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113-448: His failing health was the factor that made him so reluctant to accept his pontifical election and his health was so poor that he fell to illness during his coronation . The only literary work of his that remains is his Dialogues on the miracles performed by Benedict of Nursia and other saints at Monte Cassino. Daufer was born in c. 1026. He obtained permission to enter the monastery of S. Sophia at Benevento. The life at S. Sophia

226-563: A master of ceremonies said: Pater Sancte, sic transit gloria mundi (Holy Father, thus passes the glory of the world) as a symbolic reminder to set aside materialism and vanity. Once at the high altar , he would begin to celebrate Solemn High Mass with full papal ceremonial . After the Confiteor , the pope was seated on the sedia gestatoria, which was resting on the ground, and the three senior cardinal bishops approached him wearing mitres. Each in turn placed his hands above him and said

339-841: A claim of sovereignty on the part of the Papacy, and to secure the recognition of its self-asserted rights of possession. On the ground of "immemorial usage", Corsica and Sardinia were assumed to belong to the Roman Church. Spain , Hungary and Croatia were also claimed as her property, and an attempt was made to induce the king of Denmark to hold his realm as a fief from the pope. In his treatment of ecclesiastical policy and ecclesiastical reform, Gregory did not stand alone, but found powerful support: in England Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury stood closest to him; in France his champion

452-416: A curtailment of the powers of bishops. Since these refused to submit voluntarily and tried to assert their traditional independence, his papacy is full of struggles against the higher ranks of the clergy. Pope Gregory VII was critical in promoting and regulating the concept of modern universities as his 1079 Papal Decree ordered the regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into

565-631: A dispersion of his strength in the conflict soon to break out in Germany. Pope Gregory attempted to organize a crusade into Al-Andalus , led by Count Ebles II of Roucy . Gregory, in fact, established some sort of relations with every country in Christendom; though these relations did not invariably realize the ecclesiastico-political hopes connected with them. His correspondence extended to Poland , Kievan Rus' and Bohemia . He unsuccessfully tried to bring Armenia into closer contact with Rome. Gregory

678-494: A few prayers, including the Lord's Prayer and a collect, the senior cardinal deacon , the protodeacon , removed the pope's mitre and placed the tiara on his head with the words: Accipe tiaram tribus coronis ornatam, et scias te esse patrem principum et regum, rectorem orbis in terra vicarium Salvatoris nostri Jesu Christi, cui est honor et gloria in saecula saeculorum. Receive the tiara adorned with three crowns, and know that you are

791-428: A great meeting was held in the deaconry of St. Lucy, and Desiderius was again importuned to accept the papacy but persisted in his refusal, threatening to return to his monastery in case of violence. On the next day, the feast of Pentecost , the same scene was repeated very early in the morning. The Roman consul Cencius now suggested the election of Odo, Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia (afterwards pope Urban II ), but this

904-500: A less elaborate "solemn Mass to mark the start of his ministry as Supreme Pastor" in September 1978. After John Paul I's sudden death following a thirty-three-day reign , the new pope, John Paul II , opted to copy his predecessor's ceremony without coronation. In his homily at his inauguration Mass, he said that Paul VI had "left his successors free to decide" whether to wear the papal tiara. He went on: Pope John Paul I, whose memory

1017-454: A man from his childhood generously brought up in the bosom of this Mother Church, and for the merit of his life already raised to the archidiaconal dignity. [...] We choose then our Archdeacon Hildebrand to be pope and successor to the Apostle, and to bear henceforward and forever the name of Gregory" (22 April 1073). Gregory VII's first attempts in foreign policy were towards a reconciliation with

1130-646: A monk at Cluny is disputed. He then accompanied Cluny's Abbot Bruno of Toul to Rome; there, Bruno was elected pope, choosing the name Leo IX , and named Hildebrand as deacon and papal administrator. In 1054 Leo sent Hildebrand as his legate to Tours in France in the wake of the controversy created by Berengar of Tours . At Leo's death, the new pope, Victor II , confirmed him as legate, while Victor's successor Stephen IX sent him and Anselm of Lucca to Germany to obtain recognition from Empress Agnes . Stephen died before being able to return to Rome, but Hildebrand

1243-497: A new German ruler. Henry, who was stationed at Oppenheim on the left bank of the Rhine , was only saved from the loss of his throne by the failure of the assembled princes to agree on his successor. Their dissension, however, merely postponed the verdict. Henry, they declared, must make reparation and obeisance to Gregory; and if he were still under the ban on the anniversary of his excommunication, his throne should be considered vacant. At

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1356-526: A new pope should take, whether with or without a coronation. A number of papal tiaras are available for a future pope to use. Pope Gregory VII Pope Gregory VII ( Latin : Gregorius VII ; c. 1015 – 25 May 1085), born Hildebrand of Sovana ( Italian : Ildebrando di Soana ), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 22 April 1073 to his death in 1085. He

1469-566: A number of coronations took place in Avignon , during the Avignon papacy . Earlier, Pope Celestine V was twice crowned in L'Aquila . In 1800 Pope Pius VII was crowned in the crowded church of the Benedictine island monastery of San Giorgio, Venice , after his late predecessor, Pope Pius VI , had been forced into temporary exile during Napoleon Bonaparte 's capture of Rome. Since the French seized

1582-545: A priest , and he was consecrated a bishop and enthroned as pope on 29 June, the Feast of St. Peter's Chair. In the decree of election, his electors proclaimed Gregory VII: "a devout man, a man mighty in human and divine knowledge, a distinguished lover of equity and justice, a man firm in adversity and temperate in prosperity, a man, according to the saying of the Apostle, of good behavior, blameless, modest, sober, chaste, given to hospitality, and one that ruleth well his own house;

1695-638: A remarkable degree the loyalty and service of a wide variety of men and women." Gregory was born Hildebrand ( Italian : Ildebrando ) in the town of Sovana , in the County of Grosseto , now southern Tuscany , the son of a blacksmith . As a youth he was sent to study in Rome at the monastery of St. Mary on the Aventine , where his uncle was reportedly abbot of a monastery on the Aventine Hill . Among his masters were

1808-517: A return to Rome. When Gregory XI did return to Rome, the Lateran Palace was badly in need of repair, so the popes made the Vatican their residence and transferred coronations to Saint Peter's Basilica . The Lateran Basilica remains the cathedral of Rome, and the enthronement occurs there. During the " prisoner in the Vatican " period, the enthronement did not take place. The coronation took place on

1921-449: A valid election. In Spanish , the term La Coronación Pontificia ( English : "Pontifical Coronation") is sometimes used for the canonical coronation of religious images through a formal, expressed Pontifical decree by a reigning pope. When a conclave elects a new pope, he assumes all of the rights and authority of the papacy immediately upon his acceptance of election; however, popes traditionally numbered their regnal years from

2034-453: A very different reception from the one four years before. It was widely felt to be unjustly pronounced on frivolous grounds, and its authority came in question. The emperor, now more experienced, vigorously denounced the ban as illegal. He summoned a council at Brixen , and on 25 June 1080 thirty bishops present pronounced Gregory deposed, electing archbishop Guibert (Wibert) of Ravenna as his successor. Gregory countered on 15 October, ordering

2147-461: A very long red cope fastened with an elaborate morse ) on the newly elected pope was regarded as especially symbolic of investiture with papal authority, and was conferred with the words: "I invest thee with the Roman papacy, that thou rule over the city and the world." After the investiture with the pallium, the pope incensed the high altar and then went to the throne, placed on the choir side, between

2260-506: Is clear from Gregory's own account of the circumstances of his election, in his Epistle 1 and Epistle 2, that it was conducted in a very irregular fashion, contrary to the Constitution of the Pope of 607. This ecclesiastical statute forbade a papal election to begin until the third day after a pope's burial. Cardinal Ugo's intervention was contrary to the Constitution of Nicholas II, which affirmed

2373-457: Is on the miracles wrought by Benedict and other saints at Monte Cassino. In his De Viris Illustribus Casinensibus , Peter the Deacon ascribes to him the composition of a "Cantus ad B. Maurum" and letters to King Philip I of France and to Hugh of Cluny , which no longer exist. Victor is the probable author of a letter to the empress-mother Anna Dalassene concerning the molestation of pilgrims to

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2486-462: Is so vivid in our hearts, did not wish to have the tiara; nor does his Successor wish it today. This is not the time to return to a ceremony and an object considered, wrongly, to be a symbol of the temporal power of the Popes. John Paul II's 1996 Apostolic Constitution , Universi Dominici gregis , now in force, does not specify the form that the "solemn ceremony of the inauguration of the pontificate" of

2599-593: Is venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church . One of the great reforming popes, he initiated the Gregorian Reform , and is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy , his dispute with Emperor Henry IV to establish the primacy of papal authority and the new canon law governing the election of the pope by the College of Cardinals . He was also at the forefront of developments in

2712-663: The Antipope Clement III from the city, and hither Desiderius hastened to consult with the cardinals on the approaching election . Finding, however, that they were bent on forcing the papal dignity upon him, he fled to Monte Cassino, where he busied himself in exhorting the Normans and Lombards to rally to the support of the Holy See. When autumn came, Desiderius accompanied the Norman army on its march to Rome. However, when he became aware of

2825-521: The Cardinal Bishop of Porto said: We supplicate you, Almighty God, effect your customary devotion and pour out on this your servant, __, the grace of the Holy Spirit that he who is constituted at the head of our church as the servant of the mystery, you would strengthen with the fullness of virtue. Finally the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia said: God, who willed your Apostle Peter to hold first place in

2938-675: The Lateran Basilica , there arose a loud outcry from the clergy and people: "Let Hildebrand be pope!", "Blessed Peter has chosen Hildebrand the Archdeacon!" Hildebrand immediately fled, and hid himself for some time, thereby making it clear that he had refused the uncanonical election in the Liberian Basilica. He was finally found at the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli , to which a famous monastery

3051-475: The Patarenes ; nominated the cleric Tedald to the archbishopric of Milan , settling a prolonged and contentious question; and made overtures to the Norman duke Robert Guiscard . Gregory VII replied with a harsh letter dated 8 December 1075, in which he accused Henry of breaching his word and of continuing to support excommunicated councillors. At the same time, the pope sent a verbal message threatening not only

3164-629: The Pontifical Anthem and Il Canto degli Italiani (until 1946 the Marcia Reale and S'hymnu sardu nationale ). The last act of the inauguration of a new pope is still the formal taking possession ( possessio ) of his cathedra as Bishop of Rome in the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran . This is the final ceremony mentioned in Pope John Paul II's apostolic constitution on the vacancy of

3277-587: The Principality of Beneventum with special powers for the reform of monasteries. So great was his reputation with the Holy See that he "...was allowed by the Roman Pontiff to appoint Bishops and Abbots from among his Benedictine brethren in whatever churches or monasteries he desired, of those that had lost their patron". Within two years of the consecration of the Cassinese Basilica, Alexander II died and

3390-513: The Vatican Hill . Before May was out, he was once more in Rome in answer to a summons for the countess Matilda of Tuscany , whose troops held the Leonine City and Trastevere . By the end of June Clement III once more gained possession of St. Peter's, Victor again withdrew at once to his Monte Cassino abbey. In August 1087, a synod was held at Benevento which renewed the excommunication of

3503-439: The excommunication of Henry made a profound impression both in Germany and Italy. Thirty years before, Henry III had deposed three unworthy claimants to the papacy, a service acknowledged by the Church and public opinion. When Henry IV again attempted this procedure he lacked support. In Germany there was a rapid and general feeling in favor of Gregory, strengthening the princes against their feudal lord Henry. When at Whitsun

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3616-405: The imperium . But at no period would he have dreamed of putting the two powers on an equal footing; the superiority of church to state was to him a fact which admitted of no discussion and which he had never doubted. He wished to see all important matters of dispute referred to Rome; appeals were to be addressed to himself; the centralization of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally involved

3729-886: The Altar of the Confession and the Altar of the Chair, and there, during the singing of the Kyrie, he received again the obeisance of the cardinals, archbishops and bishops. Then the Mass continued. After the Gloria in excelsis and the Pax vobis , the pope said the Collect for the day and then secretly a prayer for himself. After the pope had returned again to his seat the Papal Laudes were chanted: As with all Papal High Masses,

3842-522: The Antipope Clement III, the condemnation of lay investiture , proclaimed a crusade against the Saracens in northern Africa, and anathematised Hugh of Lyons and Richard, Abbot of Marseilles. After three days, Victor became seriously ill and retired to Monte Cassino to die. He had himself carried into the chapter-house, issued various decrees for the benefit of the abbey, appointed with the consent of

3955-465: The Apostolic See and the election of the Roman pontiff . The pope is enthroned in the same manner as other bishops. He is solemnly conducted to the episcopal throne, and takes possession by seating himself on it. He receives the kiss of peace and listens to the reading of a passage of Holy Scripture, whereupon he pronounces an address that used to be called the sermo inthronisticus . In ancient times,

4068-409: The Church to annihilate not merely a single state, but all states. Thus Gregory VII, as a politician wanting to achieve some result, was driven in practice to adopt a different standpoint. He acknowledged the existence of the state as a dispensation of providence , described the coexistence of church and state as a divine ordinance, and emphasized the necessity of union between the sacerdotium and

4181-498: The Church's clergy. These decrees were further stressed, under menace of excommunication, the next year (24–28 February). In particular, Gregory decreed that only the Pope could appoint or depose bishops or move them from see to see, an act which was later to cause the Investiture Controversy . Gregory VII's main political project was his relationship with the Holy Roman Empire. Since the death of Holy Roman Emperor Henry III,

4294-661: The Epistle and the Gospel were read in both Greek and Latin and the pope communicated at his throne. After the Mass, the new pope was crowned with the papal tiara . This frequently took place on the balcony of St. Peter's Basilica, overlooking the crowds gathered in St. Peter's Square . The pope was seated on a throne with the flabella to either side of him. After the Dean of the College of Cardinals recited

4407-517: The Holy Land in the Byzantine Empire . There is also a letter to the bishops of Sardinia , where (since c. 1050 brought under Pisan and Genoan control) he sent monks while still abbot of Monte Cassino. The cult of Blessed Victor III seems to have begun not later than the pontificate of Pope Anastasius IV , about six decades after his death (Acta Sanctorum, Loc. cit.). In 1515, Victor III's body

4520-411: The Holy See when the long-standing case of the right of Dol to be a metropolitan and use the pallium was finally decided. King William felt himself so safe that he interfered autocratically with the management of the church, forbade the bishops to visit Rome, made appointments to bishoprics and abbeys , and showed little anxiety when the pope lectured him on the different principles which he had as to

4633-724: The Investiture Controversy, accused him of necromancy, cruelty, tyranny, and blasphemy. This was eagerly repeated by later opponents of the Catholic Church, such as the English Protestant John Foxe . In contrast, the modern historian and Anglican priest H. E. J. Cowdrey writes, "[Gregory VII] was surprisingly flexible, feeling his way and therefore perplexing both rigorous collaborators ... and cautious and steady-minded ones ... His zeal, moral force, and religious conviction, however, ensured that he should retain to

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4746-712: The Italian king and future Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV at Albano , while the troops of the Imperialist antipope Clement III were harassing the pope from Tivoli . In 1083 the peace-loving abbot joined Hugh of Cluny in an attempt to reconcile pope and emperor, and his proceedings seem to have aroused some suspicion in Gregory's entourage. In 1084, when Rome was in Henry's hands and the pope besieged in Castel Sant'Angelo , Desiderius announced

4859-493: The Normans of Robert Guiscard ; in the end the two parties did not meet. After a failed call for a crusade to the princes of northern Europe, and after obtaining the support of other Norman princes such as Landulf VI of Benevento and Richard I of Capua , Gregory VII was able to excommunicate Robert in 1074. In the same year Gregory VII summoned a council in the Lateran palace, which condemned simony and confirmed celibacy for

4972-499: The Romans to choose a new pope. The council sent two bishops to Italy, who then procured a similar act of deposition from the Lombard bishops at the synod of Piacenza . Roland of Parma faced the pope with these decisions before the synod which had just assembled in the Lateran Basilica . For the moment the members were frightened, but there soon arose such a storm of indignation that only

5085-583: The approach of Guiscard's army to both emperor and pope. Though certainly a strong partisan of the Hildebrandine reforms, Desiderius belonged to the moderate party and could not always see eye-to-eye with Pope Gregory VII in his most intransigent proceedings. Yet when the latter lay dying at Salerno on 25 May 1085, the Abbot of Monte Cassino was one of those whom he recommended to the cardinals of southern Italy as fittest to succeed him. The Roman people had expelled

5198-424: The ban of the Church against the emperor, but the deprivation of his crown. At the same time, Gregory was menaced by Cencio I Frangipane , who on Christmas night surprised him in church and kidnapped him, though he was released the following day. The high-handed demands and threats of the pope infuriated Henry and his court, and their answer was the hastily convened national synod of Worms on 24 January 1076. In

5311-451: The calming words of Gregory saved the envoy's life. On the following day, 22 February 1076, Gregory solemnly pronounced a sentence of excommunication against Henry IV, divested him of his royal dignity, and absolved his subjects of their sworn allegiance. The effectiveness of this sentence depended entirely on Henry's subjects, above all on the German princes. Contemporary evidence suggests that

5424-509: The campaign against priestly marriage and that against simony provoked widespread resistance. His writings treat mainly of the principles and practice of Church government. They may be found in Mansi's collection under the title "Gregorii VII registri sive epistolarum libri". Most of his surviving letters are preserved in his Register, which is now stored in the Vatican Archives. Gregory VII

5537-478: The castle of Salerno by the sea, where he died on 25 May 1085. He was probably a prisoner of the Normans in Salerno. Three days before his death, he withdrew all the censures of excommunication that he had pronounced, except those against the two chief offenders—Henry and Guibert. In 1076, Gregory appointed Dol Euen, a monk of Saint-Melaine of Rennes, as bishop of Dol , rejecting both the incumbent, Iuthael, who had

5650-597: The city". Peter the Deacon gives a list of some seventy books Desiderius had copied at Monte Cassino, including works of Augustine of Hippo , Ambrose , Bede , Basil of Caesarea , Jerome , Gregory of Nazianzus and Cassian , the histories of Josephus , Paul Warnfrid , Jordanes and Gregory of Tours , the Institutes and Novels of Justinian , the works of Terence , Virgil and Seneca , Cicero 's De natura deorum , and Ovid 's Fasti . Desiderius had been appointed papal vicar for Campania , Apulia, Calabria and

5763-504: The clergy and laity to elect a new archbishop in place of the "mad" and "tyrannical" schismatic Wibert. In 1081, Henry opened the conflict against Gregory in Italy. The emperor was now in the stronger position, as thirteen cardinals had deserted the pope, and the rival emperor Rudolf of Swabia died on 16 October. A new imperial claimant, Hermann of Luxembourg , was put forward in August 1081, but he

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5876-407: The court of Pope Victor II at Florence . There he met two monks of the renowned Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino , with whom he returned in 1055. He joined the community and was shortly afterwards appointed superior of the dependent house at Capua . In 1057 Pope Stephen IX , who had retained the abbacy of Monte Cassino, came to visit and at Christmas, believing himself to be dying, ordered

5989-413: The date of their coronation. If a newly elected pope is not a bishop, he is consecrated at once. In accordance with tradition, the right of consecration belongs to the dean of the College of Cardinals , in his absence to the subdean, and in the absence of both of these to the senior cardinal bishop . If the new pope is already a bishop, as is normally the case, his election is announced immediately to

6102-500: The emperor summoned a council of nobles to oppose the pope, only a few responded. Meanwhile, the Saxons snatched the opportunity to renew their rebellion, and the anti-royalist party grew in strength from month to month. Henry now faced ruin. As a result of the agitation, which was zealously fostered by the papal legate Bishop Altmann of Passau , the princes met in October at Trebur to elect

6215-609: The erudite Lawrence, archbishop of Amalfi , and Johannes Gratianus, the future Pope Gregory VI . When the latter was deposed at the Council of Sutri in December of 1046, with approval of the Holy Roman Emperor Henry III and exiled to Germany , Hildebrand followed him to Cologne . According to some chroniclers, Hildebrand moved to Cluny after Gregory VI's death, which occurred in 1048; though his declaration to have become

6328-557: The exclusive right to name candidates to Cardinal Bishops; finally, it ignored the Constitution's requirement that the Holy Roman Emperor be consulted. However, Gregory was then confirmed by a second election at S. Pietro in Vincoli. Gregory VII's earliest pontifical letters clearly acknowledged these events, and thus helped defuse doubts about his election and popularity. On 22 May 1073, the Feast of Pentecost , he received ordination as

6441-407: The expected protection for the papacy. When Gregory VII was hard pressed by Henry IV, Robert Guiscard left him to his fate, and only intervened when he himself was threatened with German arms. Then, on the capture of Rome, he abandoned the city to his troops, and the popular indignation evoked by his act brought about Gregory's exile. In the case of several countries, Gregory VII tried to establish

6554-435: The father of princes and kings, the ruler of the world, the vicar of our Savior Jesus Christ on earth, to whom be all honor and glory, world without end. Following his coronation, the pope imparted the solemn papal blessing Urbi et Orbi . Following 1929, the new pope would have received a salute by a guard of honour of the Italian Armed Forces and the Swiss Guards together with the Noble Guard , as military bands play

6667-582: The first European universities. This battle for the foundation of papal supremacy is connected with his championship of compulsory celibacy among the clergy and his attack on simony . Gregory VII did not introduce the celibacy of the priesthood into the Church, but he took up the struggle with greater energy than his predecessors. In 1074, he published an encyclical , absolving the people from their obedience to bishops who allowed married priests. The next year he enjoined them to take action against married priests, and deprived these clerics of their revenues. Both

6780-401: The first Sunday or Holy Day following the election. It began with a solemn Papal Mass . During the chanting of Terce , he sat on a throne and all of the cardinals made what was called their "first obeisance " to him, approaching one by one and kissing his hand. Then the archbishops and bishops approached and kissed his feet. Following this, at least from the beginning of the 16th century,

6893-420: The first to be filmed and the first to be broadcast live on radio. The ceremony, which lasted for six hours, was attended by leading dignitaries; these included the heir to the Italian throne, the Prince of Piedmont , former kings Ferdinand I of Bulgaria and Alfonso XIII of Spain , the 16th Duke of Norfolk (representing King George VI of the United Kingdom ), and the Irish Taoiseach , Éamon de Valera ,

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7006-475: The higher ranks of the German clergy, Gregory had many enemies, and the Roman cardinal Hugo Candidus , once on intimate terms with Gregory but now his opponent, hurried to Germany for the occasion. Candidus declaimed a list of accusations against the pope before the assembly, which resolved that Gregory had forfeited the papacy. In one document full of accusations, the bishops renounced their allegiance to Gregory. In another, Henry pronounced him deposed, and required

7119-479: The inner fellowship of the apostles, that universal Christianity overcome evil, look propitiously we ask on this your servant, __, who from a humble position has suddenly been enthroned with the apostles on this same principal sublimity, that just as he has been raised to this exalted dignity, so may he likewise merit to accumulate virtue; in bearing the burden of the universal church, help him, make him worthy and for thee who are blessed may merits replace vices. Then,

7232-463: The last two being in evening dress (white tie and tails). The last pope to be crowned was Pope Paul VI . He decided to cease wearing a papal tiara and laid his own on the altar of St. Peter's Basilica in a gesture of "humility." His 1975 apostolic constitution , Romano Pontifici Eligendo prescribed that "the new pontiff is to be crowned by the senior cardinal deacon". His successor, Pope John Paul I , opted not to be crowned and to have instead

7345-520: The latter promised to hand over Guibert as a prisoner, if the sovereign pontiff would only consent to crown him emperor. Gregory, however, insisted that Henry appear before a council and do penance. The emperor, while pretending to submit to these terms, tried hard to prevent the meeting of the council. A small number of bishops assembled nonetheless, and Gregory again excommunicated Henry. Henry, upon receipt of this news, again entered Rome on 21 March to see that his supporter, Archbishop Guibert of Ravenna,

7458-399: The letters that the pope sent to the patriarchs in token of being in communion with them in the same faith were called litterae inthronisticae or syllabai enthronistikai . The earliest papal coronations took place in St. John Lateran , the pope's cathedral . However, for hundreds of years papal coronations have traditionally taken place in the environs of St. Peter's Basilica , though

7571-463: The matter of clerical appointments became a more and more contentious issue. He sought as well to compel the episcopacy to look to Rome for validation and direction, demanding the regular attendance of prelates in Rome. Gregory had no power to compel the English king to an alteration in his ecclesiastical policy, so he was compelled to ignore what he could not approve, and even considered it advisable to assure King William of his particular affection. On

7684-413: The monastery in his day. On 1 October 1071, the new Basilica of Monte Cassino was consecrated by Pope Alexander II . Desiderius' reputation brought gifts and exemptions to the abbey. The money was spent on church ornaments, including a great golden altar front from Constantinople adorned with gems and enamels and "nearly all the church ornaments of Victor II, which had been pawned here and there throughout

7797-438: The monks the prior, Cardinal Oderisius , to succeed him in the abbacy, just as he himself had been appointed by Stephen IX, and proposed Odo of Ostia to the assembled cardinals and bishops as the next pope. He died on 16 September 1087 and was buried in the tomb he had prepared for himself in the abbey's chapter-house . Odo was duly elected his successor as Pope Urban II . Pope Victor's only existing literary work Dialogues ,

7910-443: The monks to elect a new abbot . Their choice fell on Desiderius. The pope recovered, and, desiring to retain the abbacy during his lifetime, appointed the abbot-designate his legate for Constantinople . It was at Bari , when about to sail for the East, that the news of the pope's death reached Desiderius. Having obtained a safe-conduct from Robert Guiscard , the Norman Count (later Duke) of Apulia , he returned to his monastery and

8023-465: The moral situation, forcing Gregory to grant Henry absolution. The Walk to Canossa soon became legendary. The reconciliation was only effected after prolonged negotiations and definite pledges on the part of Henry, and it was with reluctance that Gregory VII at length gave way, considering the political implications. If Gregory VII granted absolution, the diet of princes in Augsburg, which had called on him as arbitrator, would be rendered impotent. It

8136-400: The negotiation of an interview with Robert Guiscard on 2 August 1073, at Benevento . In 1074 and 1075 he acted as intermediary, probably as Gregory's agent, between the Norman princes themselves, and even when the latter were at open war with the pope, they still maintained the best relations with Monte Cassino. At the end of 1080 Desiderius obtained Norman troops for Gregory. In 1082 he visited

8249-410: The newly elected pope was carried in state through St. Peter's Basilica on the sedia gestatoria under a white canopy, with the papal flabella (ceremonial fans) to either side. Instead of the papal tiara, he wore a jewelled mitre (the episcopal mitra pretiosa ). Three times, the procession was stopped, and a bundle of flax lashed to a gilded staff was burnt before the newly elected pontiff, while

8362-458: The news of Henry's arrival at Canossa , where Gregory had taken refuge under the protection of his close ally, Matilda of Tuscany . Henry had travelled through Burgundy , greeted with enthusiasm by the Lombards, but he resisted the temptation to employ force. In an astonishing turn, the emperor mortified his pride and abased himself in the snow to do penance before the pope. This immediately reversed

8475-473: The papal insignia and once more retired to Monte Cassino, where he remained nearly a whole year. In the middle of Lent 1087, the pope-elect assisted at a council of cardinals and bishops held at Capua as "Papal vicar of those parts" (letter of Hugh of Lyons) together with the Norman princes, Cencius the Consul and the Roman nobles. Here, Victor finally yielded and "by the assumption of the cross and purple confirmed

8588-443: The past election". How much his obstinacy had irritated some of the prelates is evidenced in the letter of Hugh of Lyons preserved by Hugh of Flavigny . After the Normans had driven the soldiers of the Antipope Clement III out of St. Peter's, Victor III was finally consecrated and enthroned on 21 March 1087. He only remained eight days in Rome and then returned to Monte Cassino, though with the help of Matilda and Jordan, he took back

8701-462: The people gathered in Saint Peter's Square and he gives them his blessing. The episcopal enthronement of the pope takes place in his cathedral , the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran . This ceremony was once combined with the coronation. During the Avignon papacy , the pope, being in France, could not be enthroned in his cathedral in Rome. The coronations continued, while enthronements had to await

8814-409: The plot between the cardinals and the Norman princes to force the papal tiara on him, he would not enter Rome unless they swore to abandon their design. They refused to do that, and the election was postponed. At about Easter the bishops and cardinals assembled at Rome summoned Desiderius and the cardinals who were with him at Monte Cassino to come to Rome to treat concerning the election. On 23 May

8927-491: The pope on their side. In the end, his non-commitment largely lost the confidence of both parties. Finally he decided for Rudolf of Swabia after his victory at the Battle of Flarchheim on 27 January 1080. Under pressure from the Saxons, and misinformed as to the significance of this battle, Gregory abandoned his waiting policy and again pronounced the excommunication and deposition of Henry on 7 March 1080. The papal censure now got

9040-430: The prayer, Super electum Pontificem (over the elected pope). First the Cardinal Bishop of Albano said: God, who are present without distinction whenever the devout mind invokes you, be present, we ask you, we and this your servant, __, who to the summit of the apostolic community has been chosen as the judge of your people, infuse with the highest blessings that he experience your gift who has reached this point. Then

9153-579: The presence of the papal legates—to atone for his continued friendship with the members of his council who had been banned by Gregory; he took an oath of obedience, and promised his support in the work of reforming the Church. However, as soon as Henry defeated the Saxons at the First Battle of Langensalza on 9 June 1075 ( Battle of Homburg or Hohenburg ), he tried to reassert his sovereign rights in northern Italy. Henry sent Count Eberhard to Lombardy to combat

9266-594: The project of a great military expedition and exhorted the faithful to participate in recovering the Church of the Holy Sepulchre —foreshadowing the First Crusade . In his efforts to recruit for the expedition, he emphasized the suffering of eastern Christians, arguing western Christians had a moral obligation to go to their aid. His lifework was based on his conviction that the Church was founded by God and entrusted with

9379-460: The rebellion of the German nobles, which did not end with his absolution. To the contrary, at Forchheim in March 1077 they elected a rival ruler in the person of Duke Rudolf of Swabia , with the papal legates declaring their neutrality. Pope Gregory sought to maintain this attitude during the following years, balancing the two parties of fairly equal strength, each trying to gain the upper hand by getting

9492-533: The reconciliation with the Norman kingdom of southern Italy , in the anti-German alliance with the Pataria movement in northern Italy and, above all, in the introduction of an ecclesiastic law which gave the cardinals exclusive rights concerning the election of a new pope. Pope Gregory VII was one of the few popes elected by acclamation . On the death of Alexander II on 21 April 1073, as the obsequies were being performed in

9605-497: The relationship between the emperor and the papacy during the years before he became pope. He was the first pope to introduce a policy of obligatory celibacy for the clergy, which had until then commonly married, and also attacked the practice of simony . During the power struggles between the papacy and the Empire , Gregory excommunicated Henry IV three times, and Henry appointed Antipope Clement III to oppose him. Though Gregory

9718-443: The relationship of spiritual and temporal powers, or when he prohibited him from commerce or commanded him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the apostolic chair. William was particularly annoyed at Gregory's insistence on dividing ecclesiastical England into two provinces, in opposition to William's need to emphasize the unity of his newly acquired kingdom. Gregory's increasing insistence on church independence from secular authority in

9831-495: The same time invited Gregory to Augsburg to decide the conflict. Unable to oppose his princes and the pope together, Henry saw that he must secure absolution from Gregory before the period named. At first he attempted this through an embassy, but when Gregory rejected his overtures he went to Italy in person. The pope had already left Rome and had informed the German princes that he would expect their escort on 8 January 1077 to Mantua . This escort had not appeared when he received

9944-633: The senior cardinal deacon placed the pallium on his shoulders saying: Accept the pallium, representing the plenitude of the Pontifical office, to the honour of Almighty God, and the most glorious Virgin Mary, his Mother, and the Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and the Holy Roman Church. In the 11th and 12th centuries, the immantatio , or bestowal of the mantum (a papal vestment consisting of

10057-455: The strength of the German monarchy had been seriously weakened, and his untried son Henry IV had to contend with great internal difficulties, presenting an opportunity for Gregory to strengthen the Church. In the two years following Gregory's election, the Saxon rebellion fully occupied Henry and forced him to come to terms with the pope at any cost. In May 1074 Henry did penance at Nuremberg —in

10170-506: The support of William the Conqueror , who had recently been conducting military operations in north-eastern Brittany , and Gilduin, the candidate of the nobles in Dol opposing William. Gregory rejected Iuthael because he was notorious for simony and Guilden as too young. Gregory also bestowed on Dol Euen the pallium of a metropolitan archbishop, on the condition that he would submit to the judgment of

10283-477: The task of embracing all mankind in a single society in which divine will is the only law; that, in its capacity as a divine institution, it is supreme over all human structures, especially the secular state; and that the pope, in his role as head of the Church, is the vice-regent of God on earth, so that disobedience to him implies disobedience to God: or, in other words, a defection from Christianity. But any attempt to interpret this in terms of action would have bound

10396-529: The tiara along with the previous pope, he was crowned with a papier-mâché tiara , for which the ladies of Venice gave up their jewels. All coronations after 1800 took place in Rome. Leo XIII was crowned in the Sistine Chapel , due to fears that anti-clerical mobs, inspired by Italian unification , might attack the Basilica and disrupt the ceremony. Benedict XV was also crowned in the chapel in 1914. Pius XI

10509-411: The tiara. To date, none of his successors have used the tiara, and their papal inauguration celebrations have included no coronation ceremony, although any future pope may elect to restore the use of the tiara at any point during his pontificate. The papal inauguration celebration, with or without a coronation, has only symbolic significance, as a pope assumes office immediately on giving his consent to

10622-599: The whole, William's policy was of great benefit to the Church. The relationship of Gregory VII to other European states was strongly influenced by his German policy, since the Holy Roman Empire , by taking up most of his energies, often forced him to show to other rulers the very moderation which he withheld from the German king. The attitude of the Normans brought him a rude awakening. The great concessions made to them under Nicholas II were not only powerless to stem their advance into central Italy, but failed to secure even

10735-604: The words of the Redeemer, substantially changed into the true and proper and lifegiving flesh and blood of Jesus Christ our Lord, and that after the consecration they are the true body of Christ. This profession of faith began a "Eucharistic Renaissance" in the churches of Europe as of the 12th century. Pope Gregory VII died in exile in Salerno ; the epitaph on his sarcophagus in the city's Cathedral says: "I have loved justice and hated iniquity; therefore, I die in exile." Gregory VII

10848-443: Was Bishop Hugh de Dié , who afterwards became Archbishop of Lyon . Philip I of France , by his practice of simony and the violence of his proceedings against the Church, provoked a threat of summary measures. Excommunication, deposition and the interdict appeared to be imminent in 1074. Gregory, however, refrained from translating his threats into actions, although the attitude of the king showed no change, for he wished to avoid

10961-406: Was attached, and elected pope by the assembled cardinals, with the due consent of the Roman clergy, amid the repeated acclamations of the people. It was debated, at the time and since, whether this extraordinary outburst in favour of Hildebrand by clergy and people was wholly spontaneous, or could have been pre-arranged. According to Benizo, Bishop of Sutri, a supporter of Hildebrand, the outcry

11074-411: Was begun by Cardinal Ugo Candidus, Cardinal Priest of S. Clemente, who rushed into a pulpit and began to declaim to the people. Certainly, the mode of his election was highly criticized by his opponents. Many of the accusations against him may have been expressions of personal dislike, liable to suspicion from the very fact that they were not raised to attack his promotion until several years later. But it

11187-635: Was crowned at the dais in front of the High Altar in St. Peter's Basilica. Popes Pius IX , Pius XII , and John XXIII all were crowned in public on the balcony of the basilica, facing crowds assembled below in St. Peter's Square . Paul VI was crowned in front of St Peter's on a special dais with the entire coronation ceremony outdoors, as St Peter's was filled with special seating for the Vatican Council sessions. Pius XII's 1939 coronation broke new ground by being

11300-472: Was destroyed in February 1944 by US bombing. Victor's body was moved back to the rebuilt abbey in 1963. Papal coronation A papal coronation is the formal ceremony of the placing of the papal tiara on a newly elected pope . The first recorded papal coronation was of Pope Nicholas I in 858. The most recent was the 1963 coronation of Paul VI , who soon afterwards abandoned the practice of wearing

11413-534: Was duly installed by Cardinal Humbert on Easter Day 1058. Pope Nicholas II elevated him into the cardinalate as the Cardinal-Deacon of Santi Sergio e Bacco on 6 March 1058. He opted to be the Cardinal-Priest of Santa Cecilia in 1059. Desiderius rebuilt the church and conventual buildings, perfected the products of the scriptorium and re-established monastic discipline, so that there were 200 monks in

11526-400: Was enthroned as Pope Clement III on 24 March 1084, who in turn crowned Henry as emperor. In the meantime Gregory had formed an alliance with Robert Guiscard , who marched on the city and compelled Henry to flee towards Civita Castellana . The pope was liberated, but after the Roman people became incensed by the excesses of his Norman allies, again withdrew to Monte Cassino , and later to

11639-447: Was hailed as one of the greatest of the Roman pontiffs after his reforms proved successful, during his own reign he was denounced by some for his autocratic use of papal powers. In later times, Gregory VII became an exemplar of papal supremacy , and his memory was invoked both positively and negatively, reflecting later writers' attitude to the Catholic Church and the papacy. Beno of Santi Martino e Silvestro , who opposed Gregory VII in

11752-412: Was impossible, however, to deny the penitent re-entrance into the Church, and Gregory VII's Christian duty overrode his political interests. The removal of the ban did not imply a genuine settlement, as there was no mention of the main question between pope and emperor: that of investiture . A new conflict was inevitable. Obedience to the excommunication of Henry IV was used as a pretext to legitimize

11865-462: Was made archdeacon of the Roman church, becoming the most important figure in the papal administration. He was again the most powerful figure behind the election of Anselm of Lucca the Elder as Pope Alexander II in the papal election of October 1061 . The new pope put forward the reform program devised by Hildebrand and his followers. In his years as papal advisor, Hildebrand had an important role in

11978-533: Was not strict enough for the young monk, who betook himself first to the island monastery of Tremite San Nicolo in the Adriatic and in 1053 to the hermits at Majella in the Abruzzi . About this time he was brought to the notice of Pope Leo IX , and it is probable that the pope employed him at Benevento to negotiate peace with the Normans after the fatal battle of Civitate . Somewhat later Desiderius attached himself to

12091-633: Was particularly concerned with the East. The schism between Rome and the Byzantine Empire was a severe blow to him, and he worked hard to restore the former amicable relationship. Gregory successfully tried to get in touch with the emperor Michael VII . When the news of the Muslim attacks on the Christians in the East filtered through to Rome, and the political embarrassments of the Byzantine emperor increased, he conceived

12204-467: Was rejected by some of the cardinals on the grounds that the translation of a bishop was contrary to ecclesiastical law. Desiderius was finally elected on 24 May 1086 in the deaconry of S. Lucia in Septisolis. He took the name Victor III. Four days later, pope and cardinals had to flee from Rome due to the presence of the Antipope Clement III, and at Terracina , in spite of all protests, Victor laid aside

12317-548: Was relocated to the main abbey church in Monte Cassino with many pilgrims visiting his tomb. In 1727 the abbot of Monte Cassino obtained from Pope Benedict XIII permission to keep his feast (Tosti, I, 393). Pope Leo XIII beatified Victor III in 1887, at which point his body was once again moved to the Chapel of St. Victor. During World War II, his body was removed and placed in Rome for safekeeping. The main abbey at Monte Cassino

12430-527: Was seen by Pope Paul VI as instrumental in affirming the tenet that Christ is present in the Blessed Sacrament . Gregory's demand that Berengarius perform a confession of this belief was quoted in Pope Paul VI's historic 1965 encyclical Mysterium fidei : I believe in my heart and openly profess that the bread and wine that are placed on the altar are, through the mystery of the sacred prayer and

12543-488: Was succeeded by Hildebrand as Pope Gregory VII . Desiderius was able to call forth the help of the Normans of southern Italy repeatedly in favour of the Holy See. Already in 1059 he had persuaded Robert Guiscard and Richard of Capua to become vassals of St. Peter for their newly conquered territories: now Gregory VII immediately after his election sent for him to give an account of the state of Norman Italy and entrusted him with

12656-478: Was successful; he was then instrumental in overcoming the crisis caused by the Roman aristocracy's election of an antipope, Benedict X , who, thanks also to Agnes's support, was replaced by the Bishop of Florence , Nicholas II . With the help of 300 Norman knights sent by Richard of Aversa , Hildebrand personally led the conquest of the castle of Galeria Antica where Benedict had taken refuge. Between 1058 and 1059, he

12769-495: Was unable to rally the papal party in Germany, and the power of Henry IV was at its peak. The pope's chief military supporter, Matilda of Tuscany , blocked Henry's armies from the western passages over the Apennines , so he had to approach Rome from Ravenna . Rome surrendered to the German king in 1084, and Gregory thereupon retired into the exile of the Castel Sant'Angelo . Gregory refused to entertain Henry's overtures, although

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