229-662: Walmer Castle is an artillery fort originally constructed by Henry VIII in Walmer , Kent , between 1539 and 1540. It formed part of the King's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and defended the strategically important Downs anchorage off the English coast. Comprising a keep and four circular bastions , the moated stone castle covered 0.61 acres (0.25 ha) and had 39 firing positions on
458-405: A tennis court in the 1920s. Designed by Penelope Hobhouse , the garden incorporates a 92-foot-long (28 m) pool, a viewing mound and a classical pavilion. The two glasshouses have been restored, functioning as cold greenhouses, while the remainder of the kitchen garden is planted with a mixture of vegetables, fruit trees and flowers. The 262-foot-long (80 m) Broadwalk is the main axis of
687-517: A circular bastion overlooking the sea. Southsea Castle and Sharpenode Fort had similar, angular bastions. Yarmouth Castle, finished by 1547, was the first fortification in England to adopt the new arrow-headed bastion design, which had further advantages over a simple angular bastion. Not all the forts in the second wave of work embraced the Italian approach however, and some, such as Brownsea Castle, retained
916-429: A close interest in the design of the fortifications, sometimes overruling his technical advisers on particular details. Southsea Castle, for example, was described by the courtier Sir Edmund Knyvet as being "of his Majesty's own device", which typically indicated that the King had taken a personal role in its design. The historian Andrew Saunders suspects that Henry was "probably the leading and unifying influence behind
1145-467: A common ancestor, King Edward I of England . During his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, Henry conducted an affair with Mary Boleyn , Catherine's lady-in-waiting . There has been speculation that Mary's two children, Henry Carey and Catherine Carey , were fathered by Henry but this has never been proven. King Henry never acknowledged them as he did in the case of Henry FitzRoy. In 1525, as Henry grew more impatient with Catherine's inability to produce
1374-555: A consequence, the King was excommunicated by Pope Paul III on 17 December of the same year. In 1540, Henry sanctioned the complete destruction of shrines to saints. In 1542, England's remaining monasteries were all dissolved, and their property transferred to the Crown. Abbots and priors lost their seats in the House of Lords . Consequently, the Lords Spiritual – as members of
1603-399: A considerable part in the ceremonies surrounding his brother Arthur's marriage to Catherine , the youngest child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile . As duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine . He was further honoured on 9 February 1506 by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I , who made him a Knight of
1832-412: A cost to the Crown of £2,208. Although most garrisons were paid for by the Crown, in some cases the local community also had a role; at Brownsea, the local town was responsible for providing a garrison of 6 men, and at Sandsfoot the village took up the responsibility for supporting the castle garrison, in exchange for an exemption from paying taxes and carrying out militia service. The artillery guns in
2061-557: A court, he never had any intention of empowering his legate, Lorenzo Campeggio , to decide in Henry's favour. This bias was perhaps the result of pressure from Emperor Charles V, but it is not clear how far this influenced either Campeggio or the Pope. After less than two months of hearing evidence, Clement called the case back to Rome in July 1529, from which it was clear that it would never re-emerge. With
2290-611: A diplomatic coup by convincing Emperor Maximilian to join the Holy League. Remarkably, Henry had secured the promised title of " Most Christian King of France" from Julius and possibly coronation by the Pope himself in Paris, if only Louis could be defeated. On 30 June 1513, Henry invaded France, and his troops defeated a French army at the Battle of the Spurs – a relatively minor result, but one which
2519-545: A dispute over the control of the defences, and Netley being abandoned to fall into ruin. Concerns about the Dutch threat were intensified after an unexpected naval raid along the Thames in 1667, during which Gravesend and Tilbury prevented the attack reaching the capital itself. In response, Charles made extensive improvements to his coastal defences. As part of this investments were made to Pendennis, Southsea and Yarmouth, while Tilbury
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#17331056687212748-495: A fall from grace included the King's new mistress, the 28-year-old Jane Seymour , being moved into new quarters, and Anne's brother, George Boleyn , being refused the Order of the Garter , which was instead given to Nicholas Carew . Between 30 April and 2 May, five men, including George Boleyn, were arrested on charges of treasonable adultery and accused of having sexual relationships with
2977-643: A force 1,500 Flemish mercenaries in support of the revolt, but a shortage of money forced their return to the Continent. The fleet, under the command of Prince Charles , attempted to landed a fresh force in August, but despite three attempts the operation failed and suffered heavy losses. Deal surrendered on 25 August, followed by Sandown on 5 September. Unlike many castles, the Device Forts avoided being slighted – deliberately damaged or destroyed – by Parliament during
3206-591: A force under the command of Colonel Rich to deal with the castles of the Downs. Walmer Castle was the first to be besieged and surrendered on 12 July. An earthwork fort was then built between Sandown and Deal, who each may have been defended by around 150 men each. Deal, which had been resupplied by the Royalists from the sea, was besieged in July. A Royalist fleet bombarded the Parliamentary positions and temporarily landed
3435-477: A gap in the Kentish cliffs was guarded by Sandgate Castle . In many cases temporary bulwarks for artillery batteries were built in during the initial stages of the work, ahead of the main stonework being completed. The Thames estuary leading out of London, through which 80 percent of England's exports passed, was protected with a mutually reinforcing network of blockhouses at Gravesend , Milton , and Higham on
3664-460: A handful of its guns in adequate repair, Hurst was unable to prevent Flemish ships from passing along the Solent. Pendennis's garrison's pay was two years in arrears, reportedly forcing them to gather limpets from the shoreline for food. Some of the forts fell out of use; Camber Castle, whose original function of protecting the local anchorage had by now been made redundant by the changing shoreline,
3893-558: A limited role during the Wars of the Roses and, when Henry VII invaded and seized the throne in 1485, he had not needed to besiege any castles or towns during the campaign. Henry rapidly consolidated his rule at home and had few reasons to fear an external invasion from the continent; he invested little in coastal defences over the course of his reign. Modest fortifications existed along the coasts, based around simple blockhouses and towers, primarily in
4122-414: A major programme of work that would continue until 1547. The order was known as a "device", which meant a documented plan, instruction or schema, leading to the fortifications later becoming known as the "Device Forts". The initial instructions for the "defence of the realm in time of invasion" concerned building forts along the southern coastline of England, as well as making improvements to the defences of
4351-678: A major, radical programme of work; the historian Marcus Merriman describes it as "one of the largest construction programmes in Britain since the Romans", Brian St John O'Neil as the only "scheme of comprehensive coastal defence ever attempted in England before modern times", while Cathcart King likened it to the Edwardian castle building programme in North Wales . Although some of the fortifications are titled as castles, historians typically distinguish between
4580-571: A massive increase in Henry's ability to manufacture iron cannons. Few guns from this period have survived, but during excavations in 1997 an iron portpiece was discovered on the site of the South Blockhouse in Kingston on Hull. The weapon, now known as "Henry's Gun", is one of only four such guns in the world to have survived and is displayed at the Hull and East Riding Museum. In addition to artillery,
4809-632: A mid-19th century style and is used to present various items of Wellington memorabilia. The north and east bastions are filled in, providing solid foundations for the gun platforms above. The second floor contains the Lord Warden's private apartments in the west bastion and the western half of the keep. In the southern bastion is the Duke of Wellington's Room and the Lucas Room, originally part of an apartment of rooms selected by William Pitt for his use, as they formed
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#17331056687215038-497: A modest role in building and maintaining fortifications, and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another, maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely. Modest defences, based around simple blockhouses and towers, existed in the south-west and along the Sussex coast, with a few more impressive works in the north of England, but in general
5267-511: A new English gun-making industry in the Weald of Kent and London, staffed by specialists from mainland Europe. This could make cast-iron weapons, but probably initially lacked the capacity to supply all of the artillery required for the Device forts, particularly since Henry also required more guns for his new navy. A technical breakthrough in 1543, however, led to the introduction of vertical casting and
5496-432: A personal retreat and as a location for private political discussions with selected guests. On Lord Liverpool's death in 1828, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington and the prime minister at the time, asked King George IV for the post of Lord Warden, primarily because he was seeking the use of Walmer Castle. Wellington took up post in 1829 and considered Walmer to be "the most charming marine residence". He made use of
5725-575: A reality. The attack, however, following a formal declaration of war in April 1512, was not led by Henry personally and was a considerable failure; Ferdinand used it simply to further his own ends, and it strained the Anglo-Spanish alliance. Nevertheless, the French were pushed out of Italy soon after, and the alliance survived, with both parties keen to win further victories over the French. Henry then pulled off
5954-437: A report listed the castle's artillery as comprising a cannon , a culverin , five demi-culverins , a saker , a minion and a falcon . Walmer Castle was left to decline in the early 17th century, with little money being made available for repairs and the garrison receiving low pay, leading some members to reside in nearby Deal rather the fort itself, and to take on additional employment to supplement their wages. Walmer Castle
6183-533: A result of their poor accommodation, and despite being moved to a new residence, she died shortly afterwards. As a result, Curzon decided to resign the post of Lord Warden, leaving the castle, and subsequently the Prince of Wales, the future George V , took up the post. William Lygon, 7th Earl Beauchamp , became the Lord Warden in 1913, building a Roman Catholic chapel at the castle and holding large parties there each summer. His children later commented that they found
6412-518: A second wedding service in London on 25 January 1533. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of the King's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be valid. Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen, becoming instead "princess dowager" as
6641-427: A series of artillery fortifications built to defend the coast of England and Wales by Henry VIII . Traditionally, the Crown had left coastal defences in the hands of local lords and communities but the threat of French and Spanish invasion led the King to issue an order, called a "device", for a major programme of work between 1539 and 1547. The fortifications ranged from large stone castles positioned to protect
6870-420: A target up to between 1,600 and 2,743 metres (5,249–8,999 ft) away. The forts were typically equipped with a mixture of brass and iron artillery guns. Guns made of brass could fire more quickly—up to eight times an hour—and were safer to use than their iron equivalents, but were expensive and required imported copper (tin could be sourced from Cornwall and Devon ). In the 1530s Henry had established
7099-603: A territorial possession of Charles, and the continued support of the Emperor. A small English attack in the north of France made up little ground. Charles defeated and captured Francis at Pavia and could dictate peace, but he believed he owed Henry nothing. Sensing this, Henry decided to take England out of the war before his ally, signing the Treaty of the More on 30 August 1525. King Henry VIII and all six of his wives were related through
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7328-467: A three-day long naval battle between English and Dutch forces in the Portland Roads. Some sites fell out of use: Little Dennis Blockhouse – part of the complex of defences at Pendennis – and Mersea were decommissioned between 1654 and 1655, and Brownsea Castle was sold off into private hands. Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 and reduced both the size and the wages of the garrisons across
7557-638: A time that his life was in danger. When news of this accident reached the Queen, she was sent into shock and miscarried a male child at about 15 weeks' gestation, on the day of Catherine's funeral, 29 January 1536. For most observers, this personal loss was the beginning of the end of this royal marriage. Although the Boleyn family still held important positions on the Privy Council , Anne had many enemies, including Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk . Even her own uncle,
7786-459: A treaty was signed for their marriage, and they were betrothed two days later. A papal dispensation was only needed for the "impediment of public honesty" if the marriage had not been consummated as Catherine and her duenna claimed, but Henry VII and the Spanish ambassador set out instead to obtain a dispensation for " affinity ", which took account of the possibility of consummation. Cohabitation
8015-457: A two-pronged attack. One force under Norfolk ineffectively besieged Montreuil . The other, under Suffolk, laid siege to Boulogne . Henry later took personal command, and Boulogne fell on 18 September 1544. However, Henry had refused Charles's request to march against Paris. Charles's own campaign fizzled, and he made peace with France that same day. Henry was left alone against France, unable to make peace. Francis attempted to invade England in
8244-549: A very limited extent", whilst Alison Weir believes there were numerous other affairs. Catherine is not known to have protested. In 1518, she fell pregnant again with another girl, who was also stillborn. Blount gave birth in June 1519 to Henry's illegitimate son, Henry FitzRoy . The young boy was made Duke of Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one step on the path to his eventual legitimisation. FitzRoy married Mary Howard in 1533, but died childless three years later. At
8473-562: Is a set of rooms which are reached through the Hall Room, originally built as gunners' lodgings in the 18th century and converted into the entrance hall to the castle in the 1930s. On the far side of the bastion are the Sackville and Willingdon Rooms, built in the 18th century; the Willingdon Room is now used as a museum for objects relating to William Pitt. The Lucas Room has been redecorated in
8702-517: Is caused by insufficient vitamin C most often due to a lack of fresh fruit and vegetables in one's diet. A 2010 study suggests that the king may have been of Kell-positive blood type to explain both his physical and mental deterioration, being consistent with some symptoms of the McLeod syndrome , and the high mortality in the pregnancies attributed to him. Device Fort The Device Forts , also known as Henrician castles and blockhouses , were
8931-559: Is known for his six marriages and his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon ) annulled . His disagreement with Pope Clement VII about such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation , separating the Church of England from papal authority. He appointed himself Supreme Head of the Church of England and dissolved convents and monasteries , for which he
9160-435: Is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument , while the surrounding gardens are protected with a grade II listing . Walmer Castle retains most of its original 16th-century structure, with a tall keep , 83 feet (25 m) across, at the centre, flanked by four rounded bastions , one of which served as a gatehouse , and a moat , surrounded in turn by a curtain wall . Its curved walls are 15 feet (4.6 m) thick. It
9389-499: Is traditionally believed to have had an affair with Madge Shelton in 1535, although historian Antonia Fraser argues that Henry in fact had an affair with her sister Mary Shelton . Opposition to Henry's religious policies was at first quickly suppressed in England. Some dissenting monks, including the first Carthusian Martyrs , were executed and many more pilloried . The most prominent resisters included John Fisher , Bishop of Rochester, and Thomas More, both of whom refused to take
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9618-474: Is unclear exactly why, for there is little evidence of differences in domestic or foreign policy. Despite his role, he was never formally accused of being responsible for Henry's failed marriage. Cromwell was now surrounded by enemies at court, with Norfolk also able to draw on his niece Catherine's position. Cromwell was charged with treason, selling export licences, granting passports, and drawing up commissions without permission, and may also have been blamed for
9847-562: The Act of Succession 1533 , Catherine's daughter, Mary, was declared illegitimate; Henry's marriage to Anne was declared legitimate; and Anne's issue declared to be next in the line of succession. With the Acts of Supremacy in 1534, Parliament recognised the King's status as head of the church in England and, together with the Act in Restraint of Appeals in 1532, abolished the right of appeal to Rome. It
10076-403: The Battle of Maidstone at the start of June, and then sent a force under the command of Colonel Nathaniel Rich to deal with Walmer and the other castles along the Downs. Walmer Castle was the first to be besieged, and surrendered on 12 July. Deal was attacked in late July, and in August artillery assaults began on Sandown as well, leading to the surrender of both remaining fortifications. Walmer
10305-703: The Goodwin Sands which gave access to Deal Beach , on which enemy soldiers could easily be landed. The stone castles were supported by a line of four earthwork forts, known as the Great Turf, the Little Turf Bulwark, the Great White Bulwark of Clay and the Walmer Bulwark, and a 2.5-mile-long (4.0 km) defensive ditch and bank. Collectively the castles became known as the "castles of the Downs" and cost
10534-460: The Holy See by way of a deceptively worded draft papal bull. Knight was unsuccessful; the Pope could not be misled so easily, and he did not want to antagonise Catherine's nephew, Charles V, whose troops had recently sacked Rome . Other missions concentrated on arranging an ecclesiastical court to meet in England, with a representative from Clement VII. Although Clement agreed to the creation of such
10763-526: The Italian War in favour of his new ally. An invasion of France was planned for 1543. In preparation for it, Henry moved to eliminate the potential threat of Scotland under his young nephew, James V . The Scots were defeated at the Battle of Solway Moss on 24 November 1542, and James died on 15 December. Henry now hoped to unite the crowns of England and Scotland by marrying his son Edward to James's successor, Mary . The Scottish regent Lord Arran agreed to
10992-475: The King's "great matter" . These options were legitimising Henry FitzRoy, which would need the involvement of the Pope and would be open to challenge; marrying off Mary, his daughter with Catherine, as soon as possible and hoping for a grandson to inherit directly, but Mary was considered unlikely to conceive before Henry's death, or somehow rejecting Catherine and marrying someone else of child-bearing age. Probably seeing
11221-680: The Laws in Wales Act 1535 , which legally annexed Wales , uniting England and Wales into a single nation. This was followed by the Second Succession Act (the Succession to the Crown Act 1536), which declared Henry's children by Jane to be next in the line of succession and declared both Mary and Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them from the throne. The King was granted the power to further determine
11450-606: The Oath of Supremacy to the King. Neither Henry nor Cromwell sought at that stage to have the men executed; rather, they hoped that the two might change their minds and save themselves. Fisher openly rejected Henry as the Supreme Head of the Church, but More was careful to avoid openly breaking the Treasons Act 1534 , which (unlike later acts) did not forbid mere silence. Both men were subsequently convicted of high treason, however – More on
11679-624: The Palace of Placentia in Greenwich , Kent, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York . Of the young Henry's six (or seven) siblings, only three – his brother Arthur, Prince of Wales , and sisters Margaret and Mary – survived infancy. He was baptised by Richard Foxe , the Bishop of Exeter , at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to
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#173310566872111908-451: The Palace of Whitehall , Whitehall , London, in Anne's closet, by Stephen Gardiner , Bishop of Winchester . With Charles V distracted by the internal politics of his many kingdoms and external threats, and Henry and Francis on relatively good terms, domestic and not foreign policy issues had been Henry's priority in the first half of the 1530s. In 1536, for example, Henry granted his assent to
12137-485: The Royal Marines were approached as replacement tenants for the castle, but declined the offer. The ministry acquired agreement for most of the castle to be opened to the public, with various historical objects related to the property being put on display, including some donated by King Edward VII . Lord Curzon moved into the castle when returned from India in 1905. His wife, Mary , fell ill, which Curzon believed to be
12366-466: The Second World War have included Winston Churchill , Robert Menzies and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother , but they have made only intermittent use of Walmer Castle. In the 21st century, Walmer Castle is run as a tourist attraction by English Heritage . The interior of the castle displays a range of historical objects and pictures associated with the property and its Lord Wardens, protected since
12595-550: The Third Succession Act put them back in the line of succession after Edward. The same act allowed Henry to determine further succession to the throne in his will. In 1538, the chief minister Thomas Cromwell pursued an extensive campaign against what the government termed "idolatry" practised under the old religion, culminating in September with the dismantling of the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral . As
12824-592: The black powder smoke generated by the guns. Moats often surrounded the sites, to protect against any attack from land, and they were further protected by what the historian B. Morley describes as the "defensive paraphernalia developed in the Middle Ages": portcullises, murder holes and reinforced doors. The smaller blockhouses took various forms, including D-shapes, octagonal and square designs. The Thames blockhouses were typically protected on either side by additional earthworks and guns. These new fortifications were
13053-415: The male heir he desired, he became enamoured of Mary Boleyn's sister, Anne Boleyn , then a charismatic young woman of 25 in the Queen's entourage. Anne, however, resisted his attempts to seduce her, and refused to become his mistress as her sister had. It was in this context that Henry considered his three options for finding a dynastic successor and hence resolving what came to be described at court as
13282-521: The 1540s; they were important military specialists, and the historians Audrey Howes and Martin Foreman observe that "an air of mystery and danger" surrounded them. The rates of pay across the defences were recorded in 1540, showing that the typical pay of the garrisons was 1 or 2 shillings a day for a captain; his deputy, 8 pence; porters, 8 pence; with soldiers and gunners receiving 6 pence each. In total, 2,220 men were recorded as receiving pay that year, at
13511-431: The 1790s and 1860s and comprise around 32 acres (13 ha) of land, split evenly between formal ornamental gardens and parkland . The main body of the gardens stretches away from the castle towards the north-west, and is made up of protected, well-drained, chalk -based soil, forming a maritime microclimate . The castle is approached through the castle meadow , an area of open parkland, lined with Holm oaks planted in
13740-482: The 1860s, and is surrounded by the dry moat, now a garden dating from at least the 1850s and planted with trees and shrubs. Adjacent to the castle are the Queen Mother's Garden and the kitchen garden and glasshouses . The Queen Mother's Garden was built by English Heritage as a 95th birthday gift for the then Lord Warden in 1997, the site having been originally part of the wider kitchen gardens, before being turned into
13969-448: The 1880s. This spurred fresh investment in those Device Forts still thought to be militarily valuable, and encouraged the decommissioning of others. By 1900, however, developments in guns and armour had made most of the Device Forts that remained in service simply too small to be practical in modern coastal defence. Despite being brought back into use during the First and Second World Wars , by
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#173310566872114198-511: The 18th century, Walmer Castle became the official residence of the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . The Lord Warden was originally a medieval title linked to five key ports along the coast of England; the position's prominence had faded, but it still retained important judicial and military functions. When Lionel Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset , was appointed to the post in 1708 he decided that
14427-524: The 18th century, Walmer became the official residence of the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and was gradually modified from a military fortification into a private residence. Various Prime Ministers and prominent politicians were appointed as Lord Warden, including William Pitt , the Duke of Wellington and Lord Granville , who adapted parts of the Tudor castle as living spaces and constructed extensive gardens around
14656-413: The 18th century, many of the Device Forts were modernised and rearmed during the Napoleonic Wars , until peace was declared in 1815. Fears over a possible French invasion resurfaced several times in the 19th century, combined with rapid changes in technology, such as the development of steamships and shell guns in the 1840s, rifled cannon and iron-clad warships in the 1850s, and torpedo boats in
14885-399: The 1950s the fortifications were finally considered redundant and decommissioned for good. Coastal erosion over the centuries had taken its toll and some sites had been extensively damaged or completely destroyed. Many were restored, however, and opened to the public as tourist attractions. The Device Forts emerged as a result of changes in English military architecture and foreign policy in
15114-426: The 19th century by special legislation. The grounds include the Queen Mother's Garden, designed by Penelope Hobhouse as a 95th birthday gift for Elizabeth in 1997. Walmer Castle was built to defend the English coast from attack by France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities, only taking
15343-399: The Channel and arrived off the Solent with 200 ships on 19 July. Henry's fleet made a brief sortie, before retreating safely behind the protective fortifications. Annebault landed a force near Newhaven , during which Camber Castle may have fired on the French fleet, and on 23 July they landed four detachments on the Isle of Wight, including a party that took the site of Sandown Castle, which
15572-499: The Crown a total of £27,092 to build. Walmer was built between April 1539 and autumn 1540, by a team including Richard Benese as the surveyor, William Clement as the master carpenter, and Christopher Dickenson as the master mason. It was initially garrisoned by a captain, two lieutenants, two porters, ten gunners and three soldiers, at an annual cost of £174. It was probably equipped with a range of brass and cast-iron guns , along with arquebuses and bows for close defence. In 1597,
15801-762: The Crown's possessions , detailing the weapons held by all of the forts. The number of guns varied considerably from site to site; in the late 1540s, heavily armed forts such as Hurst and Calshot held 26 and 36 guns respectively; Portland, however, had only 11 pieces. Some forts had more guns than the level of their regular, peacetime garrison; for example, despite only having an establishment of 13 men, Milton Blockhouse had 30 artillery pieces. A variety of artillery guns were deployed, including heavier weapons, such as cannons , culverins and demi-cannons , and smaller pieces such as sakers , minions and falcons . Some older guns, for example slings and bases , were also deployed, but were less effective than newer weapons such as
16030-418: The Device Forts saw almost no action before peace was declared in 1546. Some of the defences were left to deteriorate and were decommissioned only a few years after their construction. After war broke out with Spain in 1569, Elizabeth I improved many of the remaining fortifications, including during the attack of the Spanish Armada of 1588. By the end of the century, the defences were badly out of date and for
16259-465: The Device Forts were equipped with infantry weapons. Handguns, typically an early form of matchlock arquebus , would have been used for close defence; these were 6-foot (1.8 m) long and supported on tripods. Many forts also held supplies of bows, arrows and polearms, such as bills , pikes and halberds . Longbows were still in military use among English armies in the 1540s, although they later declined quickly in popularity, and these, along with
16488-456: The Device forts were the property of the Crown and were centrally managed by the authorities in the Tower of London . The Tower moved them between the various fortifications as they felt necessary, often resulting in complaints from the local captains. Various surviving records record the armaments held by individual forts on particular dates, and between 1547 and 1548 a complete inventory was made of
16717-561: The Downs anchorage in Kent , to small blockhouses overlooking the entrance to Milford Haven in Pembrokeshire , and earthwork bulwarks along the Essex coast. Some forts operated independently, others were designed to be mutually reinforcing. The Device programme was hugely expensive, costing a total of £376,000 (estimated as between £2 and £82 billion in today's money); much of this was raised from
16946-692: The Downs in east Kent, an anchorage which gave access to Deal Beach and on which an invasion force of enemy soldiers could easily be landed. These defences, known as the castles of the Downs, were supported by a line of four earthwork forts, known as the Great Turf Bulwark , the Little Turf Bulwark , the Great White Bulwark of Clay and the Walmer Bulwark , and a 2.5-mile (4.0 km) long defensive ditch and bank. The route inland through
17175-456: The Downs were defaced and their guns removed; they were formally removed from service in 1550. In 1552 the Essex fortifications were decommissioned, and several were subsequently pulled down. The expense of maintaining the fortifications in Hull led the Crown to agree a deal with the town authorities to take over management of them. Milton and Higham were demolished between 1557 and 1558. Mersea Fort
17404-416: The Duke of Norfolk, had come to resent her attitude to her power. The Boleyns preferred France over the Emperor as a potential ally, but the King's favour had swung towards the latter (partly because of Cromwell), damaging the family's influence. Also opposed to Anne were supporters of reconciliation with Princess Mary (among them the former supporters of Catherine), who had reached maturity. A second annulment
17633-402: The Empire were in conflict with one another, raids along the English coast might still be common, but a full-scale invasion seemed unlikely. Indeed, traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to local lords and communities, only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications. Initially, therefore, Henry took little interest in his coastal defences; he declared reviews of
17862-544: The English army, overseen by Queen Catherine, decisively defeated the Scots at the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513. Among the dead was the Scottish king, thus ending Scotland 's brief involvement in the war. These campaigns had given Henry a taste of the military success he so desired. However, despite initial indications, he decided not to pursue a 1514 campaign. He had been supporting Ferdinand and Maximilian financially during
18091-538: The Essex fortifications were temporarily brought back into use; there were discussions about enhancing the defences at Hull and Milford Haven, but no work was actually carried out. Despite the destruction of the Armada, the Spanish threat continued; the castles in Kent were kept ready for action throughout the rest of Elizabeth's reign. In 1596 a Spanish invasion fleet carrying reportedly 20,000 soldiers set out for Pendennis, which
18320-514: The Golden Fleece . In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15, just 20 weeks after his marriage to Catherine of Aragon . Arthur's death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother. The 10-year-old Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall , and the new Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in February 1504. Henry VII gave his second son few responsibilities even after the death of Arthur. Young Henry
18549-419: The Kentish gentry, also called on the fleet to revolt, taking advantage of the many fellow Kentish men in the crews. Walmer and Deal Castle declared for the King, shortly after the garrisons at Sandown. With both the coastal fortresses and the navy now under Royalist control, Parliament feared that foreign forces might be landed along the coast or aid sent to the Scots. Parliament defeated the wider insurgency at
18778-569: The King, and the Dorset forts were besieged in 1644 and 1645, with Sandsfoot falling to Parliament. By March 1646, Thomas Fairfax had entered Cornwall with a substantial army. The captain of the castle was invited to retreat to the stronger fortress of Pendennis, but he surrendered immediately without putting up resistance. Pendennis was bombarded from the land and blockaded by a flotilla of ships. The captain, Sir John Arundell , agreed to an honourable surrender on 15 August, and around 900 survivors left
19007-486: The King. Soon after marrying Henry, Catherine conceived. She gave birth to a stillborn girl on 31 January 1510. About four months later, Catherine again became pregnant. On 1 January 1511, New Year's Day, a son Henry was born. After the grief of losing their first child, the couple were pleased to have a boy and festivities were held, including a two-day joust known as the Westminster Tournament . However,
19236-425: The Pope encouraged the two countries to attack England. An invasion of England now appeared certain; that summer Henry made a personal inspection of some of his coastal defences, which had recently been mapped and surveyed: he appeared determined to make substantial, urgent improvements. Henry VIII gave instructions through Parliament in 1539 that new defences were to be built along the coasts of England, beginning
19465-430: The Pope had lacked the authority to grant a dispensation from this impediment. It was this argument Henry took to Pope Clement VII in 1527 in the hope of having his marriage to Catherine annulled, forgoing at least one less openly defiant line of attack. In going public, all hope of tempting Catherine to retire to a nunnery or otherwise stay quiet was lost. Henry sent his secretary, William Knight , to appeal directly to
19694-410: The Queen. Anne was arrested, accused of treasonous adultery and incest. Although the evidence against them was unconvincing, the accused were found guilty and condemned to death. On 17 May 1536, Henry and Anne's marriage was annulled by Archbishop Cranmer at Lambeth Palace and the accused men were executed. Cranmer appears to have had difficulty finding grounds for an annulment and probably based it on
19923-609: The Scottish regency under the Earl of Arran and Mary of Guise . He founded the Royal Navy , oversaw the annexation of Wales to England with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 , and was the first English monarch to rule as King of Ireland following the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 . Henry's contemporaries considered him an attractive, educated, and accomplished king. He has been described as "one of
20152-620: The Solent , which led into the trading port of Southampton . The Portland Roads anchorage in Dorset was protected with new castles at Portland and Sandsfoot , and work began on two blockhouses to protect the Milford Haven Waterway in Pembrokeshire. In 1540 additional work was ordered to defend Cornwall . Carrick Roads was an important anchorage at the mouth of the River Fal and
20381-785: The Solent. The work was undertaken rapidly, and 24 sites were completed and garrisoned by the end of 1540, with almost all of the rest finished by the end of 1543. By the time they were completed, however, the alliance between Charles and Francis had collapsed and the threat of imminent invasion was over. Henry moved back onto the offensive in Europe in 1543, allying himself with Spain against France once again. Despite Henry's initial successes around Boulogne in northern France, King Charles and Francis made peace in 1544, leaving England exposed to an invasion by France, backed by her allies in Scotland. In response Henry issued another device in 1544 to improve
20610-456: The Sussex and Kentish coastline were seized by Parliament in the opening phase of the war, Camber Castle then being decommissioned to prevent it being used by the enemy, the remainder continuing to be garrisoned. The royal fleet, which had been positioned in the Downs anchorage, sided with Parliament. The Device Forts along the Solent also fell into Parliamentary hands early in the conflict. Calshot
20839-482: The Younger was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the King. Despite speculation that Holbein painted her in an overly flattering light, it is more likely that the portrait was accurate; Holbein remained in favour at court. After seeing Holbein's portrait, and urged on by the complimentary description of Anne given by his courtiers, the 49-year-old King agreed to wed Anne. When Henry met Anne, however, he
21068-585: The allegations, Dereham confessed. It took another meeting of the council, however, before Henry believed the accusations against Dereham and went into a rage, blaming the council before consoling himself in hunting. When questioned, the Queen could have admitted a prior contract to marry Dereham, which would have made her subsequent marriage to Henry invalid, but she instead claimed that Dereham had forced her to enter into an adulterous relationship. Dereham, meanwhile, exposed Catherine's relationship with Culpeper. Culpeper and Dereham were both executed, and Catherine too
21297-415: The appointment of Lord Warden the following year. Lygon's successor, the politician Rufus Isaacs, 1st Marquess of Reading , became the Lord Warden in 1934, holding jovial family gatherings there. His wife, Stella , attempted to restore Wellington's old bedroom to its earlier appearance during the Duke's tenure and, as part of this project, the 4th Duke of Wellington agreed to send the original contents of
21526-402: The campaign but had received little in return; England's coffers were now empty. With the replacement of Julius by Pope Leo X , who was inclined to negotiate for peace with France, Henry signed his own treaty with Louis: his sister Mary would become Louis's wife, having previously been pledged to the younger Charles, and peace was secured for eight years, a remarkably long time. Charles V ,
21755-423: The castle and noted that she was sad to finally leave it. Lygon had sexual relations with men, which was illegal in England during this period. Rumours spread about the parties that he had held at Walmer Castle after the war, where, according to the historian Richard Davenport-Hines , he had "behaved indiscreetly with young men". The King was informed about his lifestyle and Lygon fled the country in 1931, resigning
21984-400: The castle each autumn, entertaining extensively there but living and sleeping in a single room. He was visited there twice by Victoria , once when she was still a princess and later as queen. Wellington let the gardens fall into a poor condition. Wellington died in his room at Walmer on 14 September 1852. His embalmed body was kept in his room to lie in state until 10 November, and when the room
22213-487: The castle from his predecessor's estate on taking up the post, a practice which had become traditional for the Lords Warden, complaining about the high price being proposed. This raised the risk that the historical contents of the castle might be sold off at open auction; and some of Wellington's former belongings were therefore removed by his family for safekeeping. The politician Granville Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville
22442-514: The castle gardens, transforming them from a simple kitchen garden into a set of landscaped ornamental enclosures; Stanhope enlisted the Dover militia to help with the landscaping and planting. With the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars , Pitt became energetically involved in the protection of the ports along the coast, entertaining the local garrison commanders, naval captains and
22671-581: The castle was chilly and cramped. The prime minister, H. H. Asquith , was invited by Beauchamp to use the castle during the First World War as a weekend retreat, as it had good communication links with the front line in France. Asquith's wife, Margot , was not initially impressed by Walmer, noting in her diary that while it was "very distinguished" and had "great charm", it was "terribly exposed" with "cold... noisy corridors and small rooms"; she later came to like
22900-501: The castle, but Lady Salisbury declined the offer. By 1904 the War Office had concluded that Walmer had no remaining military value and agreed to transfer the castle to the Office of Works , who accepted it on the condition that they were paid £2,400 in order to carry out repairs. The Office's survey noted that "the lower floor ... is very inconvenient, dark and not conducive to health while
23129-418: The castle. Stanhope remarked on the constant drilling of army units around the castle during her time there. Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool , took possession of Walmer Castle following the death of Pitt in 1806. Liverpool was a favourite of King George's, and his appointment as Lord Warden was again intended to provide a valuable income and a country retreat. As prime minister, Liverpool used Walmer as
23358-473: The centre. The main guns were positioned over multiple tiers to enable them to engage targets at different ranges. There were far more gunports than there were guns held by the individual fortification. The bastion walls were pierced with splayed gun embrasures , giving the artillery space to traverse and enabling easy fire control , with overlapping angles of fire. The interiors had sufficient space for gunnery operations, with specially designed vents to remove
23587-540: The ceremony, there was a grand banquet in Westminster Hall . As Catherine wrote to her father, "our time is spent in continuous festival". Two days after his coronation, Henry arrested his father's two most unpopular ministers, Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley . They were charged with high treason and were executed in 1510. Politically motivated executions would remain one of Henry's primary tactics for dealing with those who stood in his way. Henry returned some of
23816-551: The chance for an annulment lost, Cardinal Wolsey bore the blame. He was charged with praemunire in October 1529, and his fall from grace was "sudden and total". Briefly reconciled with Henry (and officially pardoned) in the first half of 1530, he was charged once more in November 1530, this time for treason, but died while awaiting trial. After a short period in which Henry took government upon his own shoulders, Thomas More took on
24045-519: The character of the Device Forts and those of the earlier medieval castles. Medieval castles were private dwellings as well as defensive sites, and usually played a role in managing local estates; Henry's forts were organs of the state, placed in key military locations, typically divorced from the surrounding patterns of land ownership or settlements. Unlike earlier medieval castles, they were spartan, utilitarian constructions. Some historians such as King have disagreed with this interpretation, highlighting
24274-443: The child died seven weeks later. Catherine had two stillborn sons in 1513 and 1515, but gave birth in February 1516 to a girl, Mary . Relations between Henry and Catherine had been strained, but they eased slightly after Mary's birth. Although Henry's marriage to Catherine has since been described as "unusually good", it is known that Henry took mistresses. It was revealed in 1510 that Henry had been conducting an affair with one of
24503-521: The clergy with seats in the House of Lords were known – were for the first time outnumbered by the Lords Temporal . The 1539 alliance between Francis and Charles had soured, eventually degenerating into renewed war. With Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn dead, relations between Charles and Henry improved considerably, and Henry concluded a secret alliance with the Emperor and decided to enter
24732-417: The coast, or military aid sent to the Scots. Essex also rose in rebellion in June and the town of Colchester was taken by the Royalists. Sir Thomas Fairfax placed it under siege, and Mersea Fort was taken by Parliamentary forces and used to cut off any assistance reaching the town by river. Meanwhile, Parliament defeated the Kentish insurgency at the Battle of Maidstone at the start of June and then sent
24961-429: The coastal defences and many of the Device Forts were neglected and fell into disrepair, with their garrisons' wages left unpaid. Castles such as Deal and blockhouses like Gravesend were all assessed as needing extensive repairs, with Sandgate reported to be in such a poor condition that "neither habitable or defensible against any assault, nor any way fit to command the roads". Lacking ammunition and powder, and with only
25190-434: The country's defences, particularly along the south coast. Work began on Southsea Castle in 1544 on Portsea Island to further protect the Solent, and on Sandown Castle the following year on the neighbouring Isle of Wight. Brownsea Castle in Dorset was begun in 1545, and Sharpenrode Bulwark was built opposite Hurst Castle from 1545 onwards. The French invasion emerged in 1545, when Admiral Claude d'Annebault crossed
25419-453: The courtier Thomas Culpeper . She also employed Francis Dereham , who had previously been informally engaged to her and had an affair with her prior to her marriage, as her secretary. The Privy Council was informed of her affair with Dereham whilst Henry was away; Thomas Cranmer was dispatched to investigate, and he brought evidence of Queen Catherine's previous affair with Dereham to the King's notice. Though Henry originally refused to believe
25648-399: The culverin. With sites equipped with several tiers of weapons, the heaviest guns would typically be placed higher up in the fortification, with the smaller weapons closer to the ground. It is uncertain how far the guns of the period would have reached; analysis carried out in the 16th and 17th century on the ranges of artillery suggested that the largest weapons, such as a culverin, could hit
25877-580: The dissolution of the monasteries, Henry used some of his financial reserves to build a series of coastal defences and set some aside for use in the event of a Franco-German invasion. Having considered the matter, Cromwell suggested Anne , the 25-year-old sister of William, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg , who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England, for the Duke fell between Lutheranism and Catholicism . Other potential brides included Christina of Denmark, Anna of Lorraine , Louise of Guise and Amalia of Cleves . Hans Holbein
26106-423: The disturbances ended. On 8 January 1536, news reached the King and Queen that Catherine of Aragon had died. The following day, Henry dressed all in yellow, with a white feather in his bonnet. Queen Anne was pregnant again, and she was aware that there might be consequences if she failed to give birth to a son. Later that month, the King was thrown from his horse in a tournament and was badly injured; it seemed for
26335-674: The early 16th century. During the late medieval period, the English use of castles as military fortifications had declined in importance . The introduction of gunpowder in warfare had initially favoured the defender, but soon traditional stone walls could easily be destroyed by early artillery. The few new castles that were built during this time still incorporated the older features of gatehouses and crenellated walls , but intended them more as martial symbols than as practical military defences. Many older castles were simply abandoned or left to fall in disrepair. Although fortifications could still be valuable in times of war, they had played only
26564-529: The end results. Technical treatises from mainland Europe also influenced the designers of the Device Forts, including Albrecht Dürer 's Befestigung der Stett, Schlosz und Felcken which described contemporary methods of fortification in Germany, published in 1527 and translated into Latin in 1535, and Niccolò Machiavelli 's Libro dell'art della guerra , published in 1521, which also described new Italian forms of military defences. The Device Forts represented
26793-623: The evidence of a single conversation with Richard Rich , the Solicitor General – and both were executed in the summer of 1535. These suppressions, as well as the Suppression of Religious Houses Act 1535 , in turn, contributed to a more general resistance to Henry's reforms, most notably in the Pilgrimage of Grace , a large uprising in northern England in October 1536. Some 20,000 to 40,000 rebels were led by Robert Aske , together with parts of
27022-480: The existing residence in Dover Castle was unsatisfactory, probably because of the semi-ruinous state of the castle, and moved into Walmer Castle instead. The Duke occupied the post of Lord Warden until 1765, save for two periods when it was filled by James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde and John Sidney, 6th Earl of Leicester . He carried out extensive work to make the castle more habitable, building extensions towards
27251-464: The existing, updated architectural style. The costs of building the fortifications varied with their size. A small blockhouse cost around £500 to build, whereas a medium-sized castle, such as Sandgate, Pendennis or Portland, would come to approximately £5,000. The defensive line of Deal, Sandown and Walmer castles cost a total £27,092, while the work at Hull Castle and its two blockhouses came to £21,056. Various officials were appointed to run each of
27480-623: The extent that his 1521 publication Assertio Septem Sacramentorum ("Defence of the Seven Sacraments") earned him the title of Fidei Defensor (Defender of the Faith) from Pope Leo X. The work represented a staunch defence of papal supremacy, albeit one couched in somewhat contingent terms. It is not clear exactly when Henry changed his mind on the issue as he grew more intent on a second marriage. Certainly, by 1527, he had convinced himself that Catherine had produced no male heir because their union
27709-532: The extent that his doctors found it difficult to treat. The chronic wound festered for the remainder of his life and became ulcerated , preventing him from maintaining the level of physical activity he had previously enjoyed. The jousting accident is also believed to have caused Henry's mood swings , which may have had a dramatic effect on his personality and temperament. The theory that Henry had syphilis has been dismissed by most historians. Historian Susan Maclean Kybett ascribes his demise to scurvy , which
27938-456: The failure of the foreign policy that accompanied the attempted marriage to Anne. He was subsequently attainted and beheaded. On 28 July 1540 (the same day Cromwell was executed), Henry married the young Catherine Howard, a first cousin and lady-in-waiting of Anne Boleyn. He was delighted with his new queen and awarded her the lands of Cromwell and a vast array of jewellery. Soon after the marriage, however, Queen Catherine had an affair with
28167-452: The first few decades of the 17th century many of the forts were left to decay. Most of the fortifications saw service in the First and Second English Civil Wars during the 1640s and were garrisoned during the Interregnum , continuing to form the backbone of England's coastal defences against the Dutch after Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660. Again left to fall in ruin during
28396-560: The flat there. Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother followed Menzies in 1978, initially visiting the castle from the Royal Yacht HMY Britannia , but from 1986 onwards taking over the entire castle for three days each July. This required moving furniture, silverware and other furnishings from London and caused difficulties for English Heritage, who managed the property. Admiral of the Fleet Michael Boyce, Baron Boyce , took up
28625-482: The fort, some terminally ill from malnutrition. Pendennis was the penultimate Royalist fortification to hold out in the war, followed by Portland Castle which finally surrendered in April 1646. After a few years of unsteady peace, in 1648 the Second English Civil War broke out, this time with Charles' Royalist supporters joined by Scottish forces. The Parliamentary navy was based in the Downs, protected by
28854-418: The fortifications in both 1513 and 1533, but not much investment took place as a result. In 1533 Henry broke with Pope Clement VII in order to annul the long-standing marriage to his wife, Catherine of Aragon , and remarry. Catherine was the aunt of King Charles V of Spain , who took the annulment as a personal insult. As a consequence, France and the Empire declared an alliance against Henry in 1538, and
29083-401: The fortifications were very limited in scale. In 1533, Henry broke with Pope Paul III in order to annul the long-standing marriage to his wife, Catherine of Aragon and remarry. Catherine was the aunt of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , and he took the annulment as a personal insult. This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538, and the Pope encouraging
29312-537: The fortifications". England also had a tradition of drawing on expert foreign engineers for military engineering; Italians were particularly sought after, as their home country was felt to be generally more technically advanced, particularly in the field of fortifications. One of these foreign engineers, Stefan von Haschenperg from Moravia , worked on Camber, Pendennis, Sandgate and St Mawes, apparently attempting to reproduce Italian designs, although his lack of personal knowledge of such fortifications impacted poorly on
29541-541: The fortifications. The garrisons would maintain and care for the buildings and their artillery during the long periods of peacetime and, in a crisis, would be supplemented by additional soldiers and the local militia. The size of the garrisons varied according to the fortification; Camber Castle had a garrison of 29, Walmer Castle 18, while the West Tilbury Blockhouse only held 9 men. The ordinary soldiers would have lived in relatively basic conditions, typically on
29770-805: The forts. The numbers of workers varied during the course of the project, driven in part by seasonal variation, but the teams were substantial: Sandgate Castle, for example, saw an average of 640 men on the site daily during June 1540, and the work at Hull required a team of 420. A skilled worker was paid between 7 and 8 pence a day, a labourer between 5 and 6 pence, with trades including stonemasons, carpenters, carters, lime burners, sawyers, plumbers, scavelmen, dikers and bricklayers. Finding enough workers proved difficult, and in some cases men had to be pressed into service unwillingly. Labour disputes broke out, with strikes over low pay at Deal in 1539 and at Guisnes in 1541; both were quickly suppressed by royal officials. Large amounts of raw materials were also needed for
29999-528: The friars' church in Greenwich on 11 June 1509. Henry claimed descent from Constantine the Great and King Arthur and saw himself as their successor. On 23 June 1509, Henry led the now 23-year-old Catherine from the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey for their coronation, which took place the following day. It was a grand affair: the King's passage was lined with tapestries and laid with fine cloth. Following
30228-411: The furniture and other objects that Pitt and Wellington had used at the castle. He received large numbers of visitors, many of whom stopped off while travelling to or from France. The diplomat Baron de Malortie visited Granville and his family at Walmer, and later praised the homely atmosphere in the castle. He described how, after breakfast, the family and guests would all gather in the drawing room, which
30457-512: The further half of the garden. On the other side are the paddock, planted with Holm oaks, and a curved belt of woodland of beech , ash and chestnut trees, badly damaged in the storms of 1987 and 1990 . At the far end is the Glen, a woodland hollow formed from an old chalk quarry in the 19th century. Henry VIII Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry
30686-465: The gardens and separates the glasshouses from the 328-foot-long (100 m) Oval Lawn, planted with lime trees and yews . The Broadwalk is lined by the "Cloud Hedge", a formal 19th-century yew hedge that grew out of control in the Second World War and was left in its current, undulating style. Two terraces in the middle of the garden, designed by William Masters in an Italianate style, separate
30915-608: The ground floor, with the captains of the fortifications occupying more elaborate quarters, often in the upper levels of the keeps. The soldiers ate meat and fish, some of which might have been hunted or caught by the garrison. The garrisons were well organised, and a strict code of discipline was issued in 1539; the historian Peter Harrington suggests that life in the forts would have usually been "tedious" and "isolated". Soldiers were expected to provide handguns at their own expense, and could be fined if they failed to produce them. There were only around 200 gunners across England during
31144-416: The hollow bastions were vulnerable to artillery. The concentric bastion design prevented overlapping fields of fire in the event of an attack from the land, and the tiers of guns meant that, as an enemy approached, the number of guns the fort could bring to bear diminished. Some of these issues were addressed during the second Device programme from 1544 onwards. Italian ideas began to be brought in, although
31373-403: The huge sum of £376,000 had been spent on the Device projects. Some of the Device Forts were designed and built by teams of English engineers. The master mason John Rogers was brought back from his work in France and worked on the Hull defences, while Sir Richard Lee , another of the King's engineers from his French campaigns, may have been involved in the construction of Sandown and Southsea;
31602-462: The ideas of the Protestant Reformers, but the extent to which she herself was a committed Protestant is much debated. When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died, Anne's influence and the need to find a trustworthy supporter of the annulment had Thomas Cranmer appointed to the vacant position. This was approved by the Pope, unaware of the King's nascent plans for the Church. Henry
31831-517: The impact of Henry's foreign engineers seems to have been limited, and the designs themselves lagged behind those used in his French territories. The emerging continental approach used angled, "arrow-head" bastions, linked in a line called a trace italienne , to provide supporting fire against any attacker. Sandown Castle on the Isle of Wight, constructed in 1545, was a hybrid of traditional English and continental ideas, with angular bastions combined with
32060-465: The infant Edward would marry one of Charles's daughters. It was suggested the widowed Henry might marry Christina, Dowager Duchess of Milan . However, when Charles and Francis made peace in January 1539, Henry became increasingly paranoid, perhaps as a result of receiving a constant list of threats to the kingdom (real or imaginary, minor or serious) supplied by Cromwell in his role as spymaster. Enriched by
32289-512: The interior of the castle was converted to provide accommodation for the Lord Wardens, almost all of which is now open to visitors. The castle is still entered through the ground floor of the gatehouse in the western bastion, which contains the original porter's lodge. In the middle of the castle is the keep, which originally housed the Servants' Hall and now a set of tea rooms. In the southern bastion
32518-489: The kingdom. The Device Forts initially remained at the heart of the defences along the south coast, but their design was by now badly antiquated. Deal continued to play an important role in defending the Downs during the Second and Third Dutch Wars , supported by local trained bands , and castles such as Hurst, Portland and Sandgate remained garrisoned. Others, however, were decommissioned with Sandsfoot closing in 1665 following
32747-578: The kingdoms of western Europe in the wake of a new Ottoman threat, and it seemed that peace might be secured. Henry met King Francis on 7 June 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold near Calais for a fortnight of lavish entertainment. Both hoped for friendly relations in place of the wars of the previous decade. The strong air of competition laid to rest any hopes of a renewal of the Treaty of London, however, and conflict
32976-498: The land, while the smaller blockhouses were primarily focused on the maritime threat. Although there were extensive variations between the individual designs, they had common features and were often built in a consistent style. The larger sites, such as Deal or Camber, were typically squat, with low parapets and massively thick walls to protect against incoming fire. They usually had a central keep , echoing earlier medieval designs, with curved, concentric bastions spreading out from
33205-404: The largely ceremonial role of a royal wife and it made her many enemies. For his part, Henry disliked Anne's constant irritability and violent temper. After a false pregnancy or miscarriage in 1534, he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal. As early as Christmas 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to Catherine. Henry
33434-487: The line of succession in his will, should he have no further issue. On 12 October 1537, Jane gave birth to a son, Prince Edward, the future Edward VI . The birth was difficult, and Queen Jane died on 24 October 1537 from an infection and was buried in Windsor. The euphoria that had accompanied Edward's birth became sorrow, but it was only over time that Henry came to long for his wife. At the time, Henry recovered quickly from
33663-415: The local gentry at Walmer on a regular basis. After Pitt resigned as prime minister in 1801, fears remained of a French invasion and he formed a volunteer cavalry unit at Walmer Castle, where he lived with his new officers. He also formed a unit of bombardier infantry and a fleet of 35 fishing boats called luggers , which he armed with 12-pound (5.4 kg) or 18-pound (8.2 kg) guns, reviewing them from
33892-568: The marriage in the Treaty of Greenwich on 1 July 1543, but it was rejected by the Parliament of Scotland on 11 December. The result was eight years of war between England and Scotland, a campaign later dubbed "the Rough Wooing ". Despite several peace treaties, unrest continued in Scotland until Henry's death. Despite the early success with Scotland, Henry hesitated to invade France, annoying Charles. Henry finally went to France in June 1544 with
34121-421: The monastic buildings were pulled down, and much of this was recycled. Netley Castle, for example, was based on an old abbey and reused many of its stones, East Tilbury Blockhouse reused parts of St Margaret's Chantry, Calshot Castle took the lead from nearby Beaulieu Abbey , East and West Cowes castles stone from Beaulieu and Quarr , and Sandwich had the stone from the local Carmelite friary. Milton Blockhouse
34350-466: The money supposedly extorted by the two ministers. By contrast, Henry's view of the House of York – potential rival claimants for the throne – was more moderate than his father's had been. Several who had been imprisoned by his father, including Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset , were pardoned. Others went unreconciled; Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk was eventually beheaded in 1513, an execution prompted by his brother Richard siding against
34579-402: The most advanced in England at the time, an improvement over earlier medieval designs, and were effective in terms of concentrating firepower on enemy ships. They contained numerous flaws, however, and were primitive in comparison to their counterparts in mainland Europe. The multiple tiers of guns gave the forts a relatively high profile, exposing them to enemy attack, and the curved surfaces of
34808-404: The most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne" and his reign described as the "most important" in English history. He was an author and composer. As he aged, he became severely overweight and his health suffered. He is frequently characterised in his later life as a lustful, egotistical, paranoid, and tyrannical monarch. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI . Born on 28 June 1491 at
35037-487: The nearby Henrician castles, but by May a Royalist insurrection was underway across Kent. Sandown Castle declared for the King, and the soldier and former naval captain Major Keme then convinced the garrisons at Deal and Walmer to surrender. Sandgate Castle probably joined the Royalists as well. With both the coastal fortresses and the navy now under Royalist control, Parliament feared that foreign forces might be landed along
35266-477: The nephew of Henry's wife Catherine, inherited a large empire in Europe, becoming king of Spain in 1516 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. When Louis XII of France died in 1515, he was succeeded by his cousin Francis I . These accessions left three relatively young rulers and an opportunity for a clean slate. The careful diplomacy of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey had resulted in the Treaty of London (1518) , aimed at uniting
35495-493: The new reforms from challenge, convincing the public of their legitimacy, and exposing and dealing with opponents. Although the canon law was dealt with at length by Cranmer and others, these acts were advanced by Thomas Cromwell , Thomas Audley and Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk and indeed by Henry himself. With this process complete, in May 1532 More resigned as Lord Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister. With
35724-410: The north bastion and constructing a small house in the south bastion for the soldiers. Under the subsequent Lord Wardens, the politicians Robert Darcy, 4th Earl of Holderness , and Francis North, 1st Earl of Guilford , the castle continued to house artillery but it became increasingly less military in character. The Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger was then made the Lord Warden in 1792. Pitt
35953-467: The north of England, the coastal fortifications around the town of Hull were upgraded in 1542 with a castle and two large blockhouses. Further work was carried out in Essex in 1543, with a total of seven fortifications constructed, three in Harwich itself, three protecting the estuary leading to the town, and two protecting the estuary linking into Colchester. St Andrew's Castle was begun to further protect
36182-421: The north-east, Hull also sided with Parliament, and its castle and blockhouses were used as part of the town's defences during multiple sieges. Much of the south-west sided with the King; Device Forts such as St Catherine's were held by the Royalists from the beginning of the conflict. The Royalists invaded Parliamentary-controlled Dorset in 1643, taking Portland and Sandsfoot. The flow of the war turned against
36411-620: The northern bastion, date from the 1730s, when the Duke of Dorset constructed them to form a private set of chambers. These rooms feature a range of pink and purple window glass, which tradition says was installed by the Earl of Liverpool to protect his wife's eyesight; recent analysis shows that some of the pink-tinted glass dates from the 1730s, and discoloured naturally over time, while other panes were intentionally purchased around 1800 in these hues, but probably as status symbols and not for any medical purpose. The gardens of Walmer Castle date mainly from
36640-517: The northern nobility. Henry VIII promised the rebels he would pardon them and thanked them for raising the issues. Aske told the rebels they had been successful and they could disperse and go home. Henry saw the rebels as traitors and did not feel obliged to keep his promises to them, so when further violence occurred after Henry's offer of a pardon he was quick to break his promise of clemency. The leaders, including Aske, were arrested and executed for treason. In total, about 200 rebels were executed, and
36869-472: The original plans involved constructing five new fortifications to protect it, although only two castles, Pendennis and St Mawes , were actually built, on opposite sides of the estuary. Work began on further fortifications to protect the Solent in 1541, with the construction of Hurst Castle , overlooking the Needles Passage , and Netley Castle just outside Southampton itself. Following a royal visit to
37098-683: The pair were paid the substantial sums of £30 and £36 a year respectively. Sir Richard Morris, the Master of Ordnance , and James Nedeham , the Surveyor of the King's Works , led on the defences along the Thames. The efforts of the Hampton Court Palace architectural team, under the leadership of the Augustinian canon, Richard Benese , contributed to the high-quality construction and detailing seen in many of Henry's Device projects. Henry himself took
37327-520: The palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three and was made a Knight of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony, he was created Duke of York and a month or so later made Warden of the Scottish Marches . In May 1495, he
37556-406: The papal dispensation and a missing part of the marriage portion . The new king maintained that it had been his father's dying wish that he marry Catherine. Whether or not this was true, it was convenient. Emperor Maximilian I had been attempting to marry his granddaughter Eleanor , Catherine's niece, to Henry; she had now been jilted. Henry's wedding to Catherine was kept low-key and was held at
37785-460: The plan after Smith's death, protecting almost 70 pieces of furniture and 50 artworks at the castle and forbidding them being moved from the castle without the Secretary of State for War 's approval. Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury , became the next Lord Warden; with adequate legal protection now in place, the 3rd Duke of Wellington suggested returning his grandfather's possessions to
38014-406: The polearms, would have been used by the local militia when they were called out in a crisis. After Henry's death there was a pause in the conflict with France, during which many of the new fortifications were allowed to deteriorate. There was little money available for repairs and the garrisons were reduced in size. East Cowes was abandoned around 1547 and fell into ruin, while the bulwarks along
38243-416: The possibility of marrying Anne, the third was ultimately the most attractive possibility to the 34-year-old Henry, and it soon became the King's absorbing desire to annul his marriage to the now 40-year-old Catherine. Henry's precise motivations and intentions over the coming years are not widely agreed on. Henry himself, at least in the early part of his reign, was a devout and well-informed Catholic to
38472-413: The post of Lord Warden in 2004. Since his death on 6 November 2022 the post was vacant until June 2024 when Sir George Zambellas became the current Lord Warden. In the 21st century, the property is managed by English Heritage , attracting 152,391 visitors in 2019. English Heritage carried out a £674,000 programme of improvements to the castle in 2015 intended to improve the visitor experience. The castle
38701-437: The prior liaison between Henry and Anne's sister Mary, which in canon law meant that Henry's marriage to Anne was, like his first marriage, within a forbidden degree of affinity and therefore void. At 8 am on 19 May 1536, Anne was executed on Tower Green . The day after Anne's execution the 45-year-old Henry became engaged to Seymour, who had been one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting . They were married ten days later at
38930-584: The proceeds of the Dissolution of the Monasteries a few years before. These utilitarian fortifications were armed with artillery , intended to be used against enemy ships before they could land forces or attack ships lying in harbour. The first wave of work between 1539 and 1543 was characterised by the use of circular bastions and multi-tiered defences, combined with many traditional medieval features . These designs contained serious military flaws, however, and
39159-490: The projects, including a paymaster , a comptroller , an overseer and commissioners from the local gentry. A few fortifications were built by local individuals and families; St Catherine's Castle, for example, was reportedly paid for by the town and local gentry, and the Edgcumbe family built Devil's Point Artillery Tower to protect Plymouth Harbour. Much of the expenditure was on the construction teams, called "crews", who built
39388-476: The property. By 1904, the War Office agreed that Walmer had no remaining military utility and it passed to the Ministry of Works . Successive Lord Wardens continued to use the property but it was also opened to the public. Walmer was no longer considered a particularly comfortable or modern residence, however, and Lord Curzon blamed the poor condition of the castle for his wife's death in 1906. Lord Wardens since
39617-438: The rest. I can have none appetite for displeasant airs. I have left her as good a maid and I found her. Henry wished to annul the marriage as soon as possible so he could marry another. Anne did not argue, and confirmed that the marriage had never been consummated. Anne's previous betrothal to Francis of Lorraine provided further grounds for the annulment. The marriage was subsequently dissolved in July 1540, and Anne received
39846-466: The role of Lord Chancellor and chief minister. Intelligent and able, but a devout Catholic and opponent of the annulment, More initially cooperated with the King's new policy, denouncing Wolsey in Parliament. A year later, Catherine was banished from court, and her rooms were given to Anne Boleyn. Anne was an unusually educated and intellectual woman for her time and was keenly absorbed and engaged with
40075-476: The room back to the castle, where they still remain. The politician Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon , became Lord Warden in 1936, followed by Sir Winston Churchill who followed him in 1941 during the Second World War . Churchill noted to the Minister of Works and Buildings that he had told King George V on taking up the position that he doubted that he would be able to live at Walmer Castle during
40304-471: The second period of construction until 1547 saw the introduction of angular bastions and other innovations probably inspired by contemporary thinking in mainland Europe. The castles were commanded by captains appointed by the Crown, overseeing small garrisons of professional gunners and soldiers, who would be supplemented by the local militia in an emergency. Despite a French raid against the Isle of Wight in 1545,
40533-551: The shock. Measures were immediately put in place to find another wife for Henry, which, at the insistence of Cromwell and the Privy Council, were focused on the European continent. In 1538, as part of the negotiation of a secret treaty by Cromwell with Charles V, a series of dynastic marriages were proposed: Mary would marry a son of King John III of Portugal , Elizabeth would marry one of the sons of King Ferdinand I of Hungary and
40762-494: The similarities between the two periods, with the historian Christopher Duffy terming the Device Forts the "reinforced-castle fortification". The forts were positioned to defend harbours and anchorages, and designed both to focus artillery fire on enemy ships, and to protect the gunnery teams from attack by those vessels. Some, including the major castles, including the castles of the Downs in Kent, were intended to be self-contained and able to defend themselves against attack from
40991-425: The sisters of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham , either Elizabeth or Anne Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon . The most significant mistress for about three years, starting in 1516, was Elizabeth Blount . Blount is one of only two completely undisputed mistresses, considered by some to be few for a virile young king. Exactly how many Henry had is disputed: David Loades believes Henry had mistresses "only to
41220-448: The south coast. In 1588 the Spanish armada sailed for England and the Device Forts were mobilised in response. As part of this work, West Tilbury was brought back into service and supported by a hastily raised army, which was visited by Queen Elizabeth I, and further enlargement followed under the direction of the Italian engineer, Federigo Giambelli . Gravesend was improved and several of
41449-464: The south side of the river, and West Tilbury and East Tilbury on the opposite bank. Camber Castle was built to protect the anchorage outside the ports of Rye and Winchelsea , defences were built in the port of Harwich and three earth bulwarks were built around Dover . Work was also begun on Calshot Castle in Fawley and the blockhouses of East and West Cowes on the Isle of Wight to protect
41678-437: The south-west and along the Sussex coast, with a few more impressive works in the north of England, but they were very limited in scale. His son, Henry VIII inherited the throne in 1509 and took a more interventionist approach in European affairs, fighting one war with France between 1512 and 1514, and then another between 1522 and 1525, this time allying himself with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire . While France and
41907-399: The summer of 1545 but his forces reached only the Isle of Wight before being repulsed in the Battle of the Solent . Financially exhausted, France and England signed the Treaty of Camp on 7 June 1546. Henry secured Boulogne for eight years. The city was then to be returned to France for 2 million crowns (£750,000). Henry needed the money; the 1544 campaign had cost £650,000, and England
42136-468: The time of his death in July 1536, parliament was considering the Second Succession Act , which could have allowed him to become king. In 1510, France , with a fragile alliance with the Holy Roman Empire in the League of Cambrai , was winning a war against Venice . Henry renewed his father's friendship with Louis XII of France , an issue that divided his council. Certainly, war with the combined might of
42365-447: The title of "The King's Sister", two houses, and a generous allowance. It was soon clear that Henry had fallen for the 17-year-old Catherine Howard , the Duke of Norfolk's niece. This worried Cromwell, for Norfolk was his political opponent. Shortly after, the religious reformers (and protégés of Cromwell) Robert Barnes , William Jerome and Thomas Garret were burned as heretics. Cromwell, meanwhile, fell out of favour although it
42594-408: The towns of Calais and Guisnes in France, then controlled by Henry's forces. Commissioners were also to be sent out across south-west and south-east England to inspect the current defences and to propose sites for new ones. The initial result was the construction of 30 new fortifications of various sizes during 1539. The stone castles of Deal , Sandown and Walmer were constructed to protect
42823-418: The two countries to attack England. An invasion of England appeared certain. In response, Henry issued an order, called a " device ", in 1539, giving instructions for the "defence of the realm in time of invasion" and the construction of forts along the English coastline. Walmer and the adjacent castles of Deal and Sandown were constructed to protect the Downs in east Kent, an important anchorage formed by
43052-443: The two powers would have been exceedingly difficult. Shortly thereafter, however, Henry also signed a pact with Ferdinand II of Aragon. After Pope Julius II created the anti-French Holy League in October 1511, Henry followed Ferdinand's lead and brought England into the new League. An initial joint Anglo-Spanish attack was planned for the spring to recover Aquitaine for England, the start of making Henry's dreams of ruling France
43281-447: The upper levels for artillery . It cost the Crown a total of £27,092 to build the three castles of Walmer, Sandown , and Deal , which lay adjacent to one another along the coast and were connected by earthwork defences. The original invasion threat passed, but during the Second English Civil War of 1648–49, Walmer was seized by pro- Royalist insurgents and was only retaken by Parliamentary forces after several months' fighting. In
43510-420: The upper levels, including the keep – with a total of 39 firing positions, and 31 gunloops in the basement for handguns should close defence be required. The embrasures in the walls were all widely splayed to provide the maximum possible space for the guns to operate and traverse, and the interior of the castle was designed with vents to allow the smoke from its guns to escape. From the 18th century onwards,
43739-520: The war, as it was within range of the German artillery along the French coast, or indeed that he would able to afford to live there afterwards, and for that reason he hoped that the state would maintain the castle and gardens, and decide what use it should be put to after the war. Sir Robert Menzies , the Australian politician, became the Lord Warden in 1965 and visited the castle on an annual basis, staying in
43968-401: The warmest part of the castle. The corridor running across the castle through the keep was built by Pitt to link the north and south halves of the castle. The Prince Consort's and Queen Victoria's rooms in the keep are named after their use during the royal visit of 1842, although their decoration today dates from the interwar period . The Dining Room, Drawing Room and Ante Room, which overlook
44197-519: The widow of Arthur. In her place, Anne was crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533. The Queen gave birth to a daughter slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533. The child was christened Elizabeth , in honour of Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York. Following the marriage, there was a period of consolidation, taking the form of a series of statutes of the Reformation Parliament aimed at finding solutions to any remaining issues, whilst protecting
44426-469: The women servants have to sleep in a sort of dormitory in the slopes of the roof... The principal floor is, generally speaking, badly arranged and badly lighted and the Dining Room is very small"; the report suggested that it would be best to demolish the building and rebuild it. Proposals were made to find the next Lord Warden, [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston], alternative accommodation and
44655-413: The work, including stone, timber and lead and many other supplies. Camber, for example, probably required over 500,000 bricks, Sandgate needed 44,000 tiles, while constructing a small blockhouse along the Thames was estimated by contemporaries to require 200 tonnes (200 long tons; 220 short tons) of chalk just to enable the manufacture of the lime mortar . Some materials could be sourced locally, but coal
44884-579: The years of the Interregnum . Many of the forts remained garrisoned with substantial numbers of men due to fears of a Royalist invasion, overseen by newly appointed governors; Netley was brought back into service due to the threat. Many were used to hold prisoners of war or political detainees , including Hull, Mersea, Portland, Southsea and West Cowes. During the First Anglo-Dutch War between 1652 and 1654, castles such as Deal were reinforced with earthworks and soldiers. Portland saw action during
45113-693: Was excommunicated by the pope. Henry brought radical changes to the Constitution of England , expanding royal power and ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings in opposition to papal supremacy . He frequently used charges of treason and heresy to quell dissent, and those accused were often executed without a formal trial using bills of attainder . He achieved many of his political aims through his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey , Thomas More , Thomas Cromwell , and Thomas Cranmer all figured prominently in his administration. Henry
45342-407: Was restored to the throne in 1660 he reduced the numbers again to a captain, lieutenant, porter and 16 men. In the Glorious Revolution of 1688 against Charles' brother, King James II , the townsfolk of Deal seized Walmer Castle on behalf of William III , the Prince of Orange . By the end of the century, however, the castle was increasingly regarded as out of date from a military perspective. In
45571-438: Was "blighted in the eyes of God". Indeed, in marrying Catherine, his brother's wife, he had acted contrary to Leviticus 20:21, a justification Thomas Cranmer used to declare the marriage null. Martin Luther , on the other hand, had initially argued against the annulment, stating that Henry VIII could take a second wife in accordance with his teaching that the Bible allowed for polygamy but not divorce . Henry now believed
45800-458: Was an extravagant spender, using proceeds from the dissolution of the monasteries and acts of the Reformation Parliament . He converted money that was formerly paid to Rome into royal revenue. Despite the money from these sources, he was often on the verge of financial ruin due to personal extravagance and costly and largely unproductive wars, particularly with King Francis I of France , Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , King James V of Scotland , and
46029-524: Was appointed to the Order of the Garter . The reason for giving such appointments to a small child was to enable his father to retain personal control of lucrative positions and not share them with established families. Not much is known about Henry's early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, but it is known that he received a first-rate education from leading tutors. He became fluent in Latin and French and learned at least some Italian. In November 1501, Henry played
46258-441: Was badly damaged during the conflict and it was estimated by Rich, responsible for carrying out the repairs, that the work would cost at least £500. In 1649, Parliament ordered new supplies of ammunition and powder be sent to Walmer and the other castles of the Downs, which were brought back into good order. The garrison at Walmer remained substantial during the period, with a governor, a corporal and 20 soldiers, but when Charles II
46487-407: Was badly in debt and King George III believed that the post, which came with a salary of £3,000 a year, would usefully supplement Pitt's income. Pitt made extensive use of the castle and by 1803 he used it as his main residence in an effort to reduce his living costs. Pitt's niece, Lady Hester Stanhope , joined him at Walmer between 1803 and 1806; together with Pitt, she carried out extensive work on
46716-411: Was based in the Downs, protected by Walmer and the other Henrician castles, but by May a Royalist insurrection was under way across Kent. Vice-Admiral William Batten had been forced to resign from his post as Commander of the Fleet the previous year by Parliamentary officials, and he now encouraged the fleet to join the Royalist faction. Sir Henry Palmer, a former sailor, accompanied by other members of
46945-476: Was beheaded on 13 February 1542. Henry married his last wife, the wealthy widow Catherine Parr , in July 1543. A reformer at heart, she argued with Henry over religion. Henry remained committed to an idiosyncratic mixture of Catholicism and Protestantism; the reactionary mood that had gained ground after Cromwell's fall had neither eliminated his Protestant streak nor been overcome by it. Parr helped reconcile Henry with his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth. In 1543,
47174-410: Was constructed on land that had recently been confiscated from Milton Chantry . By the second phase of the programme, however, most of the money from the dissolution had been spent, and Henry instead had to borrow funds; government officials noted that at least £100,000 was needed for the work. The garrisons of the Device Forts comprised relatively small teams of men who typically lived and worked in
47403-524: Was decommissioned by King Charles I in 1637, while Sharpenrode Bulwark lay in ruins by the 1620s. Civil war broke out across England in 1642 between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament . Fortifications and artillery played an important role in the conflict, and most of the Device Forts saw service. The south and east of England were soon largely controlled by Parliament. The blockhouses at Gravesend and Tilbury were garrisoned by Parliament and used to control access to London. The castles along
47632-478: Was garrisoned throughout, as was Brownsea, which was strengthened and equipped with additional guns. West Cowes was rapidly taken after firing on a nearby Parliamentary ship, and the Royalist commander at Yarmouth quickly negotiated a surrender of his tiny garrison. The heavily outnumbered garrison at Southsea Castle was stormed by Parliamentary forces in a night attack. Like Camber, St Andrew's and Netley were rapidly occupied and then decommissioned by Parliament. In
47861-497: Was hugely expanded with an updated system of ramparts, bastions and moats at considerable cost. In the final phases of Charles's work, the castle and southern blockhouse at Hull were incorporated into a massive new fortification called the Citadel during the 1680s. Some of the Device Forts played a role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 against Charles' brother, King James II . The townsfolk of Deal seized their local castle in support of William of Orange , and took steps to defend
48090-411: Was inevitable. Henry had more in common with Charles, whom he met once before and once after Francis. Charles brought his realms into war with France in 1521; Henry offered to mediate, but little was achieved and by the end of the year Henry had aligned England with Charles. He still clung to his previous aim of restoring English lands in France but sought to secure an alliance with the Netherlands , then
48319-399: Was married to Catherine for 24 years. Their divorce has been described as a "deeply wounding and isolating" experience for Henry. In the winter of 1532, Henry met with Francis I at Calais and enlisted Francis's support for his new marriage. Immediately upon returning to Dover in England, Henry, now 41, and Anne went through a secret wedding service. She soon became pregnant, and there was
48548-424: Was much displeased with her appearance. The King was reportedly taken aback and told his courtiers "I promise you, I see no such thing as hath been shown me of her, by pictures and report. I am ashamed that men have praised her as they have done, and I love her not!" Despite his protests, Henry knew that the situation was too far gone and he would have to wed his bride. The marriage took place in January 1540, but it
48777-412: Was nearly identical to its sister castle at Sandown and was approximately 167 by 167 feet (51 by 51 m) across, covering 0.61 acres (0.25 ha). The historian John Hale considered the original castle to form a transitional design between older medieval English designs and newer Italian styles of defence. The castle had three tiers of artillery – the heaviest and longest range weapons occupying
49006-439: Was never consummated. The morning after their wedding night, Henry complained about his new wife to Cromwell, stating: Surely, my lord, I liked her before not well, but now I like her much worse! She is nothing fair, and have very evil smells about her. I took her to be no maid by reason of the closeness of her breasts and other tokens, which, when I felt them, strake me so to the heart, that I had neither will nor courage to prove
49235-428: Was not possible because Henry was too young. Isabella's death in 1504, and the ensuing problems of succession in Castile , complicated matters. Ferdinand II preferred Catherine to stay in England, but Henry VII's relations with Ferdinand had deteriorated. Catherine was therefore left in limbo for some time, culminating in Prince Henry's rejection of the marriage as soon he was able, at the age of 14. Ferdinand's solution
49464-402: Was now a real possibility, although it is commonly believed that it was Cromwell's anti-Boleyn influence that led opponents to look for a way of having her executed. Anne's downfall came shortly after she had recovered from her final miscarriage. Whether it was primarily the result of allegations of conspiracy, adultery, or witchcraft remains a matter of debate among historians. Early signs of
49693-447: Was offered the post of Lord Warden by the new prime minister, Lord Russell in 1865. Russell noted that the role would be expensive for Granville to perform — the salary had been abolished in 1828 — but that it would provide him with a property by the sea, which Granville had been seeking to acquire for a while. Granville took over Walmer in 1865. He expanded the gardens, built new kennels for a hunting pack and spent many years reassembling
49922-478: Was once again facing bankruptcy. Late in life, Henry became obese , with a waist measurement of 54 inches (140 cm), and had to be moved about with the help of mechanical devices. He was covered with painful, pus -filled boils and possibly had gout . His obesity and other medical problems can be traced to the jousting accident on 24 January 1536 in which he suffered a leg wound. The accident reopened and aggravated an injury he had sustained years earlier, to
50151-462: Was only then that Pope Clement VII took the step of excommunicating the King and Cranmer, although the excommunication was not made official until some time later. The King and Queen were not pleased with married life. The royal couple enjoyed periods of calm and affection, but Anne refused to play the submissive role expected of her. The vivacity and opinionated intellect that had made her so attractive as an illicit lover made her too independent for
50380-401: Was opened for public visitors during the final two days, around 9,000 attended. The Duke's body was finally removed to London via Deal, complete with a military escort. James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie became Lord Warden; on his death, the prime minister Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston , took over the castle in 1861. Palmerston initially declined to buy the contents of
50609-405: Was seized by Parliamentary forces at the start of the first English Civil War between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament , but did not play a significant role in the remainder of the initial conflict. After the few years of unsteady peace after 1645, the Second Civil War broke out in 1648, this time with Charles' Royalist supporters joined by Scottish allies. The Parliamentary navy
50838-402: Was seized on by the English for propaganda purposes. Soon after, the English took Thérouanne and handed it over to Maximilian; Tournai , a more significant settlement, followed. Henry had led the army personally, complete with a large entourage. His absence from the country, however, had prompted his brother-in-law James IV of Scotland to invade England at the behest of Louis. Nevertheless,
51067-408: Was shipped from the north of England and prefabricated items were brought in from London. Most of the money for the first phase of Device works came from Henry's dissolution of the monasteries a few years before, and the revenues that flowed in from the Court of Augmentations and First Fruits and Tenths as a result. In addition, the dissolution had released ample supplies of building materials as
51296-410: Was still under construction. The French expedition moved further on along the coast on 25 July, bringing an end to the immediate invasion threat. Meanwhile, on 22 July the French had carried out a raid at Seaford , and Camber Castle may have seen action against the French fleet. A peace treaty was agreed in June 1546, bringing an end to the war. By the time that Henry died the following year, in total
51525-415: Was strictly supervised and did not appear in public. As a result, he ascended the throne "untrained in the exacting art of kingship". Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance between England and Spain, by offering his son Henry in marriage to the widowed Catherine. Henry VII and Queen Isabella were both keen on the idea, which had arisen very shortly after Arthur's death. On 23 June 1503,
51754-497: Was temporarily decommissioned, before being brought back into active service. The strategic importance of south-east England declined after peace was declared with France in 1558. Military attention instead shifted towards the Spanish threat to the increasingly prosperous south-west of the country; tensions grew and war finally broke out in 1569. The new threat led to improvements being made to Pendennis and St Mawes castles in Cornwall, and repairs to Calshot, Camber and Portland along
51983-521: Was the only large room in the house, and Granville would answer government correspondence amid the daily life of the rest of the household. The businessman and politician William Smith was appointed Lord Warden in 1891, but died in Walmer Castle during his first visit here in October of that year. Smith had proposed that the historical artefacts in the castle should be protected from being removed by later Lord Wardens and suggested that government pass an Indenture of Heirlooms Bill. The government carried out
52212-499: Was then garrisoned with only 500 men. The fleet was forced to turn back due to bad weather, but Elizabeth reviewed the defences and significantly expanded Henry's original fortifications with more up-to-date bastions, designed by the engineer Paul Ive. By the end of the century, however, most of the Device Forts were typically out of date by European standards. James I came to the English throne in 1603, resulting peace with both France and Spain. His government took little interest in
52441-416: Was to make his daughter ambassador, allowing her to stay in England indefinitely. Devout, she began to believe that it was God's will that she marry the Prince despite his opposition. Henry VII died in April 1509, and the 17-year-old Henry succeeded him as king. Soon after his father's burial on 10 May, Henry suddenly declared that he would indeed marry Catherine, leaving unresolved several issues concerning
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