition against the election return and won his appeal a year later. In national politics, Wallace-Johnson and the WAYL also became active in pressing for passage of mine safety measures and workers' compensation and campaigned for

25098-524: The rent. Feeling increasingly despondent about his situation, Wallace-Johnson wrote in January 1938: I think so far, I have done my best and can hold on no longer. I have been made to suffer just because I love my race and people. But while I am prepared to sacrifice my very life in their interest, I am not prepared to suffer death and privation by cold in a strange country. ... I am now on my last lap. If you do not hear from me again, I am gone. ... I cannot stand

25276-580: The repeal of the Levy Bill and the Kofi Sekyere Ordinance, among other things. Internationally, the WAYL supported causes pursued by liberal black and white groups, mostly focused in Great Britain. During the Second Italo-Abyssinian War of 1935–1936, the WAYL seized opportunity to attack European imperialism , without the risk of sedition . With the Ex-Servicemen's Association, the WAYL established

25454-484: The request. The regional assembly then passed a vote of no confidence on the ministers, and appropriation bills sent to the ministry were rejected. This created an impasse in the region, and the lieutenant governor dissolved the regional house. A new election returned Azikiwe as a member of the Eastern Assembly. He was selected as Chief Minister, and became premier of Nigeria's Eastern Region in 1954 when it became

25632-434: The secretary was out of town, so Wallace-Johnson pressed on in his journey. On arrival in London, he began to plan his upcoming events. Besides presenting his appeal case to the Privy Council, Wallace-Johnson planned to establish a lobby in England to pursue claims on behalf of WAYL members and to campaign for a commission of inquiry into Gold Coast political, economic and educational affairs. He first contacted Arnold Ward of

25810-429: The site at Nsukka, and extensively investigated a great variety of factors pertinent to the establishment of a new university. The foundation stone was laid during the celebration of Nigeria's independence by HRH, Princess Alexandra of Kent, who represented Queen Elizabeth II. Classes began on 17 October 1960 with an enrollment of 220 students and 13 members of the academic staff. It became the first University in Nigeria,

25988-410: The stage of producing orators and resolution-passers. It was necessary for doers or leaders of action to step on the scene and prove that the African has a revolutionary spirit in him. Having begun with his speeches and activities and influenced by Azikiwe's ideas, Wallace-Johnson founded the West African Youth League (WAYL) in June 1935 and was appointed its first organising secretary. The members of

26166-634: The strain any more. I must either go somewhere where I could live in quiet or go out of the world. He decided to return to Sierra Leone, after resigning as organising secretary of the IASB after being accused of stealing money from the organisation. Bridgeman and Wallace-Johnson's other colleagues recommended that he return to West Africa only after his appeal case had been presented before the Privy Council and even offered to pay for expenses. In this period, Wallace-Johnson also contributed to Sylvia Pankhurst 's pan-Africanist weekly The New Times and Ethiopia News ,

26344-563: The strike in the Guardian (his Port Harcourt newsletter). He led a 1945 general strike , and was the premier of East Nigeria from 1954 to 1959. By the 1960s, after Nigerian independence, the national West African Pilot was particularly influential in the east. Azikiwe took particular aim at political groups which advocated exclusion. He was criticized by a Yoruba faction for using his newspaper to suppress opposition to his views. At Azikiwe's death, The New York Times said that he "towered over

26522-430: The striking workers and their leader, Michael Imoudu , accusing the colonial government of exploiting the working class. In August, the newspaper was allowed to resume publication. During the strike, Azikiwe raised the alarm about an assassination plot by unknown individuals working on behalf of the colonial government. His basis for the allegation was a wireless message intercepted by a Pilot reporter. After receiving

26700-552: The teachings of Marcus Garvey, Garveyism , which became an important part of his nationalistic rhetoric. After attending Hope Waddell , Azikiwe was transferred to Methodist Boys' High School, Lagos , and he made friends with classmates from old Lagos families such as George Shyngle, Francis Cole and Ade Williams (a son of the Akarigbo of Remo ). These connections were later beneficial to his political career in Lagos. While at Wesley Boys High school he excelled in his studies and gifted

26878-560: The tour, and Azikiwe assumed leadership of the party. He led the delegation to London and, in preparation for the trip, traveled to the US to seek sympathy for the party's case. Azikiwe met Eleanor Roosevelt at Hyde Park , and spoke about the " emancipation of Nigeria from political thralldom, economic insecurity and social disabilities". The UK delegation included Azikiwe, Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti , Zanna Dipcharima, Abubakar Olorunimbe , P. M. Kale, Adeleke Adedoyin and Nyong Essien. They visited

27056-423: The trial helped increase WAYL membership by more than 1,500. In an anticipation of a guilty verdict , Wallace-Johnson and the WAYL began preparing for his appeal to England's Privy Council and hoped to obtain an English barrister to handle the case. The league asked their members to contribute five shillings to the appeal, but even then, the cost was far too great for the league to finance. After learning that

27234-515: The unpreparedness of the masses. He countered by pointing out the fate of Soviet Russia, where the masses were illiterate and impoverished, and yet when Lenin , Stalin , and Trotsky sounded the clarion; they rallied round them and a new order emerged. I warned him that his analogy was false, because Russia was unlike West Africa; the political, social and economic situations were different. He told me point blank that if Africans depended upon intellectuals or leaders of thought, they would not get beyond

27412-452: The unruly event, wrote an article of condemnation titled ‘Murdering women in Nigeria’ while still studying in the United States in 1930 and a letter which he addressed to the then Pan-Africanist civil rights activist, WEB du bois . While at Lincoln University, Azikiwe wrote his first book titled 'Liberia in world politics' in 1931. Azikiwe applied as a foreign-service official for Liberia , but

27590-468: The various interests in Nigeria but in harmonious cooperation with the administering power which has today relinquished its authority." As a young man I saw visions: visions of Nigeria becoming a great country in the emerging continent of Africa; visions of Nigeria offering freedom to those in bondage, and securing the democratic way of life to those who had been lulled into an illusion of security under colonial rule..I trust that I shall dream my dreams amid

27768-400: The vehement attack article, speculated to be the editor of the paper, told Wallace-Johnson to go to Liberia, where he could become president, or to Nigeria. He believed that if the leader's actions were not suppressed, the "country and its vital interests [would be] in hopeless ruin." Soon after, a press war erupted between the Gold Coast Independent and two papers supporting Wallace-Johnson,

27946-462: The world outside his tiny village. After being demobilised in 1920, he moved from job to job, unable to find a comfortable niche to settle in. While working as a clerk in the Freetown municipal government, a corruption scandal erupted, involving the misappropriations of funds and equipment by top government officials, including the mayor. In his pamphlet regarding municipal governance in Freetown, A Cloud of Doom , Wallace-Johnson took credit for exposing

28124-546: The world. The Communist Party sought to raise funds for the appeal, using the case as proof of the injustices suffered in a capitalist society. Wallace-Johnson used the case to rally Gold Coasters to support their brethren in the United States. He spoke at public events, claiming that black people could not be treated fairly in a white-dominated government. The colonial government, with full knowledge of Wallace-Johnson's political connections and his deportation from Nigeria, detained him for questioning, but did not arrest him. He used

28302-479: The young Azikiwe a list of schools accepting black students in America. After completing his secondary education, Azikiwe applied to the colonial service and was accepted as a clerk in the treasury department. His time in the colonial service exposed him to racial bias in the colonial government. Azikiwe's choice to study in the United States instead of Great Britain was due to influences of Dr. James Kwegyir Aggrey,

28480-525: Was a clerk in the British Administration of Nigeria. His mother Rachel Chinwe Ogbenyeanu Azikiwe (née Aghadiuno) (1883 – January 1958), who was sometimes called "Nwanonaku" was the third daughter of Aghadiuno Ajie and a descendant of a royal family in Onitsha ; her paternal great-grandfather Ugogwu Anazenwu, was the Obi of Onitsha. Azikiwe had one sibling, a sister, named Cecilia Eziamaka Arinze. As

28658-593: Was a Nigerian politician, statesman, and revolutionary leader who served as the 3rd and first black governor-general of Nigeria from 1960 to 1963 and the first president of Nigeria during the First Nigerian Republic (1963–1966). He is widely regarded as the father of Nigerian nationalism as well as one of the major driving forces behind the country's independence in 1960. Born in Zungeru in present-day Niger State to Igbo parents from Onitsha , Anambra State , Azikiwe learned to speak Hausa which

28836-532: Was a candidate for a doctoral degree at Columbia University before returning to Nigeria in 1934. Azikiwe's doctoral research focused on Liberia in world politics, and his research paper was published by A. H. Stockwell in 1934. During his time in America, he was a columnist for the Baltimore Afro-American , Philadelphia Tribune and the Associated Negro Press . Azikiwe was influenced by

29014-500: Was a non member of the movement but a close associate and admirer of Azikiwe, and one of the several youths Azikiwe inspired to study in the USA, alongside Eyo Ita and KO Mbadiwe . Raji Abdallah became the second president of the Zikist Movement, following Balogun's departure to London, serving from 1948 to 1949. He was instrumental in getting northern support and membership for the movement. Abdallah and Osita Agwuna (his deputy) had just formed

29192-531: Was back to Onitsha and finished his secondary education at CMS Central School. Azikiwe then worked at the school as a student-teacher, supporting his mother with his earnings. In 1920, his father was posted back to Southern Nigeria Protectorate , in the city of Calabar . Azikiwe joined his father in Calabar , beginning tertiary education at the Hope Waddell Training College . He was introduced to

29370-616: Was commissioned on 1 January 1955. He built Niger gas. He also established Nigeria's first steel company, Niger Steel. He established Nigeria's first indigenous bank, African Continental Bank (ACB). The ACB's emergence caused the Western Nigerian government to set up the National Bank of Nigeria and the northern government to establish the Bank of the North. The ACB was instrumental to the emergence of

29548-455: Was deported by authorities months later for his trade union activities. He had a tricky relationship with Edgar Parry's Labour Movement. On the invitation of R. B. Wuta-Ofei, editor of the Gold Coast Spectator , Wallace-Johnson settled in the Gold Coast, where he would gain his first experience in mass politics . At the time, there had already been some anticolonial activity in the Gold Coast. A number of Gold Coasters published articles in

29726-418: Was first employed as a temporary outdoor officer at the customs department. Soon, he became a permanent employee of the department. He became involved in a labour strike for increased pay and better working conditions . It is widely believed that Wallace-Johnson led the strike, but this fact remains uncertain. All employees involved in the strike were dismissed, but reinstituted to their jobs a year later, after

29904-446: Was ignored by the colonial office, increasing Azikiwe's militancy. He had a controlling interest in over 12 daily, African-run newspapers. Azikiwe's articles on African nationalism, black pride and empowerment dismayed many colonialist politicians and benefited many marginalized Africans. East African newspapers generally published in Swahili , with the exception of newsletters such as the East African Standard . Azikiwe revolutionized

30082-510: Was led by Abubakar Tafawa Balewa of Northern People's Congress, Obafemi Awolowo of the Action group, Eyo Ita of National Independent Party and Ahmadu Bello of Northern People's Congress. On 3 February 1959, Azikiwe received Kwame Nkrumah (newly elected prime minister of Ghana) who toured eastern Nigeria. He visited eastern region house of assembly with his entourage, Hon. Minister of External Affairs, Mr. Kodjo Botsio and Adviser on African Affairs, Mr. George Padmore . Nnamdi Azikiwe used

30260-434: Was needed to prevent the flow of seditious literature into the colony. He stated, "[e]veryone knows that there are in the world certain seditious organisations, whose aim appears to be the destruction of law and order. These organisations are very active, and hardly a country in the world is free from their attack. In consequence, most countries have found it necessary to protect themselves by law against such attack." Meeting

30438-569: Was no chance that his own ideas were compatible with those of his fellow politician. Both men believed that a renaissance needed to occur in Africa, but they disagreed over the methods of doing so. Each man believed that his own idea would prevail in the future. Azikiwe described his first meeting with Wallace-Johnson as such, We exchanged views and I said that while I thought that it would be practicable for Africans at this stage of development to experience an intellectual revolution, yet an extremist or leftist point of view would be dangerous, in view of

30616-421: Was not nominated broke down. Azikiwe blamed the constitution, and wanted changes made. The NCNC (which dominated the Eastern Region) agreed, and committed to amending the constitution. Azikiwe moved to the Eastern Region in 1952, and the NCNC-dominated regional assembly made proposals to accommodate him. Although the party's regional and central ministers were asked to resign in a cabinet reshuffle, most ignored

30794-443: Was rejected because he was not a native of the country. By 1934, when Azikiwe returned to Lagos, he was well-known and viewed as a notable figure by some Lagosians and Igbo community . He was welcomed by a handful number of people, proving his writings in America evidently reached Nigeria. In Nigeria, Azikiwe's initial goal was to obtain a position commensurate with his education; after several unsuccessful applications (including for

30972-399: Was the first president of the Zikist Movement. In February 1946, Balogun sent invitations to about 20 young men in Lagos, inquiring of their opinion on the national issues. Out of the twenty, twelve of them responded, leading to the creation of the Zikist Movement, as those men became its founding members. Nwafor Orizu coined the term 'Zikism' from Azikiwe which became the movement's name. He

31150-400: Was the main indigenous language of the Northern Region . He was later sent to live with his aunt and grandmother in his hometown Onitsha, where he learnt Igbo language . Living in Lagos State exposed him to learning the Yoruba language , and by the time he was in college, he had been exposed to different Nigerian cultures and spoke three languages. Azikiwe was well travelled. He moved to

31328-411: Was to obtain parliamentary representation for the colonies in London, which would give people a greater voice in government. Like the earlier Aborigines Rights Protection Society and the National Congress of British West Africa , the WAYL sought to protect natural and constitutional rights, liberties and privileges for the African populaces. However, the WAYL was more militant, and eagerly sought to lead

31506-413: Was told by the proprietor of the African Morning Post that the police commissioner needed to see him as soon as possible. Wallace-Johnson suspected that he was being trapped, so he refused to go. He decided that he would rather travel to Freetown before making his own plans to sail to England. However, this proposal was rejected by the government. Kojo Thompson then came to his house and informed him that

31684-408: Was working in Lagos, Azikiwe was bitten by a dog; this prompted his worried father to send him to Lagos, that he may heal and continue school in the city. He then attended Wesleyan Boys' High School, now known as Methodist Boys' High School, Lagos . His father was sent to Kaduna two years later, and Azikiwe briefly lived with a relative who was married to a Muslim from Sierra Leone . In 1918, he

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