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104-520: The Warren region is defined as the coastal sandplain between Cape Naturaliste and Albany. Extending from the ocean to the edge of the Yilgarn craton plateau , for most of its extent it may be adequately approximated as the land within ten kilometres (6 mi) of the coast. North of Point D'Entrecasteaux , however, it extends inland almost as far as Nannup and Manjimup . It has an area of about 8,300 square kilometres (3200 mi²), making it about 2.7% of

208-539: A considerable Tertiary and younger sedimentary veneer of palaeochannel deposits derived from prolonged erosion, sedimentation and redeposition of older cover sequences and regolith as well as the Archaean basement itself. Recognised Tertiary cover sequences include the Bremer Basin , Officer Basin and others. The Yilgarn craton is believed to have remained at or above sea level for a considerable length of time. Some of

312-670: A few of the Western Australian species native to the Stirling Ranges – B. solandri , B. oreophila , B. brownii and B. montana – survive at high elevations. Studies of the south-western species have found the distribution of Banksia species to be primarily constrained by rainfall. With the exception of B. rosserae , no species tolerates annual rainfall of less than 200 millimetres, despite many species surviving in areas that receive less than 400 millimetres. Banksia species are present throughout

416-418: A few of them ever develop fruit, and in some species a flower spike will set no fruit at all. The fruit of Banksia is a woody follicle embedded in the axis of the inflorescence. In many species, the resulting structure is a massive woody structure commonly called a cone. Each follicle consists of two horizontal valves that tightly enclose the seeds. The follicle opens to release the seed by splitting along

520-501: A few years of infection. In southwest Western Australia, where dieback infestation is widespread, infested areas of Banksia forest typically have less than 30% of the cover of uninfested areas. Plant deaths in such large proportions can have a profound influence on the makeup of plant communities. For example, in southwestern Australia Banksia often occurs as an understorey to forests of jarrah ( Eucalyptus marginata ), another species highly vulnerable to dieback. Infestation kills both

624-399: A fluid and/or metal source, or simply reflect a favourable pathway. The greater Kambalda district hosts a world-class nickel-sulfide mining district with a total pre-mining resource of 2 megatons (Mt) of nickel metal. Approximately 1.1 Mt of nickel metal has been produced since 1967, at an average rate of 35,000 tons of nickel per year. The Kambalda Dome is located in the south-central part of

728-401: A head; and recently the large genus Dryandra has been found to have arisen from within the ranks of Banksia , and sunk into it as B.  ser. Dryandra . They similarly have capitate flower heads rather than spikes. Banksia flowers are usually a shade of yellow , but orange , red , pink and even violet flowers also occur. The colour of the flowers is determined by the colour of

832-744: A late phase that resulted in deposition and deformation of the Diemals Formation. Subsequent orogeny (ca. 2680–2655 Ma) resulted in shear zones and arcuate structures. The lithostratigraphy of the Marda–Diemals greenstone belt are similar to the northern Murchison Terrane, but has older greenstones and deformation events than the southern Eastern Goldfields Terrane. This indicates that the Eastern Goldfields Terrane may have accreted to an older Murchison–Southern Cross granite–greenstone nucleus. The Archaean Norseman-Wiluna Greenstone Belt in

936-638: A middle Proterozoic mobile belt which leads east to the Musgrave Block . The Gascoyne complex and other metamorphic belts of this age including reactivation of the Yarlarweelor Gneiss and Narryer Gneiss Terrane , indicate prolonged multi-phased strike-slip movement (relative to the Yilgarn Craton margin) from the late Archaean through to neoproterozoic and even into the Palaeozoic. The Yilgarn Craton

1040-644: A moderate Mediterranean climate . It has the highest rainfall in the state, with annual falls of from 650 to 1500 millimetres (25.6–59.1 in), and a short dry season of only three to four months. The characteristic vegetation of the Warren region is the karri ( Eucalyptus diversicolor ) , at 90m the tallest trees in Australia, in association with the three tingle trees, which are endemic to this coast: rates tingle ( E. brevistylis ) , red tingle ( E. jacksonii ) and yellow tingle ( E. guilfoylei ) . Karri has

1144-427: A number of species are rare and endangered . Banksias grow as trees or woody shrubs . Trees of the largest species, B. integrifolia (coast banksia) and B. seminuda (river banksia), often grow over 15 metres tall, some even grow to standing 30 metres tall. Banksia species that grow as shrubs are usually erect, but there are several species that are prostrate, with branches that grow on or below

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1248-449: A period of years. In some species, old flower parts are lost, revealing the axis; in others, the old flower parts may persist for many years, giving the fruiting structure a hairy appearance. Old flower spikes are commonly referred to as "cones", although they are not technically cones according to the botanical definition of the term: cones only occur in conifers and cycads . Despite the large number of flowers per inflorescence, only

1352-458: A role in pollination of Banksia . Various studies have shown mammals and birds to be important pollinators. In 1978, Carpenter observed that some banksias had a stronger odour at night, possibly to attract nocturnal mammal pollinators. Other associated fauna include the larvae of moths (such as the Dryandra Moth ) and weevils , which burrow into the "cones" to eat the seeds and pupate in

1456-777: A severe problem for banksias that are watered, such as in the cut flower industry and urban gardens. Most of species are shrubs, only few of them can be found as trees and they are very popular because of their size, the tallest species are: B. integrifolia having its subspecies B. integrifolia subsp. monticola notable for reaching the biggest size for the genus and it is the most frost tolerant in this genus, B. seminuda , B. littoralis , B. serrata ; species that can grow as small trees or big shrubs: B. grandis , B. prionotes , B. marginata , B. coccinea , B. speciosa and B. menziesii . Due to their size these species are popularly planted in parks, gardens and streets,

1560-777: A significant pulse of greenhouse gases, as the age broadly overlaps with the youngest glacial deposits. The Southern Cross Province lies in the central area of the Yilgarn craton. The Marda–Diemals greenstone belt in the Southern Cross Terrane can be divided into three layers: the lower greenstone belt (ca. 3.0 Ga) characterized by mafic volcanic rock and banded iron formation, a felsic-intermediate volcanism layer, and an upper sedimentary layer (ca. 2.73 Ga) of calc-alkaline volcanic (Marda Complex) and clastic sedimentary rocks ( Diemals Formation ). East–West orogeny (ca. 2730–2680 Ma) occurred in two stages; an earlier folding phase and

1664-601: A single subregion. Under the World Wildlife Fund 's biogeographic regionalisation of the world's terrestrial surface into " ecoregions ", the Warren region is equivalent to the Jarrah-Karri forest and shrublands ecoregion of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome . Yilgarn craton The Yilgarn Craton is a large craton that constitutes a major part of the Western Australian land mass. It

1768-419: A thick undergrowth of flowers and shrubs such as coral vine ( Kennedia coccinea ) . The most important plant families are Fabaceae (including the colourful wisteria, Hardenbergia comptoniana ), Orchidaceae , Mimosaceae , Myrtaceae and Proteaceae . The karri forest occurs in deep loam, and covers nearly half of the region. Although very moist in winter, it is not considered to be a rainforest because

1872-468: A vital part of the food chain in the Australian bush. They are an important food source for nectarivorous animals, including birds, bats, rats, possums, stingless bees and a host of invertebrates. Further, they are of economic importance to Australia's nursery and cut flower industries. However, these plants are threatened by a number of processes including land clearing , frequent burning and disease, and

1976-427: A woody axis covered in tightly packed pairs of flowers attached at right angles. A single flower spike generally contains hundreds or even thousands of flowers; the most recorded is around 6000 on inflorescences of B. grandis . Not all Banksia have an elongate flower spike, however: the members of the small Isostylis complex have long been recognised as banksias in which the flower spike has been reduced to

2080-565: Is a genus of around 170 species of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae . These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes, and woody fruiting "cones" and heads. Banksias range in size from prostrate woody shrubs to trees up to 30 metres (100 ft) tall. They are found in a wide variety of landscapes: sclerophyll forest, (occasionally) rainforest, shrubland, and some more arid landscapes, though not in Australia's deserts. Heavy producers of nectar , banksias are

2184-504: Is a series of polydeformed high-grade early Archaean metamorphic belts, composed predominantly of feldspathic leucocratic granulite gneisses, which represent some of the oldest crustal fragments on Earth. The Western Gneiss Terrane is distinct from the remainder of the Yilgarn Craton in that the latter has a predominance of metavolcanic rocks, both felsic and mafic , whereas the former consists of high-grade metasediments and gneisses of unknown protolith . The Western Gneiss Terrane

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2288-889: Is an active subculture of Banksia enthusiasts who seek out interesting flower variants, breed and propagate cultivars, exchange materials and undertake research into cultivation problems and challenges. The main forum for exchange of information within this group is ASGAP 's Banksia Study Group . With the exception of the nursery industry , Banksia have limited commercial use. Some species, principally B. coccinea (scarlet banksia), B. baxteri , B. hookeriana (Hooker's banksia), B. sceptrum (sceptre banksia), and B. prionotes (acorn banksia), and less commonly B. speciosa (showy banksia), B. menziesii (Menzies' banksia), B. burdettii and B. ashbyi are grown on farms in Western and Southern Australia, as well as Israel and Hawaii, and

2392-573: Is bounded by a mixture of sedimentary basins and Proterozoic fold and thrust belts . Zircon grains in the Jack Hills , Narryer Terrane have been dated at ~4.27 Ga , with one detrital zircon dated as old as 4.4 Ga. The Murchison Province of the craton contains the Yarrabubba impact structure , at over 2 billion years old it is the oldest dated meteorite impact crater . The Yilgarn Craton appears to have been assembled between ~2.94 and 2.63 Ga by

2496-411: Is bounded on the east-southeast by the ~1,300 Ma Albany-Fraser Orogen , composed primarily of amphibolite to greenschist facies sedimentary protolith gneisses, migmatites and granites. The Albany-Fraser Orogen displays both subduction-related and prolonged strike-slip tectonic structures and is intimately interconnected with the other Proterozoic basins and mobile belts of Australia. The Yilgarn Craton

2600-558: Is considered to be peak granulite facies, but the majority has preserved peak amphibolite facies assemblages. In total, the Western Gneiss Terrane sub-blocks represent an earlier substrate upon which the majority of the Yilgarn Craton's about 2.70 to 2.55 Ga greenstone metavolcanic belts have been deposited and into which the voluminous Archaean trondhjemite-tonalite-granodiorite suite and trondhjemite - tonalite - diorite suite granites were emplaced. The Murchison Province

2704-409: Is considered to have been produced during Caenozoic to Palaeocene tropical conditions, as evidenced by mottled duricrust which records fossilised tree roots, some over 60 million years old. Previous weathering events have been recorded in magnetically remnant ferruginous laterite of a Jurassic age, at about 180 Ma. The regolith of the Yilgarn impacts directly on the flora and fauna, as some of

2808-663: Is continuing in several areas around Ravensthorpe, Balagundi, in the Yandall Belt, and the Duketon Belt, where large felsic volcanic packages are known to exist. The Yilgarn Craton may host up to 60% of the world's recoverable rare-earth elements , primarily in the Mount Weld Carbonatite . Smaller carbonatite occurrences at Ponton, near Laverton, and regionally within the eastern granite-gneiss and greenstone belts, may also prove economic. Banksia Banksia

2912-479: Is currently recovered from several areas in the Yilgarn Craton, although it is a much smaller set of mines than those in the Pilbara Craton . Iron ore is mined at Koolyanobbing, north of Kalgoorlie from hematite weathered banded iron formation , at Mount Gibson, Weld Range and Jack Hills in the Western Gneiss Terrane from hematite banded iron formation to produce direct-shipping ore. The Karara Iron Ore Project

3016-687: Is exposed along the western half of the northern margin of the Yilgarn Craton as the Narryer Gneiss Terrane , a composite of heavily polydeformed feldspathic metagranite and metasedimentary amphibolite -grade gneisses and migmatites , dated at greater than 3.3 Ga and up to 3.8 Ga in age, flanked by the Murgoo Gneiss Terrane (2.95 Ga), as well as sheets of 2.75 Ga to 2.6 Ga granite, obducted ophiolite sheets (the Trillbar Complex) and some 2.4 Ga to 2.0 Ga Proterozoic gneiss belts. On

3120-532: Is exposed in the western and northern third of the Yilgarn Craton. The Province is bounded by major transcrustal structures which separate it from the surrounding tectonic provinces of the craton and the Western Gneiss Belt. The Murchison Province Stratigraphy, after Watkins (1990), is divided into six basic structural-stratigraphic components - two greenstone belt metavolcanic-metasedimentary sequences and four suites of granitoids. The structural framework in

3224-436: Is notoriously difficult to treat, although there has been some success with phosphite and phosphorous acid , which are currently used to inoculate wild B. brownii populations. However this is not without potential problems as it alters the soil composition by adding phosphorus . Some evidence suggests that phosphorous acid may inhibit proteoid root formation. Because dieback thrives in moist soil conditions, it can be

Warren bioregion - Misplaced Pages Continue

3328-587: Is now only native to Australia and New Guinea, there are fossils from New Zealand, between 21 and 25 million years old. Evolutionary scientists Marcell Cardillo and Renae Pratt have proposed a southwest Australian origin for banksias despite their closest relatives being north Queensland rainforest species. Banksias are heavy producers of nectar , making them an important source of food for nectivorous animals, including honeyeaters and small mammals such as rodents, antechinus , honey possums , pygmy possums , gliders and bats . Many of these animals play

3432-646: Is partially covered by onlapping sedimentary basins of Palaeozoic and Phanerozoic age in the east and north-east, including the Canning Basin . It is bounded on the western edge by the Darling Scarp and Darling Fault which separate the Yilgarn Craton from the Perth Basin to the west, and is covered by several remnant sedimentary basins of Jurassic age such as the Collie Sub-Basin. The Yilgarn Craton also has

3536-577: Is rated at 42.5%. Protected areas include: The Warren region first appeared in Ludwig Diels ' 1906 biogeographical regionalisation of Western Australia. Diels' concept of Warren region was effectively all the land south of a line from Albany to Busselton ; thus it included a substantial area east of Margaret River that is now part of the Jarrah Forest region. The region was not recognised as one of Edward de Courcy Clarke 's "natural regions" in 1926, but

3640-579: Is reddish in color with an attractive grain but it is rarely used as it warps badly on drying. It is occasionally used for ornamental purposes in wood turning and cabinet paneling. It has also been used to make keels for small boats . Historically, the wood of certain species such as B. serrata was used for yokes and boat parts. The large "cones" or seed pods of B. grandis are used for woodturning projects. They are also sliced up and sold as drink coasters ; these are generally marketed as souvenirs for international tourists . Woodturners throughout

3744-506: Is the water mould Phytophthora cinnamomi , commonly known as "dieback". Dieback attacks the roots of plants, destroying the structure of the root tissues, "rotting" the root, and preventing the plant from absorbing water and nutrients. Banksia' s proteoid roots , which help it to survive in low-nutrient soils, make it highly susceptible to this disease . All Western Australian species are vulnerable, although most eastern species are fairly resistant. Vulnerable plants typically die within

3848-408: Is the main centre of biodiversity ; over 90% of all Banksia species occur only there, from Exmouth in the north, south and east to beyond Esperance on the south coast. Eastern Australia has far fewer species, but these include some of best known and most widely distributed species, including B. integrifolia (coast banksia) and B. spinulosa (hairpin banksia). Here they occur from

3952-569: Is the only operational magnetite mine in the Yilgarn Craton, however, other magnetite iron ore deposits are being investigated as a source of magnetite ore in the Albany-Fraser Complex, where a large deposit is being proposed at Southdown. The Jack Hills, Weld Range and Mount Gibson banded iron formations, as well as banded iron formations around Yalgoo , are also considered potential sources of magnetite iron ore, although no operations are as yet running on this type of ore. Further away from

4056-512: The Endeavour during Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook 's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean . Cook landed on Australian soil for the first time on 29 April 1770, at a place that he later named Botany Bay in recognition of "the great quantity of plants Mr Banks and Dr Solander found in this place". Over the next seven weeks, Banks and Solander collected thousands of plant specimens, including

4160-623: The Eyre Peninsula in South Australia right around the east coast up to Cape York in Queensland . The vast majority of Banksia are found in sandy or gravelly soils, though some populations of B. marginata (silver banksia) and B. spinulosa do occur on soil that is heavier and more clay-like. B. seminuda is exceptional for its preference for rich loams along watercourses. Most occur in heathlands or low woodlands ; of

4264-754: The Leeuwin Complex and Archaean granite of the Albany-Fraser Orogen ; and the dissection of rivers such as the Blackwood , Warren , Shannon and Frankland . The western extent of the region takes in the Leeuwin-Naturaliste Ridge , an 80 kilometre (50 mi) long strip of coastal limestone on top of a ridge of granite , with an extensive cave system. There are a number of soil types, including hard setting loamy soil, lateritic soil, leached sandy soil and Holocene marine dunes. Warren has

Warren bioregion - Misplaced Pages Continue

4368-567: The South West Province , 0.3% of the state, and 0.1% of Australia. It is bounded to the north and east by the Jarrah Forest region. Much of the region is unpopulated, but there are a number of towns with substantial populations, most notably Margaret River , Augusta , Pemberton , Walpole , Denmark and Albany . Warren has a hilly topography, caused by two factors: the underlying geology, which consists of infolded metamorphic rock of

4472-484: The Yarrabubba crater , which is the oldest dated meteorite impact crater , at 2229 ± 5 Ma . The crater is heavily eroded and no surface expression remains of the original structure. The primary trace is an elliptical aero- magnetic anomaly , measuring approximately 20 km by 11 km, as well as the presence of shock-recrystallised minerals. This impact may have ended the Huronian glaciation by climate forcing with

4576-712: The cultivar Banksia 'Giant Candles' . Banksia species are primarily propagated by seed in the home garden as cuttings can be difficult to strike. However, commercial nurserymen extensively utilize the latter method (indeed, cultivars by nature must be vegetatively propagated by cuttings or grafting). Over time, dwarf cultivars and prostrate species are becoming more popular as urban gardens grow ever smaller. These include miniature forms under 50 cm high of B. spinulosa and B. media , as well as prostrate species such as B. petiolaris and B. blechnifolia . Banksias possibly require more maintenance than other Australian natives, though are fairly hardy if

4680-463: The perianth parts and often the style . The style is much longer than the perianth, and is initially trapped by the upper perianth parts. These are gradually released over a period of days, either from top to bottom or from bottom to top. When the styles and perianth parts are different colours, the visual effect is of a colour change sweeping along the spike. This can be most spectacular in B. prionotes (acorn banksia) and related species, as

4784-469: The western bristlebird ( Dasyornis longirostris ), western whipbird ( Psophodes nigrogularis nigrogularis ) and western ground parrot ( Pezoporus wallicus flaviventris ), all of which inhabit the region's heath vegetation; and the noisy scrub-bird ( Atrichornis clamosus ), which inhabits densely vegetated gullies. Other forest birds include the purple-crowned lorikeet . Insects include an endemic spider Moggridgea tingle . The freshwater streams of

4888-512: The "Warren Botanical District" became the "Karri Forest Region". When the IBRA was published in the 1990s, Beard's regionalisation was used as the baseline for Western Australia. The Warren region was accepted as defined by Beard, but reverted to the name "Warren". It has since survived a number of revisions. When the IBRA subregions were introduced in IBRA Version 6.1, the whole of Warren was defined as

4992-472: The Archaean Norseman-Wiluna greenstone belt in the southeastern Yilgarn Craton. Kambalda type komatiitic nickel ore deposits are the primary source of nickel metal within the Yilgarn Craton. Copper, lead and zinc are currently mined from Golden Grove and the newly developed Jaguar zinc mine . Minor amounts of copper have been recovered from several copper-bearing gold deposits such as those in

5096-648: The Eastern Goldfield Province contains most of Australia's lode gold deposits, including the famous Kalgoorlie Golden Mile containing the Super Pit . These gold deposits are generally of large tonnage and are confined to the volcanic-intrusive-sedimentary sequences of the greenstone belts and not the granites. There is a pattern of gold distribution along the Archean Boulder-Lefroy shear zone. Extrusive komatiites (ultramafic volcanic rocks) occur along

5200-471: The Forsters had collected during Cook's second voyage. However Linnaeus incorrectly attributed the Forsters' specimens to the genus Passerina , and therefore considered the name Banksia available for use. By the time Joseph Gaertner corrected Banks' error in 1788, Banksia L.f. was widely known and accepted, so Gaertner renamed Banksia J.R.Forst, & G.Forst to Pimelea , a name previously chosen for

5304-555: The Gullewa Greenstone Belt, at Burtville south of Laverton, at Granny Smith and elsewhere. The desert area encircling Kalgoorlie, with an area of 500,000 square kilometres, is theorised to host a 100 million tonne copper-zinc deposit. The geology of several volcanic belts in the Yilgarn Craton are strikingly similar to the world's great base-metal mines at Kidd Creek in Northern Ontario , Canada . Exploration for copper

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5408-696: The Jimperding Gneiss Complex range in age from 3267 ± 30 Ma to 3341 ± 100 Ma, with metamorphic overgrowth dated at 3180 Ma. On the southwest of the Yilgarn Craton the Balingup Gneiss Complex is situated inboard from the Early Proterozoic Leeuwin Complex of metamorphic rocks. The Balingup Complex consists primarily of metasedimentary paragneiss, granite orthogneiss, with minor layers of calc-silicate , ultramafic and ortho-amphibolite gneiss. The metamorphic grade

5512-502: The Norseman-Wiluna Greenstone Belt. A change from volcanic-dominated to plutonic-dominated magmatism occurred in the Norseman-Wiluna Greenstone Belt approximately 2685–2675 Ma. Voluminous high-Ca granite intrusions occurred 2670–2655 Ma. Much of the gold was deposited between 2650–2630 Ma, with much of this associated with strike-slip reactivation of earlier faults (normal and reverse). An earlier gold event 2660-2655 Ma

5616-594: The South West. As well as the three tingle trees other species endemic to the region include Corymbia ficifolia (red flowering gum). The area around Albany is especially rich in endemics such as Cephalotus follicularis . The Warren region supports a rich diversity of fauna, much of which is apparently Gondwanan in origin. Mammal species include the western ringtail possum ( Pseudocheirus occidentalis ), chuditch ( Dasyurus geoffroii ) (particularly found in Jarrah forest),

5720-605: The Southern Cross and the greenschist metamorphic Murchison Provinces). Some greenstone belts and granites are as old as 3.1-2.9 Ga, and some are younger, at ~2.75-2.65 Ga. The craton is one of the distinct physiographic provinces of the West Australian Shield physiographic division, which comprises the Stirling-Mount Barren Block, Darling Hills, and Recherche Shelf sections. The Western Gneiss Terrane

5824-610: The Walpole-Nornalup National Park's Valley of the Giants , which includes a "Tree Top Walk". The main threat to the biodiversity of the Warren region is the South West's epidemic of dieback, a disease caused by the introduced plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi . Introduced animals such as feral cats , foxes and rats prey on native wildlife and occupy ecological niches to the detriment of native species. Populations are controlled through 1080 baiting as part of

5928-478: The Warren is known to contain 1865 indigenous vascular plant species, and a further 419 naturalised alien species. The endangered flora of the Warren region consists of 28 species, with a further 160 species having been declared Priority Flora under the Department of Environment and Conservation 's Declared Rare and Priority Flora List . The region is considered one of the most important centres of plant endemism in

6032-401: The Warren region support only a low diversity of fauna, but much of it is highly endemic. A number of frog species are endemic or nearly so, including the orange-bellied frog ( Geocrinia vitellina ), the white-bellied frog ( Geocrinia alba ), and the sunset frog ( Spicospina flammocaerulea ). Endemic freshwater invertebrates include worms of the family Phreodrilidea , and crayfish of

6136-520: The Yilgarn regolith is the oldest in the world, recording weathering events as early as the Cretaceous Period. This has been created by the generally subtropical latitudes and conditions of the Yilgarn craton, with minimal to no glaciation and generally flat topographical relief resulting in comparatively minor erosion. The regolith is extremely deeply weathered, in some areas completely converted to saprolite up to 100 metres below surface. This

6240-401: The accretion of a multitude of formerly present blocks or terranes of existing continental crust , most of which formed between 3.2 Ga and 2.8 Ga. This accretion event is recorded by widespread granite and granodiorite intrusions, which comprise over 70% of the Yilgarn craton; voluminous tholeiitic basalt and komatiite volcanism ; regional metamorphism and deformation as well as

6344-485: The appearance of aged Banksia "cones", with follicles for eyes and other facial features. There is some contention over which species actually provided the inspiration for the "Banksia men": the drawings most resemble the old cones of B. aemula or B. serrata , but B. attenuata (slender banksia) has also been cited, as this was the species that Gibbs saw as a child in Western Australia. In 1989,

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6448-403: The branches in irregular spirals, but in some species they are crowded together in whorls . Many species have differing juvenile and adult leaves (e.g., Banksia integrifolia has large serrated juvenile leaves). The flowers are arranged in flower spikes or capitate flower heads. The character most commonly associated with Banksia is the flower spike, an elongated inflorescence consisting of

6552-614: The coast, deposits of banded iron formation at Wiluna and Laverton are also under investigation, although infrastructure is considered too poor to render these deposits economic. The Yilgarn Craton is host to around 4% of the world's economically demonstrably recoverable reserves (EDR) of gold. Major gold deposits occur at Kalgoorlie, Kambalda, Mount Magnet, Boddington, Laverton and Wiluna, and are hosted in greenstone belts. These form linear belts of mafic, ultramafic and felsic volcanics, intercalated with sedimentary sequences, and have been deformed and metamorphosed. The mode of occurrence of

6656-798: The dry season precludes the establishment of a characteristic rainforest understory of epiphytes , liverworts , ferns and mosses . Some rainforest relict species do occur, however, such as Anthocercis sylvicola , Albany pitcher plant ( Cephalotus follicularis ) and wild plum ( Podocarpus drouynianus ) . The poorer, lateritic soils, about a quarter of the region, are vegetated by medium forest of jarrah ( Eucalyptus marginata ) , which can grow up to 40m tall, and marri ( Corymbia calophylla ) (up to 60m). Other significant vegetation forms include low woodland of E. marginata and Banksia species (8%); Agonis flexuosa woodlands or scrub on Holocene marine dunes (5%); and swamps supporting sedges (5%) or low woodlands of Melaleuca (4%). As of 2007,

6760-402: The eastern species, B. integrifolia and B. marginata occur in forests; many south-western species such as B. grandis , B. sphaerocarpa , B. sessilis , B. nobilis and B. dallanneyi grow as understorey plants in jarrah ( Eucalyptus marginata ), wandoo ( E. wandoo ) and karri ( E. diversicolor ) forests , with B. seminuda being one of

6864-640: The emplacement of the vast majority of the craton's endowment in gold mineralisation. These accretion events occurred in several phases, probably by accretion of continental fragments separated by pauses in subduction , with renewed activity occurring episodically. The craton is primarily composed of approximately 2.8 billion year old (~2.8 Ga) granite-gneiss metamorphic terrain (the Southwestern Province and Western Gneiss Belt), and three granite- greenstone terrains (the North-East Goldfields,

6968-439: The first group are known as 'seeders' and the second group as 'sprouters'. Infrequent bushfires at expected intervals pose no threat, and are in fact beneficial for regeneration of banksia populations. However, too frequent bushfires can seriously reduce or even eliminate populations from certain areas, by killing seedlings and young plants before they reach fruiting age. Many fires near urban areas are caused by arson, and thus

7072-449: The first specimens of Dryandra ( now Banksia) sessilis (Parrotbush) and D. ( now Banksia) pellaeifolia . Upon Menzies' return to England, he turned his specimens over to Banks; as with most other specimens in Banks' library, they remained undescribed for many years. Robert Brown gave a lecture, naming the new genus Dryandra in 1809, however Joseph Knight published

7176-452: The first specimens of a new genus that would later be named Banksia in Banks' honour. Four species were present in this first collection: B. serrata (Saw Banksia), B. integrifolia (Coast Banksia), B. ericifolia (Heath-leaved Banksia) and B. robur (Swamp Banksia). In June the ship was careened at Endeavour River , where specimens of B. dentata (Tropical Banksia) were collected. The genus Banksia

7280-422: The flower heads harvested for the cut flower trade . Eastern species, such as B. ericifolia , B. robur and B. plagiocarpa , are sometimes cultivated for this purpose. The nectar is also sought by beekeepers , not for the quality of the dark-coloured honey , which is often poor, but because the trees provide an abundant and reliable source of nectar at times when other sources provide little. Banksia wood

7384-495: The follicles; and birds such as cockatoos , who break off the "cones" to eat both the seeds and the insect larvae. A number of Banksia species are considered rare or endangered. These include B. brownii (feather-leaved banksia), B. cuneata (matchstick banksia), B. goodii (Good's banksia), B. oligantha (Wagin banksia), B. tricuspis (pine banksia), and B. verticillata (granite banksia). Banksia plants are naturally adapted to

7488-413: The forest trees in suitable habitat. Most species do not grow well near the coast , notable exceptions being the southern Western Australian species B. speciosa , B. praemorsa and B. repens . Only a few species, such as B. rosserae and B. elderiana (swordfish banksia), occur in arid areas. Most of the eastern Australian species survive in uplands , but only

7592-426: The frequency is often much higher than fires would have been prior to human habitation. Furthermore, residents who live in areas near bushland may pressure local councils to burn areas near homes more frequently, to reduce fuel-load in the bush and thus reduce ferocity of future fires. Unfortunately there are often discrepancies in agreed frequency between these groups and conservation groups. Another threat to Banksia

7696-460: The genera Cherax and Engaewa . The Warren region falls entirely within what the Department of Agriculture and Food calls the "Intensive Land-use Zone" (ILZ), the area of Western Australia that has been largely cleared and developed for intensive agriculture such as cropping and livestock production. Despite this, only a small amount of the region's natural vegetation has been cleared and given over to agriculture. The proportion of cleared land

7800-484: The genus by Banks and Solander. The first specimens of a Dryandra were collected by Archibald Menzies , surgeon and naturalist to the Vancouver Expedition . At the request of Joseph Banks , Menzies collected natural history specimens wherever possible during the voyage. During September and October 1791, while the expedition were anchored at King George Sound , he collected numerous plant specimens, including

7904-643: The genus into subgenus Banksia and subgenus Spathulatae . All but one of the living Banksia species are endemic to Australia. The exception is B. dentata (tropical banksia), which occurs throughout northern Australia, and on islands to the north including New Guinea and the Aru Islands . An extinct species, B. novae-zelandiae , was found in New Zealand . The other species occur in two distinct geographical regions: southwest Western Australia and eastern Australia. Southwest Western Australia

8008-659: The genus into two subgenera—subgenus Isostylis (containing B. ilicifolia , B. oligantha and B. cuneata ) and subgenus Banksia (containing all other species except those he considered dryandras)—in his 1981 monograph and 1999 treatment for the Flora of Australia series. He held that flower morphology was the key to relationships in the genus. Austin Mast and Kevin Thiele published the official merging of Dryandra within Banksia in 2007, recalibrating

8112-504: The gold mineralisation tends to be small- to medium-sized structurally controlled lodes, shears, and quartz veins. A key feature beneath many of the region's gold deposits are granite-cored domes at a range of scales. These provided an architecture that focussed fluid metals into the upper crust's depositional sites. Signatures of the mantle are found in many large deposits, including melts from metasomatised mantle wedge as well as lamprophyres. Debate continues whether these mantle rocks were

8216-442: The highly successful Western Shield program. Other threats include human activities related to infrastructure and silviculture , such as roads changing surface runoff patterns, and changes to the fire regime . Because so much of the Warren region is already protected, it has low priority under Australia's National Reserve System . 45.47% of the ecoregion is classified as a terrestrial protected area. Terrestrial connectivity

8320-577: The jarrah overstorey and the original Banksia understorey, and over time these may be replaced by a more open woodland consisting of an overstorey of the resistant marri ( Corymbia calophylla ), and an understorey of the somewhat resistant Banksia sessilis (parrot bush). A number of species of Banksia are threatened by dieback. Nearly every known wild population of B. brownii shows some signs of dieback infection, which could possibly wipe it out within years. Other vulnerable species include B. cuneata , and B. verticillata . Dieback

8424-401: The name Josephia before Brown published his paper with the description of Dryandra . Brown ignored Knight's name, as did subsequent botanists. In 1891, Otto Kuntze , strictly applying the principle of priority , argued that Pimelea should revert to the name Banksia J.R.Forst & G.Forst. He proposed the new genus Sirmuellera to replaced Banksia L.f. and transferred its species to

8528-501: The new genus. This arrangement was largely ignored by Kuntze's contemporaries. Banksia L.f. was formally conserved and Sirmuellera rejected in 1940. Banksia belongs to the family Proteaceae , subfamily Grevilleoideae , and tribe Banksieae . There are around 170 species. The closest relatives of Banksia are two genera of rainforest trees in North Queensland ( Musgravea and Austromuellera ). Alex George arranged

8632-416: The northeastern Yilgarn craton was largely shaped by transpression that led to the development of folds, reverse faults, sinistral strike-slip movement on NNW-trending regional shear zones, followed by regional folding and shortening. The later occurred in overlapping tectonic processes. The first deformation event is poorly understood but appears to have involved N-S thrusting. The Murchison Province contains

8736-589: The post-Archaean events which have involved the Yilgarn Craton. The Yilgarn Craton is bound on the western side by the Perth Basin , of Jurassic age, and is separated from this basin by the Darling Fault . The Perth Basin is considered to be a rift fill basin formed on a passive margin. The Perth Basin is bound on the north by the Gascoyne Complex , Glengarry Basin and Yerrida Basin , which are all part of

8840-473: The presence of regular bushfires in the Australian landscape. About half of Banksia species are killed by bushfire, but these regenerate quickly from seed, as fire also stimulates the opening of seed-bearing follicles and the germination of seed in the ground. The remaining species usually survive bushfire, either by resprouting from a woody base known as a lignotuber or, more rarely, epicormic buds protected by thick bark. In Western Australia , banksias of

8944-684: The region of suitable rainfall, with greatest speciation in cooler, wetter areas. Hotter, drier regions around the edges of its range tend to have fewer species with larger distributions. The greatest species richness occurs in association with uplands, especially the Stirling Range. There are many fossils of Banksia . The oldest of these are fossil pollen between 65 and 59 million years old. There are fossil leaves between 59 and 56 million years old found in southern New South Wales. The oldest fossil cones are between 47.8 and 41.2 million years old, found in Western Australia. Although Banksia

9048-643: The region, and some clearfelling . There has also previously been some bauxite mining in the area, but this has now ceased, and the mining areas are at least partially reforested. Dams have also been constructed in high-rainfall forest areas. The most important land uses for the region are now biodiversity conservation and tourism. More than half of the remaining vegetation is now in protected areas , including Shannon National Park , D'Entrecasteaux National Park , Mount Frankland National Park , Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park and Walpole-Nornalup National Park . These contain numerous tourist attractions, most notably

9152-435: The remaining species in this genus are only shrubs. Banksias are popular garden plants in Australia because of their large, showy flower heads, and because the large amounts of nectar they produce attracts birds and small mammals . Popular garden species include B. spinulosa , B. ericifolia , B. aemula (Wallum Banksia ), B. serrata (Saw Banksia), Banksia media (Southern Plains Banksia) and

9256-407: The rest of southwest Australia, in contrast to comparable forest of the south east, there is a low diversity of bird species. Endemism is similarly low, as most South West bird species are habitat generalists with wide distributions. Exceptions include the red-eared firetail ( Stagonopleura oculata ) and the white-breasted robin ( Eopsaltria georgiana ), both of which occur only in the karri forest;

9360-427: The right conditions are provided (sunny aspect and well drained sandy soil). They may need extra water during dry spells until established, which can take up to two years. If fertilised, only slow-release, low- phosphorus fertilizer should be used, as the proteoid roots may be damaged by high nutrient levels in the soil. All respond well to some form of pruning. Within the Australian horticultural community there

9464-405: The salt behind. The greenstone belts of the Yilgarn Craton include: The Yilgarn Craton is Australia's premier mineral province. It attracts more than half of Australia's minerals exploration expenditure, and produces two thirds of all gold and most of the nickel mined in Australia. The craton contains some 30% of the world's known gold reserves, about 20% of the world's nickel reserves, 80% of

9568-415: The soil is essentially fossilised. Much of the groundwater of the Yilgarn is hypersaline, with some being supersaturated in salt. This renders swathes of land barren, with significant salt lakes, and high saline water tables. The origin of this salt is thought to be from precipitation of sea salt carried over the Australian landmass for the past several dozen million years, and the high evaporation rate leaving

9672-441: The soil. The leaves of Banksia vary greatly between species. Sizes vary from the narrow, 1– 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 centimetre long needle-like leaves of B. ericifolia (heath-leaved banksia), to the very large leaves of B. grandis (bull banksia), which may be up to 45 centimetres long. The leaves of most species have serrated edges, but a few, such as B. integrifolia , do not. Leaves are usually arranged along

9776-428: The squirrel-like brush-tailed phascogale ( Phascogale tapoatafa ), quokka ( Setonix brachyurus ), yellow-footed antechinus ( Antechinus flavipes leucogaster ), southern brown bandicoot ( Isoodon obesulus ), and woylie ( Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi ). The first four of these are endangered species and numbers of many of the indigenous marsupials have declined as their habitats are removed and altered. As with

9880-453: The suture. In some species, each valve splits too. In some species the follicles open as soon as the seed is mature, but in most species most follicles open only after stimulated to do so by bushfire . Each follicle usually contains one or two small seeds, each with a wedge-shaped papery wing that causes it to spin as it falls to the ground. Specimens of Banksia were first collected by Sir Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander , naturalists on

9984-519: The western district of Victoria used the spent flower cones to strain water by placing the cones in their mouths and using them like a straw. Banksia trees are a reliable source of insect larvae which are extracted as food. A number of field guides and other semi-technical books on the genus have been published. These include: Perhaps the best known cultural reference to Banksia is the "big bad Banksia men" of May Gibbs ' children's book Snugglepot and Cuddlepie . Gibb's "Banksia men" are modelled on

10088-466: The western edge of the Yilgarn Craton, partially covered by Phanerozoic sedimentary basins and in faulted contact with the 2.7 Ga to 2.55 Ga Yilgarn tectonic domains, lies the Jimperding Gneiss Complex of 2.75 to 2.65 Ga age, composed primarily of micaceous quartzite , quartz-feldspar-biotite-garnet gneiss, andalusite and sillimanite schists , banded iron formation and other exotics, intruded by minor masses of porphyritic granite. Detrital zircons in

10192-478: The white inflorescence in bud becomes a brilliant orange. In most cases, the individual flowers are tall, thin saccate (sack-shaped) in shape. Occasionally, multiple flower spikes can form. This is most often seen in Banksia marginata and B. ericifolia (pictured right) . As the flower spikes or heads age, the flower parts dry up and may turn shades of orange, tan or dark brown colour, before fading to grey over

10296-399: The world value Banksia pods for making ornamental objects. The Indigenous people of south-western Australia would suck on the flower spikes to obtain the nectar, they also soaked the flower spikes in water to make a sweet drink. The Noongar people of southwest Western Australia also used infusions of the flower spikes to relieve coughs and sore throats. The Girai wurrung peoples of

10400-594: The world's tantalum reserves, considerable iron ore , copper , zinc and minor lead reserves. The craton contains significant platinum , vanadium , hard-rock titanium and considerable iron ore resources. Mining is conducted mostly in the greenstone belts around mining centres such as Kalgoorlie , Kambalda , Norseman , Meekatharra and Wiluna , and minor centres such as Laverton , Leinster , Leonora and Southern Cross . Ore concentrates or finished product are transported by rail or road to Perth , Fremantle , Esperance , Albany or Geraldton . Iron ore

10504-444: Was associated with major extension (normal faulting and granite doming) resulting in the formation of late basins and the intrusion of mantle-derived magmas (syenites and Mafic-type granites/porphyries) and tight anticlockwise PTt paths. The Yilgarn Craton is bound on all sides by younger terranes of various ages, but predominantly of Proterozoic age. The boundaries between the various flanking terranes provide considerable evidence of

10608-460: Was calculated as 13.2% in 2002, although Beard gave a much larger figure of 31% in 1984. The remaining land is considered to be native vegetation, but this need not be pristine; a substantial proportion of the remaining native vegetation has been degraded by selective logging and other human activities. Historically, logging was the primary land use in the region, and this remains a significant industry. There has been substantial selective logging in

10712-510: Was finally described and named by Carolus Linnaeus the Younger in his April 1782 publication Supplementum Plantarum ; hence the full name for the genus is " Banksia L.f.". Linnaeus placed the genus in class Tetrandra , order Monogynia of his father's classification, and named it in honour of Banks. The name Banksia had in fact already been published in 1775 as Banksia J.R.Forst & G.Forst , referring to some New Zealand species that

10816-633: Was resurrected in Charles Gardner 's regionalisations of the 1940s and 1950s. In 1980, John Stanley Beard published a phytogeographical regionalisation of the state based on data from the Vegetation Survey of Western Australia . This new regionalisation included a "Warren Botanical District" that is essentially identical with the present-day Warren. By 1984, Beard's phytogeographic regions were being presented more generally as "natural regions", and as such were given more widely recognisable names. Thus

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