Shaivism/Tantra/Nath
151-406: Shaivism/Tantra/Nath New movements Kashmir Shaivism Gaudapada Adi Shankara Advaita-Yoga Nath Kashmir Shaivism Neo-Vedanta Inchegeri Sampradaya Contemporary Shaivism/Tantra/Nath Neo-Advaita Hinduism Buddhism Modern Advaita Vedanta Neo-Vedanta Vidyaranya ( IAST : Vidyāraṇya), usually identified with Mādhavācārya ,
302-518: A wax seal imprinted with the ring of the monarch. At the lower administrative levels, wealthy feudal landlords ( Gowdas ) supervised accountants ( Karanikas or Karnam ) and guards ( Kavalu ). The palace administration was divided into 72 departments ( Niyogas ), each having several female attendants chosen for their youth and beauty (some imported or captured in victorious battles) who were trained to handle minor administrative matters and to serve men of nobility as courtesans or concubines. The empire
453-419: A "historic past", which is "largely facticious." Brown and Leledaki see these newly emerging traditions as part of western Orientalism , the fascination of western cultures with eastern cultures, but also the reduction of "Asian societies, its people, practices and cultures to essentialist images of the 'other'". Brown and Leledaki also note that this Orientalism is not a one-way affair, but that "there has been
604-623: A Telugu-narrative, the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya , a saint at the Sringeri monastery, to fight the Muslim invasion of South India, but the role of Vidyaranya in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is not certain. In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra River and earned
755-509: A curse on those who do not honor the grant. Most Vijayanagara inscriptions recovered so far are in Kannada, Telugu and Tamil, and a few in Sanskrit. According to Suryanath U. Kamath about 7000 stone inscriptions, half of which are in Kannada, and about 300 copper plates which are mostly in Sanskrit, have been recovered. Bilingual inscriptions had lost favor by the 14th century. According to Mack,
906-462: A dynamic interaction between Asian and Western representatives of various religious traditions over the last 150 years," and that this "blending of thought and practice" is a co-creation from modernist religious movements in both East and West. According to Arthur Versluis , neo-Advaita is part of a larger religious current which he calls immediatism , "the assertion of immediate spiritual illumination without much if any preparatory practice within
1057-557: A family could have different social status based on their occupation and the upward movement of a caste or sub-caste was not uncommon based on the breakthroughs achieved by an individual or a group of individuals from the community. Caste affiliation was closely tied to craft production and members of a common craft formed collective memberships. Often members of related crafts formed inter-caste communities. This helped them consolidate strength and gain political representation and trade benefits. According to Talbot, terminology such as Setti
1208-551: A gradually ascending series, culminating in the Advaita Vedanta (or non-dualism)." The sixteen systems of philosophy expounded by him are: The Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha itself omits the 16th chapter ( Advaita Vedanta , or the system of Adi Shankara ), the absence of which is explained by a paragraph at the end of the 15th chapter (the Patanjali-Darsana). It says: "The system of Shankara, which comes next in succession, and which
1359-520: A greater reach, and their archers used metal crossbows which enabled their arrows to reach longer distances. In comparison, the Vijayanagara army depended on slow-moving war elephants , a cavalry riding mostly locally bred weaker horses wielding shorter-reach javelins, and their archers used traditional bamboo bows with a shorter range. Richard Eaton argues that Vijayanagara's inferiority was due to Krishna Raya's failure to invest in military technology in
1510-563: A guru, never claimed to have disciples, and never appointed any successors. Despite this, there are numerous contemporary teachers who assert, suggest, or are said by others, to be in his lineage. These assertions have been disputed by other teachers, stating that there is no lineage from Ramana Maharshi. Critics have also noted that Ramana and like-minded teachers like Nisargadatta Maharaj did not charge fees or donations. Vijayanagara Empire The Vijayanagara Empire ( / v ɪ ˌ dʒ ə j ə ˈ n ə ɡ ə r ə / ) or
1661-490: A large scale. Dye crops of indigo and chay root were produced for the weaving industry. A mineral rich region, Machilipatnam was the gateway for high quality iron and steel exports. Diamond mining was active in the Kollur region. The cotton weaving industry produced two types of cottons, plain calico and muslin (brown, bleached or dyed). Cloth printed with coloured patterns crafted by native techniques were exported to Java and
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#17328526033991812-641: A major military defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara (modern-day Hampi ) whose extensive ruins are now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Karnataka. The wealth and fame of the empire inspired visits by and writings of medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes , Fernão Nunes , and Nicolò de' Conti . These travelogues, contemporary literature and epigraphy in
1963-399: A many obstacles including dissatisfied nobles, the rebellious chief of Ummattur in the south, a resurgent Gajapati kingdom under King Prataparudra, a growing threat from the newly formed Adil Shahi Sultanate of Bijapur under Yusuf Adil Khan and Portuguese interest in controlling the west coast. Not one to be unnerved by these pressures he strengthened and consolidated the empire, one victory at
2114-527: A monthly basis by each governor was created under royal decree. Temples were taxed for land ownership to cover military expenses. In the Telugu districts the temple tax was called Srotriyas , in the Tamil speaking districts it was called as Jodi . Taxes such as Durgavarthana , Dannayivarthana and Kavali Kanike were collected towards protection of movable and immovable wealth from robbery and invasions. Jeevadhanam
2265-603: A particular religious tradition." Its origins predate American Transcendentalism . In American Gurus: From Transcendentalism to New Age Religion , Versluis describes the emergence of immediatist gurus: gurus who are not connected to any of the traditional religions, and promise instant enlightenment and liberation. These include Eckhart Tolle , and Andrew Cohen . "Immediatism" refers to "a religious assertion of spontaneous, direct, unmediated spiritual insight into reality (typically with little or no prior training), which some term 'enlightenment'." According to Versluis, immediatism
2416-668: A place. The Tottiyans were shepherds who later gained marginal ruling status ( poligars ), Saurashtrans were traders who came from present-day Gujarat and rivalled the Brahmins for some benefits, the Reddys were agriculturists and the Uppilia were salt farmers . According to Chopra et al., in addition to their monopoly over priestly duties, Brahmins occupied high positions in political and administrative fields. The Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes observed an increasing presence of Brahmins in
2567-546: A price on the bride was a possible influence of the Islamic Mahr system. To oppose this influence, in the year 1553, the Brahmin community passed a mandate under royal decree and popularized the kanyadana within the community. According to this practice money could not be paid or received during marriage and those who did were liable for punishment. There is a mention of Streedhana ("woman's wealth") in an inscription and that
2718-471: A process in which spiritual paradises are bound together", as exemplified in American Transcendentalism, New Age , transpersonal psychology and the works of Ken Wilber are examples: Brown and Leledaki place this "hybridization" in a "structurationist" approach, pointing out that this is an "invented tradition", which is a response to a novel situation, although it claims a continuity with
2869-454: A rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries ( mathas ) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta. Advaita Vedanta's position as most influential Hindu darsana took shape as Advaitins in the Vijayanagara Empire competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their sect. Vidyaranya's works have been explained as
3020-488: A rapid growth. Ramana Maharshi's teachings have been further popularized in the west via H. W. L. Poonja and his students. Poonja, better known as Papaji, "told, inferred, or allowed hundreds of individuals to believe they were fully enlightened simply because they'd had one, or many, powerful experiences of awakening." It was those students who initiated the "neo-Advaita", or "satsang" movement, which has become an important constituent of popular western spirituality . It
3171-506: A response to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate , but his efforts were also targeted at Srivaisnava groups, especially Visistadvaita , which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire. Sects competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their own sectarian system, and Vidyaranya efforts were aimed at promoting Advaita Vedanta among Srivaishnavins. This promotion
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#17328526033993322-562: A result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands. Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the tenth century and many mosques flourished on the Malabar coast by the early 14th century. Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as Mappillas ( Moplahs ) and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets. The interactions between
3473-558: A role of Vidyaranya. The historical authenticity of the Andraha or Telugu account has been questioned. The contemporary documents, including the inscriptions issued by the earliest rulers of Vijayanagara, do not mention this account. The contemporary Muslim records refer to Harihara (as "Harip" or "Haryab"), but do not mention anything about his conversion to Islam, although they contain details of other converts from Deccan. The first works to mention this narrative were written over 200 years after
3624-511: A sister of Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur was married to Burhan Nizam Shah I of Ahmednagar , the town of Sholapur was given to the bride by her family. Ayyangar notes that when the Gajapati King of Kalinga gave his daughter in marriage honoring the victorious Krishnadevaraya he included several villages as dowry. Inscriptions of the 15th and 16th centuries record the practice of dowry among commoners as well. The practice of putting
3775-592: A sub-commentary on the Pañcapadikavivarana, and worked in the Vijayanagara court under the patronage of Harihara Maharaja. The SDS shares many passages and quotations from Cannibhatta's other works. Thakur suggests that the plan of the work may have originated with Madhava, and been written by Cannibhatta, with the help of Sāyaṇa and Madhava. According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , the Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha "sketches sixteen systems of thought so as to exhibit
3926-408: A time. He was an astute ruler who hired both Hindus and Muslims into his army. In the following decades, the empire covered Southern India and successfully defeated invasions from the five established Deccan sultanates to its north. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529) when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire gained territory from
4077-762: A victorious conqueror." The most famous works written by, or attributed to Madhavacharya, are Sarva-darsana-sangraha ("Compendium of Speculations - a compendium of all the known Indian schools of philosophy"), written in Old Kannada; Madhaviya Shankara Vijaya , a hagiography of Shankara; and the Parasara–Madhaviya , written in Sanskrit. While best known for his Advaitic works, Vidyaranya also wrote on dharmasastric legal texts, ritual performance and Purvamimamsa , and does not seem to have perceived Mimamsa and Vedanta as being opposite to each other. While usually attributed to Madhava [B], and thereby to Vidyaranya, Madhava [B]
4228-520: A western context. Ramana Maharshi himself did not demand a shift in religious affiliation, and was himself acquainted with western religions, using quotes from the Bible. Neo-Advaita teachers have further deemphasized the traditional language and worldframe of Advaita, using a modern, psychologized worldframe to present their teachings as a form of self-help, which is easily accessible to a larger audience. The western approach to "Asian enlightenment traditions"
4379-636: A while but eventually made him very unpopular among his people and the Muslim rulers. He made a commercial treaty with the Portuguese to stop the supply of horses to Bijapur , then defeated the Bijapur sultan and inflicted humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmadnagar . Eventually the Deccan sultanates to the north of Vijayanagara united and attacked Rama Raya's army in January 1565 in the Battle of Talikota . Regarding
4530-490: Is being spread by websites and publishing enterprises, which give an easy access to its teachings. Lucas has called the popularisation of Ramana Maharshi's teachings in the west "the Ramana effect". According to Lucas, Ramana Maharshi was the greatest modern proponent of Advaita Vedanta, well known for emphasizing the enquiry of the question "Who am I?" as a means to attain awakening. According to Lucas, following Thomas Csordas,
4681-450: Is disputed; the author was a Madhava, and the correct seems to be the 17th or even 18th century. The book is the best-known of the popular hagiographic accounts of Shankara's 'conquests of the four quarters', his tour of India starting from Sringeri, defeating rival teachers and traditions, and establishing four mathas in India to spread the superior teaching of Advaita Vedanta. According to Slaje,
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4832-458: Is highly eclectic, drawing on various Asian traditions, as well as "numerous Western discourses such as psychology, science, and politics." Neo-Advaita uses western discourses, such as " New Age millennialism , Zen , self-empowerment and self-therapy" to transmit its teachings. It makes little use of the "traditional language or cultural frames of Advaita Vedanta," and is framed in a western construction of experiential and perennial mysticism, "to
4983-595: Is often repeated in historical works, such as Nilakanta Sastri's A History of South India . According to this narrative, the empire's founders Harihara Raya I and Bukka Raya I were two brothers belonging to the Kakatiya dynasty , serving the Kampili chief . After Kampili fell to the Muslim invasion, they were taken to Delhi and converted to Islam . They were sent back to Kampili as the Delhi Sultan 's vassals. After gaining power in
5134-422: Is one of the few available sources of information about lokayata , the materialist system of philosophy in ancient India. In the very first chapter, "The Cārvāka System", he critiques the arguments of lokayatika s. While doing so he quotes extensively from Cārvāka works. It is possible that some of these arguments put forward as the lokayata point of view may be a mere caricature of lokayata philosophy. Yet in
5285-405: Is quite different from the neo-Advaita claims. Classical Advaita Vedanta uses the "fourfold discipline" ( sādhana-catustaya ) to train students and attain moksha . Years of committed practice is needed to sever or destroy the "occlusion" the so-called " vasanas , samskaras , bodily sheaths and vrittis ", and the "granthi or knot forming identification between Self and mind," and prepare
5436-653: Is the samadhi of Vidya shankara, the guru of Vidyaranya which was built over the former's samadhi by his disciple Harihara . It is maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India . The dating of Vidyaranya is unclear. According to Jackson, Vidyaranya was born between 1280 and 1285. According to the records of the Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Vidyaranya was born in c. 1296 CE in Ekasila Nagara (present-day Warangal). According to Sringeri matha, Vidyaranya
5587-445: Is the crest-gem of all systems, has been explained by us elsewhere, it is, therefore, left untouched here." Madhvacharya sets out to refute, chapter by chapter, the other systems of thought prominent in his day. Vidyaranya depicts and quotes directly from the works of their founders or leading exponents, picturing himself (with mental detachment) as an adherent of each of the sixteen distinct philosophical systems. Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha
5738-550: Is typical for Americans, who want "the fruit of religion, but not its obligations." Although immediatism has its roots in European culture and history as far back as Platonism , and also includes Perennialism , Versluis points to Ralph Waldo Emerson as its key ancestor, who "emphasized the possibility of immediate, direct spiritual knowledge and power." Neo-Advaita has been called a "controversial movement," and has been criticized, for its emphasis on insight alone, omitting
5889-685: The Aravidu dynasty , founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire. Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his empire to his three sons. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others. During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara, including
6040-555: The Deccan sultanates , including Raichur in 1520 and Gulbarga in the central Deccan, and from wars with Sultan Quli Qutb Shah of Golconda in the eastern Deccan; the Kalinga region as well was gained from the Gajapatis of Odisha . This was in addition to the already established presence in the southern Deccan. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Emperor Krishna Deva Raya. Krishna Deva Raya
6191-508: The Far East . Golkonda specialised in plain cotton and Pulicat in printed. The main imports on the east coast were non-ferrous metals , camphor , porcelain, silk and luxury goods. Mahanavami festival marked the beginning of a financial year from when the state treasury accounted for and reconciled all outstanding dues within nine days. At this time, an updated annual assessment record of provincial dues, which included rents and taxes, paid on
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6342-853: The Hindu god Shiva ) but made grants to Vishnu temples. Their patron saint Vidyaranya was from the Advaita order at Sringeri . The Varaha (the boar avatar of Vishnu) was the emblem of the empire. Over one-fourth of the archaeological dig found an "Islamic Quarter" not far from the "Royal Quarter". Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava (followers of Vishnu) by faith, but also worshipped Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati as well as Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi. A Sanskrit work, Jambavati Kalyanam by Emperor Krishnadevaraya, refers to Virupaksha as Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire"). The kings patronised
6493-576: The Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Vijayanagara territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli . Islamic contact with South India began as early as the seventh century,
6644-522: The Jivanmuktiviveka , a work usually attributed to Vidyaranya, due to his identification with Madhava [B]. According to the Sringeri account, the brothers Madhava and Sayana came to Vidyaranya to receive his blessings, and completed his unfinished Veda bhashyas. The role of Vidyaranya in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is not certain. According to tradition, Vidyaranya played an important role in
6795-407: The Kampili kingdom near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra River in the northeastern parts of present-day Karnataka state. The kingdom collapsed after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate and upon their defeat, the populace committed a jauhar (ritual mass suicide) in c. 1327–28 . The Vijayanagara Kingdom was founded in 1336 as a successor to the hitherto prosperous Hindu kingdoms of
6946-570: The Karnata Kingdom was a late medieval Hindu empire that ruled much of southern India . It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty , belonged to the Yadava clan of Chandravamsa lineage. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Muslim invasions by the end of the 13th century. At its peak in
7097-555: The Nayakas of Chitradurga , Keladi Nayaka , Mysore Kingdom , Nayak Kingdom of Gingee , Nayaks of Tanjore , and Nayaks of Madurai . The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire maintained the administrative methods developed by their predecessors, the Hoysala, Kakatiya and Pandya kingdoms. The emperor, ministry, territory, fort, treasury, military , and ally formed the seven critical elements that influenced every aspect of governance. The emperor
7248-554: The Vijayanagara Empire sometime in 1336, and served as a mentor and guide to three generations of kings who ruled over it. The historical accuracy of this account is doubtful, and may have originated as late as 200 years after the events, as a "political foundation myth, an ideological attempt to represent the authority of the Vijayanagara state as deriving directly from that of the Sultanate." The Vidyashankara temple in Sringeri
7399-509: The guru (teacher) of Vadirajatirtha, Purandaradasa ( Pitamaha or "Father of Carnatic music" ) and Kanakadasa earned the devotion of Emperor Krishnadevaraya. The emperor considered the saint his Kuladevata (family deity) and honoured him in his writings. During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, Annamacharya composed hundreds of Kirthanas in Telugu at Tirupati in present-day Andhra Pradesh . The defeat of
7550-421: The "traditional language or cultural frames of Advaita Vedanta ", and some have criticised it for its lack of preparatory training, and regard enlightenment-experiences induced by Neo-Advaita as superficial. The basic practice of neo-Advaita is self-inquiry , via the question "Who am I?", or simply the direct recognition of the non-existence of the "I" or "ego." This recognition is taken to be equal to
7701-520: The Advaita Vedanta recognition of the identity of Atman and Brahman , or the recognition of the "Formless Self." According to neo-Advaitins, no preparatory practice is necessary, nor prolonged study of religious scriptures or tradition: insight alone suffices. Poonja, who is credited as one of the main instigators of the neo-Advaita movement, saw this realization as in itself liberating from karmic consequences and further rebirth. According to Poonja "karmic tendencies remained after enlightenment, [but]
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#17328526033997852-615: The Bahmani Sultanate. His governor Saluva Narasimha reduced the loss of territory by holding almost all of coastal Andhra Pradesh south of the Krishna river, Chittoor, the two Arcots and Kolar. Saluva Narashimha defeated the Gajapatis and held Udayagiri, drove out the Pandyas from Tanjore, and took procession of Machilipatnam and Kondaveedu . He later defeated Bahmani forces and recovered most of
8003-535: The Deccan sultanates and called himself "Sultan of the World". This included both Deccani Muslims recruited from anywhere in the Deccan or Westerners from beyond the Persian Gulf. He was keenly interfering in the internal affairs of the various sultanates in the Deccan and on playing off the Muslim powers against one another, while making himself the ruler of the most powerful and influential regional power. This worked for
8154-469: The Deccan sultanates turning the tide decisively in favor of them. The generals captured Rama Raya and beheaded him, and Sultan Hussain had the severed head stuffed with straw for display. Rama Raya's beheading created confusion and havoc in the Vijayanagara army, which were then completely routed. The Deccan sultanates' army plundered Hampi and reduced it to the ruinous state in which it remains today. After Rama Raya's death, Tirumala Deva Raya started
8305-616: The Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, and the Yadavas with the breakaway Kampili Kingdom adding a new dimension to the resistance to the Muslim invasion of South India. Two theories have been proposed regarding the linguistic origins of the Vijayanagara Empire. One is that Harihara I and Bukka I , the founders of the empire, were Kannadigas and commanders in the army of the Hoysala Empire stationed in
8456-541: The Kannada narrative is the manotsava of 1346, which marks the beginning of Vijayanagara patronage of Vidyatirtha, the Shankaracarya of Sringeri math, who legitimized their kingdom with his blessings, receiving a land grant in return. According to this narrative, the Sangamas were retainers to the Hoysala royal house, and the 1346 manotsava "marks the inheritance of the Hoysala domains by the new Sangama dynasty." Until 1374,
8607-448: The Muslim invasion of South India, and served as a prime minister to Harihara Raya I , the first king of the Vijayanagara Empire and named after Harihara , the fused sattvika characterisation of Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara), and then to Bukka Raya I and Harihara II . There are several versions of Vidyaranya's role in the Vijayanagara Empire. The Andraha or Telugu version depends on Sanskrit sources written 200 years later, and
8758-765: The Satsang-movement is a new religious movement , emphasizing the direct recognition of the non-existence of the "I" or "ego," without the need of preparatory practice. Its teachings are derived from, but not authorised by, the teachings of the 20th century sage Ramana Maharshi , as interpreted and popularized by H. W. L. Poonja and several of his western students. It is part of a larger religious current called immediatism by Arthur Versluis , which has its roots in both western and eastern spirituality. Western influences are western esoteric traditions like Transcendentalism, and " New Age millennialism , self-empowerment and self-therapy". Neo-Advaita makes little use of
8909-458: The Sringeri accounts, Vidyaranya was the elder brother of Bharati Tirtha, who preceded him as the acharya of Sringeri. Vidyaranya composed, or contributed to, a number of texts. The Panchadashi may have been finished by Bharati Tirtha, and some sources argue that Vidyaranya and Bharati Tirtha were the same person. Yet the Sringeri records clearly identify them as two different persons. Some accounts identify Madhavacharya or Vidyaranya with Madhava,
9060-436: The Sultanate." Vidyaranya's role as an advisor to Harihara Raya I and Bukka Raya I "was imagined probably at least 200 years afterward." His supposed political status may be based on a misidentification with Madhavamatrin, a minister to Sangama brother Mallapa I. Vidyaranya is not mentioned in inscriptions from before 1374. Sringeri matha became a powerful institution in the 14th century, when it started to receive patronage from
9211-590: The Tamil country by occupying the Reddi kingdoms of Rajahmundry, Kondaveedu, Kanchipuram , and Tiruchirapalli . These defeats reduced the Vijayanagara Empire's prestige, described by an inscription which described the Gajapati king as "a yawning lion to the sheep of the Karnatak King". Mallikarjuna's successor Virupaksha Raya II led a life of pleasure perusing wine and women leading to the loss of Goa and much of Karnataka to
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#17328526033999362-618: The Tungabhadra region to ward off Muslim invasions from Northern India. Another theory is that Harihara and Bukkaraya were Telugu people, first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom , who took control of the northern parts of the Hoysala Empire during its decline. They were believed to have been captured by the army of Muhammad bin Tughluq at Warangal . According to tradition, based on
9513-541: The Vijayanagara Empire and the Bahamani Sultanate to the north increased the presence of Muslims in the south. In the early 15th century, Deva Raya built a mosque for the Muslims in Vijayanagara and placed a Quran before his throne. The introduction of Christianity began as early as the eighth century as shown by the finding of copper plates inscribed with land grants to Malabar Christians. Christian travelers wrote of
9664-634: The Vijayanagara Empire as "The Kingdom of Narasinga", a name derived from "Narasimha" by the Portuguese. It is not clear whether the name was derived from Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya or Narasimha Raya II . Before the early 14th-century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Hindu states of the Deccan – the Yadava Empire of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal , and the Pandyan Empire of Madurai – were repeatedly raided and attacked by Muslims from
9815-418: The Vijayanagara city limits have revealed the existence of various community-based gaming activities. Engravings on boulders, rock platforms and temple floors indicate these were popular locations of casual social interaction. Some of these are gaming boards similar to the ones in use today and others are yet to be identified. Dowry was in practice and can be seen in both Hindu and Muslim royal families. When
9966-403: The Vijayanagara defeat in battle, Kamath opines that the Sultanate armies, though numerically disadvantaged, were better equipped and trained. Their artillery was manned by expert Turkish gunmen while the Vijayanagara army depended on European mercenaries using outdated artillery. The Sultanate cavalry rode fast moving Persian horses and used spears that were fifteen to sixteen feet long giving them
10117-508: The Vijayanagara kings shifted their interest from the Saivite matha to the Vaisnavite sect, and the leaders of the matha wanted to reassert their prestige by connecting themselves directly with the founding of the empire." In this view, 1346 is more likely, based on an inscription mentioning the manotsava , or great festival, of Harihara and Bukka, held at Sringeri matha. No mention is made here of
10268-436: The absence of any original work of lokayatika s, it is one of the very few sources of information available today on materialist philosophy in ancient India. The Madhaviya Shankara (Dig)vijayam , also known as Samkshepa-Shankara-Vijaya , a hagiography about the life and achievements of Shankara Bhagavat-Pada ( Adi Shankara ), is usually attributed to Madhava-Vidyaranya, and dated to the 14th century. The attribution and dating
10419-469: The absolute with another disciple of his teacher, wherein they both worked out the concepts he put forward in the book “I Am That.” He did not accept students for another 13 years, in 1951. You see, he was still maturing, learning, changing, even though he already had a firm grasp on the absolute. Western critics object to the perceived relation between Ramana Maharshi and Neo-Advaita, noting that Ramana never promoted any lineage, did not publicize himself as
10570-415: The brother of Sayana , a Mimamsa scholar. In his attempt to clarify the identification of Madhava with Vidyaranya, Narasimhachar (1916, 1917) named this Madhava [B], distinguishing him from Madhava [A], a device also followed by Rama Rao (1930; 1931; 1934), and Kulke (1985). Mid 14th century, Madhava [B] served as a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire, and wrote several works, including, according to Rama Rao,
10721-507: The cause of the conflict. Contemporary Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak attributes the war to the Bahamani Sultan capitalizing on the confusion caused by an internal revolt within the Vijayanagara Empire, including an attempt to assassinate the Raya by his brother. Deva Raya II was succeeded by his elder son Mallikarjuna Raya in 1446. The Gajapati emperor removed the Vijayanagara control over
10872-411: The collection of additional feudal tributes from feudatory rulers, and consisted of archers and musketeers wearing quilted tunics , shieldmen with swords and poignards in their girdles, and soldiers carrying shields so large that armour was not necessary. The horses and elephants were fully armoured and the elephants had knives fastened to their tusks to do maximum damage in battle. The capital city
11023-768: The commoners whose lives were modest, the lives of royalty were full of ceremonial pomp. Queens and princesses had numerous attendants who were lavishly dressed and adorned with fine jewellery. Their numbers ensured their daily duties were light. Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment, and women wrestlers are also mentioned in records. Gymnasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters and records mention regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peacetime. Royal palaces and marketplaces had special arenas where royalty and common people amused themselves by watching sports such as cock fight , ram fight and female wrestling. Excavations within
11174-621: The construction of Hindu temples . Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies to the region such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada , Telugu , Tamil , and Sanskrit with topics such as astronomy , mathematics , medicine , fiction , musicology , historiography and theater gaining popularity. The classical music of Southern India, Carnatic music , evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in
11325-506: The courts of the Vijayanagara kings and their feudal chiefs. Some members of the royal family were writers of merit and authored important works such as Jambavati Kalyana by Emperor Krishnadevaraya, and Madura Vijayam (also known as Veerakamparaya Charita ) by Princess Gangadevi , a daughter-in-law of Emperor Bukka I , dwells on the conquest of the Madurai Sultanate by the Vijayanagara Empire. The Kannada poets and scholars of
11476-499: The disregard of its social, ethical and political aspects." This "modern experiential and perennialist mystical framework" emphasizes Perennialism , the idea that there is a common, mystical core to all religions, which can be empirically validated by personal experience . It has pervaded the western understanding of Asian religions, and can be found in Swami Vivekananda and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 's Neo-Vedanta , but also in
11627-495: The earliest possible date of Vidyaranya's installment as jagadguru , Sringeri math was granted substantially more land and money, and the prestige of the jagadguru had subsequently changed too. This may have aided the further dissemination of Advaita views, and the production of Advaita texts. Vidyaranya had a central role in repositioning Shankara and his view on Advaita Vedanta. Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support, and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as
11778-771: The early 16th century under Krishnadevaraya , it subjugated almost all of Southern India's ruling dynasties and pushed the Deccan sultanates beyond the Tungabhadra - Krishna River doab region, in addition to annexing the Gajapati Empire ( Odisha ) up to the Krishna River, becoming one of the most prominent states in India. The empire's territory covered most of the lands of the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka , Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu , Kerala , Goa , and some parts of Telangana and Maharashtra . The empire lasted until 1646, although its power declined greatly after
11929-461: The emperor's personal army directly recruited by the empire and the feudal army under each feudatory. Emperor Krishnadevaraya 's personal army consisted of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalrymen, and over 900 elephants. The whole army was claimed to number over 1.1 million soldiers, with up to 2 million having been recorded, along with a navy led by a Navigadaprabhu (commander of the navy). The army recruited from all classes of society, supported by
12080-540: The empire produced important writings supporting the Vaishnava Bhakti movement heralded by the Haridasas (devotees of Vishnu), Brahminical and Veerashaiva ( Lingayatism ) literature. The Haridasa poets celebrated their devotion through songs called Devaranama (lyrical poems) in the native meters of Sangatya (quatrain), Suladi (beat based), Ugabhoga (melody based) and Mundige (cryptic). Their inspirations were
12231-467: The empire enjoyed a high level of monetization. This is especially evident from the number of temple cash grants that were made. Coins were minted using gold, silver, copper and brass and their value depended on material weight. Coins were minted by the state, in the provinces and by merchant guilds. Foreign currency was in circulation. The highest denomination was the gold Varaha (or Hun/Honnu , Gadyana ) weighted 50.65 – 53 grains. The Partab or Pratapa
12382-623: The empire from their traditional enemies, the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan. He also subdued rebelling chiefs of the Chera, the Chola and the Pandya territories. Despite many attempts by nobles and members of the royal family to overthrow him, Narasa Nayaka retained control as regent till 1503. In 1503, Narasa Nayaka's son Vira Narasimha had prince Immadi Narasimha of the Saluva dynasty assassinated and took over
12533-625: The empire was Kannada. The latter gained even more cultural and literary prominence during the reign of the last Vijayanagara emperors, especially Krishnadevaraya. Most Sanskrit works were commentaries either on the Vedas or on the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics, written by well known figures such as Sayanacharya (who wrote a treatise on the Vedas called Vedartha Prakasha whose English translation by Max Muller appeared in 1856), and Vidyaranya that extolled
12684-417: The empire was fertile and well cultivated. Most of the growers were tenant farmers and were given the right of part ownership of the land over time. Tax policies encouraging needed produce made distinctions between land use to determine tax levies. For example, the daily market availability of rose petals was important for perfumers, so cultivation of roses received a lower tax assessment. Salt production and
12835-548: The empire's 300 ports, large and small, on the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . The ports of Mangalore , Honavar , Bhatkal , Barkur , Cochin , Cannanore , Machilipatnam , and Dharmadam were important for they not only provided secure harbors for traders from Africa, Arabia, Aden, the Red sea, China and Bengal but some also served as ship building centers. When merchant ships docked,
12986-453: The empire's earlier losses. After the death of Virupaksha Raya II in 1485, Saluva Narasimha led a coup that ended the dynastic rule while continuing to defend the empire from raids by the Sultanates created from the continuing disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate in its north. Saluva Narasimha left his two adolescent sons under the care of general Tuluva Narasa Nayaka who ably defended
13137-478: The empire, while some areas, such as Keladi and Madurai , came under the direct supervision of a commander. On the battlefield, the emperor's commanders led the troops. The empire's war strategy rarely involved massive invasions; more often it employed small-scale methods such as attacking and destroying individual forts. The empire was among the first in India to use long-range artillery, which were commonly manned by foreign gunners. Army troops were of two types:
13288-539: The enlightened person was no longer identified with them and, therefore, did not accrue further karmic consequences." According to Cohen, Poonja "insisted that the realization of the Self had nothing to do with worldly behavior, and he did not believe fully transcending the ego was possible." For Poonja, ethical standards were based on a dualistic understanding of duality and the notion of an individual agent, and therefore were not indicative of "non-dual enlightenment: "For Poonja,
13439-474: The entire hull with ropes rather than fastening them with nails. Ships sailed to the Red Sea ports of Aden and Mecca with Vijayanagara goods sold as far away as Venice . The empire's principal exports were pepper, ginger, cinnamon , cardamom, myrobalan , tamarind timber , anafistula , precious and semi-precious stones, pearls, musk , ambergris , rhubarb , aloe , cotton cloth and porcelain . Cotton yarn
13590-413: The establishment of Vijayanagara. According to studies by Filliozat, Kulke and Wagoner, Vidyaranya was not involved in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire. Texts describing such an involvement date from the 16th and 17th century, and the involvement of Vidyaranya is a "political foundation myth, an ideological attempt to represent the authority of the Vijayanagara state as deriving directly from that of
13741-538: The establishment of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646) of South India, which emerged as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century, as a successor to the Hindu kingdoms of the Hoysalas , the Kakatiyas, and the Yadavas. According to tradition, Vidyaranya supported and inspired the empire's founders Harihara Raya I and Bukka Raya I to fight
13892-507: The first Sultanate was formed in South Asia. Similar conical headdress is seen in other sites such as the Ajanta Caves , Ellora Caves , Aihole and Badami , variously dated from the 2nd century to 10th century. as well as that Indian kingdoms recognized their religious identity of being Hindu by the early 14th century. Others interpret the term Hinduraya Suratrana to mean "protectors of
14043-456: The goal was the realization of the self; the illusory realm of relative reality was ultimately irrelevant." According to Lucas and Frawley , the spiritual root of neo-Advaita is Ramana Maharshi, whose teachings, and method of self-inquiry could easily be transposed to North America’s liberal spiritual subculture. Popular interest in Indian religions goes as far back as the early 19th century, and
14194-503: The gods of (or among) the Hindu kings". The empire's founders, the Sangama brothers (Harihara I and Bukka Raya I), came from a pastoral cowherd background, possibly the Kuruba people, that claimed Yadava lineage in an attempt to claim Kshatriya status like the rest of South Indian dynasties who originated from a pastoral background. The founders of the empire were devout Shaivas (worshippers of
14345-440: The history of Southern India that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as an unifying factor. 'Vijaynagar' translates to 'City of Victory'. Karnata Rajya (Karnata Kingdom) was another name for the Vijayanagara Empire, used in some inscriptions and literary works of the Vijayanagara times including the Sanskrit work Jambavati Kalyanam by Emperor Krishnadevaraya and Telugu work Vasu Charitamu . Europeans referred to
14496-514: The kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim . By 1436 the rebellious chiefs of Kondavidu and the Velama rulers were successfully dealt with and had to accept Vijayanagara overlordship. After a few years of tranquility, wars broke out with the Bahamani Sultanate in 1443 with some successes and some reversals. The Persian visitor Firishta attributes Deva Raya II's war preparations, which included augmenting his armies with Muslim archers and cavalry, to be
14647-402: The kings of the Vijayanagara Empire. The Vidyashankara temple in Sringeri is the samadhi of Vidyaranya, which was built over his grave by his disciple Harihara . Paul Hacker notes that no mention of the mathas can be found before the 14th century CE. Until the 15th century, the timespan of the directors of Sringeri Math are unrealistically long , spanning 60+ and even 105 years. After 1386,
14798-547: The latter defaulted in paying the tribute. Such wars for tribute payment by Vijayanagara were repeated in the 15th century. Deva Raya II (eulogized in contemporary literature as Gajabetekara ) succeeded to the throne in 1424. He was possibly the most successful of the Sangama Dynasty rulers. He quelled rebelling feudal lords and the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded Sri Lanka and became overlord of
14949-640: The lives of millions. The Haridasas represented two groups, the Vyasakuta and Dasakuta , the former being required to be proficient in the Vedas , Upanishads and other Darshanas , while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs ( Devaranamas and Kirthanas ). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as Naraharitirtha , Jayatirtha , Sripadaraya , Vyasatirtha , Vadirajatirtha and others. Vyasatirtha,
15100-542: The local languages, and modern archeological excavations at Vijayanagara have provided ample information about the history and power of the empire. The empire's legacy includes monuments spread over Southern India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. Different temple building traditions in South and Central India were merged into the Vijayanagara architectural style . This synthesis inspired architectural innovations in
15251-578: The majority of the epigraphs in the language were inscribed in the limited period from 1500 to 1649. Talbot explains this scenario as one of shifting political solidarity. The Vijayanagara Empire was originally founded in Karnataka, with Andhra Pradesh serving as a province of the empire. After its defeat to the Deccan sultanates in 1565 and the sacking of the royal capital Vijayanagara, the diminished empire moved its capital to Southern Andhra Pradesh, creating an enterprise dominated by Telugu language. The Persian visitor Abdur Razzak wrote in his travelogues that
15402-510: The majority of the inscriptions recovered are from the rule of the Tuluva dynasty (from 1503 to 1565) with the Saluva dynasty (from 1485 to 1503) inscribing the least in its brief control over the empire. The Sangama dynasty (from 1336 to 1485) which ruled the longest produced about one third of all epigraphs inscribed during the Tuluva period. Despite the popularity of Telugu language as a literary medium,
15553-455: The manufacture of salt pans were controlled by similar means. The making of ghee (clarified butter), which was sold as an oil for human consumption and as a fuel for lighting lamps, was profitable. Exports to China intensified and included cotton, spices, jewels, semi-precious stones , ivory, rhino horn, ebony , amber , coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes. Large vessels from China made frequent visits and brought Chinese products to
15704-476: The merchandise was taken into official custody and taxes levied on all items sold. The security of the merchandise was guaranteed by the administration officials. Traders of many nationalities ( Arabs , Persians , Guzerates , Khorassanians ) settled in Calicut , drawn by the thriving trade business. Ship building prospered and keeled ships between 1000 and 1200 bahares ( burden ) were built without decks by sewing
15855-408: The military. The separation of the priestly class from material wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters, and the nobility and aristocracy ensured their presence in every town and village to maintain order. Vanina notes that within the warrior class was a conglomerate of castes, kinship and clans that usually originated from landholding and pastoral communities. They ascended
16006-487: The mind for the insight into non-duality. After awakening, "post awakening sadhana," or post-satori practice is necessary: "all of the great ones had a post awakening sadhana, including Ramana Maharishi, who spent many years sitting alone in Samadhi before he ever accepted his first student." After realization, further practice is necessary 'to ripen the fruit', as stated by Nisargadatya Maharaj: "the fruit falls suddenly, but
16157-589: The north. By 1336 the upper Deccan region (modern-day Maharashtra and Telangana ) had been defeated by armies of Sultan Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate . Further south in the Deccan region, Hoysala commander Singeya Nayaka-III declared independence after the Muslim forces of the Delhi Sultanate defeated and captured the territories of the Yadava Empire in 1294. He created
16308-475: The northern banks of the Tungabhadra River in today's Karnataka. It was moved to Vijayanagara during Bukka Raya I's reign because it was easier to defend against the Muslim armies, who were persistently attacking from the northern lands. With the Vijayanagara Empire now imperial in stature, Harihara II , the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the empire beyond the Krishna River and South India
16459-403: The notable women poets of the Sanskrit language. Early Telugu women poets such as Tallapaka Timmakka and Atukuri Molla became popular. Further south the provincial Nayaks of Tanjore patronised several women poets. The Devadasi system , as well as legalized prostitution, existed and members of this community were relegated to a few streets in each city. The popularity of harems among men of
16610-654: The preparatory practices. It has also been criticised for its references to a "lineage" of Ramana Maharshi, whereas Ramana never claimed to have disciples and never appointed any successors. Some critics say that seeing through the 'illusion of ego' is the main point of neo-Advaita, and that this does not suffice. According to Caplan, the enlightenment-experiences induced by these teachers and their satsangs are considered to be superficial. According to Dennis Waite, neo-Advaita claims to remove ignorance, but does not offer help to remove ignorance. According to Caplan, traditional Advaita Vedanta takes years of practice, which
16761-430: The previous centuries, such as Lingayatism , provided momentum for flexible social norms that helped the cause of women. By this time South Indian women had crossed most barriers and were actively involved in fields hitherto considered the monopoly of men such as administration, business, trade and the fine arts. Tirumalamba Devi who wrote Varadambika Parinayam and Gangadevi the author of Madhuravijayam were among
16912-562: The principal cash crops, and large-scale cotton production supplied the weaving centers of the empire's vibrant textile industry. Spices such as turmeric , pepper, cardamom , and ginger grew in the remote Malnad hill region and were transported to the city for trade. The empire's capital city was a thriving business centre that included a burgeoning market in large quantities of precious gems and gold. Prolific temple-building provided employment to thousands of masons , sculptors , and other skilled artisans. According to Abdur Razzak, much of
17063-399: The region, they met Vidyaranya, who converted them back to the Hindu faith. After receiving his blessings, they founded their kingdom at ca. 1336. An alternate Kannada narrative is that Harihara and Bukka were serving the Hoysalas . The date of 1336 for the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is unreliable, based on copperplate inscriptions from the 16th century, forged by Sringeri math "when
17214-505: The remains of a well-connected water distribution system existing solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple complexes (suggesting it was for the exclusive use of royalty, and for special ceremonies) with sophisticated channels using gravity and siphons to transport water through pipelines. In the fertile agricultural areas near the Tungabhadra River , canals were dug to guide the river water into irrigation tanks . These canals had sluices that were opened and closed to control
17365-460: The ripening takes time." Ed Muzika refers to Nisargadatta Maharaj, stating He met his teacher in 1933 and had his awakening in 1936. He then traveled as a wandering monk for two years visiting many shrines, temples, and teachers across India, until he recognized there was no difference in his beingness no matter where he was. So he returned home to his wife and business in 1938. Apparently he spend many years discussing all aspects of consciousness and
17516-570: The royalty and the existence of seraglio is well known from records. Well-to-do men wore the Petha or Kulavi , a tall turban made of silk and decorated with gold. As in most Indian societies, jewellery was used by men and women and records describe the use of anklets , bracelets, finger-rings, necklaces and ear rings of various types. During celebrations men and women adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes made of rose water , civet musk , musk , or sandalwood . In stark contrast to
17667-611: The rule in a coup thus becoming the first of the Tuluva dynasty rulers. This did not go well with the nobles who revolted. Seeing internal troubles grow, the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan began to encroach on the empire even as the governors of Ummattur, Adoni , and Talakad colluded to capture the Tungabhadra-Krishna river doab region from the empire. The empire came under the rule of Krishna Deva Raya in 1509, another son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka. Initially Krishnadevaraya faced
17818-492: The saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi . Endowments were made to temples in the form of land, cash, produce, jewellery and constructions. The Bhakti (devotional) movement was active during this time, and involved well known Haridasas (devotee saints) of that time. Like the Virashaiva movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading
17969-645: The scarcity of Christians in South India in the Middle Ages, promoting its attractiveness to missionaries. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century and their connections through trade with the empire, the propagation of the faith by Francis Xavier (1545) and later the presence of Dutch settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in the south. Stone inscriptions were the most common form of documents used on temple walls, boundary of properties and open places for public display. Another form of documentation
18120-567: The social ladder by abandoning their original occupations and adopting to a martial code of living, ethics and practices. In South India they were loosely called the Nayakas . Sati practice is evidenced in Vijayanagara ruins by several inscriptions known as Satikal (Sati stone) or Sati-virakal (Sati hero stone). There are controversial views among historians regarding this practice including religious compulsion, marital affection, martyrdom or honor against subjugation by foreign intruders. The socio-religious movements that gained popularity in
18271-406: The story of Shankara establishing the four cardinal mathas may have originated in the 16th century. Most of Shankara's biographies were created and published from the 15th to the 17th century, such as the widely cited Śankara-digvijaya , in which legends were created turning Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his digvijaya ("universal conquest") all over India like
18422-483: The success of this movement is due to a "portable practice" and a "transposable message". Ramana Maharshi's main practice, self-inquiry via the question "Who am I?", is easily practiceable in a non-institutionalized context. His visitors and devotees did not have to adopt the Vedantic culture, nor to commit themselves to an institution or ideology, to be able to practice self-inquiry. Ramana's teachings are transposable into
18573-541: The successor to Bharatitirtha who died in 1374 - until 1386, the year of his own death." According to Clark, "The first genuine epigraphic mention of Vidyaranya is dated October 25, 1375." Vidyaranya, who is thought to have been named Madhava before taking ordination as a sannyasin , is usually identified with Madhavacharya, the author of the Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha and the Shankara Digvijaya . According to
18724-577: The superiority of the Advaita philosophy over other rival Hindu philosophies. Other writers were famous Dvaita saints of the Udupi order such as Jayatirtha (earning the title Tikacharya for his polemical writings), Vyasatirtha who wrote rebuttals to the Advaita philosophy and of the conclusions of earlier logicians, and Vadirajatirtha and Sripadaraya both of whom criticized the beliefs of Adi Sankara . Apart from these saints, noted Sanskrit scholars adorned
18875-402: The teachings of Madhvacharya and Vyasatirtha . Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa are considered the foremost among many Dasas (devotees) by virtue of their immense contribution. Kumara Vyasa , the most notable of Brahmin scholars wrote Gadugina Bharata , a translation of the epic Mahabharata . This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old Kannada to modern Kannada. Chamarasa
19026-652: The term Hinduraya Suratrana , which historian Benjamin Lewis Rice translates as "the Suratrana of Hindu Rayas". Some scholars have interpreted this to mean "the Sultan among Hindu kings" and state this to be evidence of some Islamic political traditions being adopted by Hindu monarchs, The long headdress are also seen in the royalty-related and secular artwork in Pattadakal dated from the 7th and 8th century, about 5 centuries before
19177-685: The text is a "forgery", according to a central role to Sringeri and the Vijayanagara Empire in spreading Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, and "provid[ing] a further legitimation to Vijayanagara's claim to be the centre of the new orthodoxy." Neo-Advaita New movements Kashmir Shaivism Gaudapada Adi Shankara Advaita-Yoga Nath Kashmir Shaivism Neo-Vedanta Inchegeri Sampradaya Contemporary Shaivism/Tantra/Nath Neo-Advaita Hinduism Buddhism Modern Advaita Vedanta Neo-Vedanta Antiquity Medieval Early modern Modern Iran India East-Asia Neo-Advaita , also called
19328-402: The timespans become much shorter. According to Hacker, these mathas may have originated as late as the 14th century, to propagate Shankara's view of Advaita. Goodding concurs with Hacker on the prominence of Sringeri matha in the Vijayanagara Empire, but argues that Sringeri matha already existed, but rapidly gained prominence in the second half of the 14th century. The key event according to
19479-578: The title of "master of the eastern and western seas" ( Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara ). By 1374 Bukka Raya I , successor to Harihara I, defeated the chiefdom of Arcot , the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai , and had gained control over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra- Krishna River doab in the north. The original capital of the empire was in the principality of Anegondi on
19630-623: The villagers should not give away land as dowry. These inscriptions reinforce the theory that a system of social mandates within community groups existed and were widely practiced even though these practices did not find justification in the family laws described in the religious texts. The Vijayanagara emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects , as writings by foreign visitors show. The emperors used titles such as Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya ( literally , "protector of cows and Brahmins") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism. The Nāgarī script inscription at Hampi includes
19781-546: The water flow. In other areas, the administration encouraged digging wells, which were monitored by administrative authorities. Large tanks in the capital city were constructed with royal patronage while smaller tanks were funded by wealthy individuals to gain social and religious merit. The economy of the empire was largely dependent on agriculture. Wheat , Sorghum ( jowar ), cotton, and pulse legumes grew in semi-arid regions, while sugarcane and rice thrived in rainy areas. Betel leaves , areca (for chewing), and coconut were
19932-476: The works of D.T. Suzuki and his "decontextualized and experiential account" of Zen Buddhism . It can also be found in the Theosophical Society , and the contemporary New Age culture, with influences like Aldous Huxley's The Perennial Philosophy and The Doors of Perception , and writers like Ken Wilber . Gregg Lahood also mentions Neo-Advaita as an ingredient of "cosmological hybridization,
20083-406: The years since Raichur because his victory against a technologically superior army led him to underestimate technology's value. Despite these disadvantages, Kamath, Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund concur that the vast Vijayanagara army appeared to have the upper hand until two Muslim generals (identified as the mercenary Gilani brothers according to Kamath) switched sides and joined forces with
20234-545: Was aided by the production of new texts. Vidyaranya and his brothers wrote extensive Advaitic commentaries on the Vedas and Dharma to make "the authoritative literature of the Aryan religion" more accessible. In his doxography Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha ("Summary of all views") Madhava presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all darsanas , presenting the other darsanas as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings, which
20385-438: Was collected for cattle graze on non-private lands. Popular temple destinations charged visitor fees called Perayam or Kanike . Residential property taxes were called Illari . The Hindu social order was prevalent and it influenced daily life in the empire. The rulers who occupied the top of this hierarchy assumed the honorific Varnasramadharma ( lit , "helpers of the four classes and four stages"). According to Talbot, caste
20536-431: Was controlled by the Vijayanagara Empire. The next ruler, Deva Raya I , was successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook works of fortification and irrigation. Firuz Bahmani of Bahmani Sultanate entered into a treaty with Deva Raya I in 1407 that required the latter to pay Bahmani an annual tribute of "100,000 huns, five maunds of pearls and fifty elephants". The Sultanate invaded Vijayanagara in 1417 when
20687-436: Was dependent on water supply systems constructed to channel and store water, ensuring a consistent supply throughout the year. The remains of these hydraulic systems have given historians a picture of the prevailing surface water distribution methods in use at that time in the semiarid regions of South India. Contemporary records and notes of foreign travellers describe huge tanks constructed by labourers. Excavations uncovered
20838-482: Was divided into five main provinces ( Rajya ), each under a commander ( Dandanayaka or Dandanatha ) and headed by a governor, often from the royal family, who used the native language for administrative purposes. A Rajya was divided into regions ( Vishaya , Vente or Kottam ) and further divided into counties ( Sime or Nadu ), themselves subdivided into municipalities ( Kampana or Sthala ). Hereditary families ruled their respective territories and paid tribute to
20989-423: Was more importantly determined by occupation or the professional community people belonged to, although the family lineage ( Gotra ) and the broad distinction described in sacred Hindu texts were also factors. The structure also contained sub-castes and caste clusters ("Jati"). According to Vanina, caste as a social identity was not fixed and was constantly changed for reasons including polity, trade and commerce, and
21140-534: Was on copper plates that were meant for record keeping. Usually verbose inscriptions included information such as a salutation, a panegyric of the emperor or local ruler, the name of the donor, nature of the endowment (generally either cash or produce), the manner in which the grant would be used, obligations of the donee, share received by the donor and a concluding statement that officiated the entire donation and its obligations. Some inscriptions record an instance of victory in war or religious festival, and retribution or
21291-469: Was ordained as a sannyasin in 1331. According to Goodding, Vidyaranya ordained at old age; Rosen Dalal mentions the year 1377. He was the jagadguru (spiritual head) of the Sringeri Sharada Peetham (Sringeri matha) from ca. 1374–1380 until 1386 CE. According to Slaje, "[t]here is positive epigraphical evidence that he must have been in charge as the head of Sringeri from at least 1374/75 - as
21442-469: Was probably not the author of the Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha . According to Clark, the author may have been Cannibhatta (Cinna or Cennu): ...a most insightful analysis by Thakur (1961) indicates that the author of the SDS was Cannibhatta (Cinna or Cennu), son of Sahajasarvajña Visnu Bhattopadhyaya, who was also a preceptor to Sāyaṇa and Mādhava [B]. Cannibhatta was a younger contemporary of Sāyaṇa and Madhava, author of
21593-541: Was regarded to be the most inclusive system. The Vaishanava traditions of Dvaita and Visitadvaita were not classified as Vedanta, and placed just above Buddhism and Jainism, reflecting the threat they posed for Vidyaranya's Advaita allegiance. Bhedabheda wasn't mentioned at all, "literally written out of the history of Indian philosophy." In the late 15th century, the patronage of the Vijayanagara kings shifted to Vaisnavism. Following this loss of patronage, Sringeri matha had to find other means to propagate its former status, and
21744-494: Was shipped to Burma and indigo to Persia . Chief imports from Palestine were copper , quicksilver ( mercury ), vermilion , coral, saffron , coloured velvets, rose water , knives, colored camlets , gold and silver. Persian horses were imported to Cannanore before a two-week land trip to the capital. Silk arrived from China and sugar from Bengal . East coast trade routes were busy, with goods arriving from Golkonda where rice, millet , pulses and tobacco were grown on
21895-632: Was stimulated by the American Transcendentalists and the Theosophical Society . In the 1930s Ramana Maharshi's teachings were brought to the west by Paul Brunton , a Theosophist, in his A Search in Secret India . Stimulated by Arthur Osborne , in the 1960s Bhagawat Singh actively started to spread Ramana Maharshi's teachings in the USA. Since the 1970s western interest in Asian religions has seen
22046-495: Was succeeded by his younger half-brother Achyuta Deva Raya in 1529. When Achyuta Deva Raya died in 1542, Sadashiva Raya , the teenage nephew of Achyuta Raya, was appointed emperor, and Rama Raya , Krishna Deva Raya's son-in-law, becoming the caretaker. When Sadashiva Raya was old enough to assert his independent claim over the throne, Rama Raya made him a virtual prisoner and became the de facto ruler. He hired Muslim generals in his army from his previous diplomatic connections with
22197-542: Was the jagadguru of the Sringeri Sharada Peetham from ca. 1374–1380 until 1386 – according to tradition, after ordination at an old age, he took the name of Vidyaranya , and became the Jagadguru of this Matha at Sringeri . Madhavacharya is known as the author of the Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha , a compendium of different philosophical schools of Hindu philosophy and Pañcadaśī , an important text for Advaita Vedanta . According to tradition, Vidyaranya helped establish
22348-447: Was the ultimate authority, assisted by a cabinet of ministers ( Pradhana ) headed by the prime minister ( Mahapradhana ). Other important titles recorded were the chief secretary ( Karyakartha or Rayaswami ) and the imperial officers ( Adhikari ). All high-ranking ministers and officers were required to have military training. A secretariat near the emperor's palace employed scribes and officers to maintain records made official by using
22499-404: Was used to identify communities across merchant and artisan classes while Boya identified herders of all types. Artisans consisted of blacksmiths, goldsmiths, brasssmiths and carpenters. These communities lived in separate sections of the city to avoid disputes, especially when it came to social privileges. Conquests led to large-scale migration of people leading to marginalisation of natives of
22650-453: Was usually determined by context. Identification of castes and sub-castes was made based on temple affiliations, lineage, family units, royal retinues, warrior clans, occupational groups, agricultural and trade groups, devotional networks, and even priestly cabals. It was also not impossible for a caste to lose its position and prestige and slip down the ladder while others rose up the same. Epigraphy studies by Talbot suggests that members within
22801-815: Was valued at half a Varaha , the Fanam , Phanam or Hana , an alloy of gold and copper was the most common currency valued at a third of the Varaha . A Tar made of pure silver was a sixth of a Phanam and a Chital made of brass was a third of the Tar . Haga , Visa and Kasu were also coins of lower denominations. During the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, poets, scholars and philosophers wrote primarily in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit, and also in other regional languages such as Tamil and covered such subjects as religion, biography, Prabandha (fiction), music, grammar, poetry, medicine and mathematics. The administrative and court language of
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