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170-588: The Realm or Kingdom of Candia ( Venetian : Regno de Càndia ; Italian : Regno di Candia ) or Duchy of Candia (Venetian: Dogado de Càndia ; Italian: Ducato di Candia ) was the official name of Crete during the island's period as an overseas colony of the Republic of Venice , from the initial Venetian conquest in 1205–1212 to its fall to the Ottoman Empire during the Cretan War (1645–1669). The island

340-411: A European Union study has been devised to promote a modern highway to connect the northern and southern parts of the island via a tunnel . The study proposal includes a 15.7 km (9.8 mi) section of road between the villages of Agia Varvara and Agia Deka in central Crete. The new road section forms part of the route between Messara in the south and Crete's largest city Heraklion , which houses

510-687: A literary language , Venetian was overshadowed by Dante Alighieri 's Tuscan dialect (the best known writers of the Renaissance, such as Petrarch , Boccaccio and Machiavelli , were Tuscan and wrote in the Tuscan language) and languages of France like the Occitano-Romance languages and the langues d'oïl including the mixed Franco-Venetian . Even before the demise of the Republic, Venetian gradually ceased to be used for administrative purposes in favor of

680-458: A base of operations for the rebels in their guerrilla warfare against the Venetian authorities. However, the famine of 1365 severely weakened the rebellion. The Venetian rebel leaders were captured through treason and tortured to death, with only Tito Venier escaping this fate by leaving the island. Hunger and fear forced the eastern part of the island to submit to Venice, but the rebellion continued in

850-912: A coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi); to the north, it broaches the Sea of Crete (Greek: Κρητικό Πέλαγος ); to the south, the Libyan Sea (Greek: Λιβυκό Πέλαγος ); in the west, the Myrtoan Sea , and toward the east the Carpathian Sea. It lies approximately 160 km (99 mi) south of the Greek mainland. There are a number of peninsulas and gulfs on the north side of Crete, from west to east these include: Gramvousa peninsula, gulf of Kissamos, Rodopos peninsula, gulf of Chania , Akrotiri peninsula, Souda Bay , Apokoronas cape, gulf of Almiros , gulf of Heraklion , Aforesmenos cape, gulf of Mirabello , gulf of Sitia and

1020-584: A compensation for the fact that the 2nd- and 3rd-person inflections for most verbs, which are still distinct in Italian and many other Romance languages, are identical in Venetian. The Piedmontese language also has clitic subject pronouns, but the rules are somewhat different. The function of clitics is particularly visible in long sentences, which do not always have clear intonational breaks to easily tell apart vocative and imperative in sharp commands from exclamations with "shouted indicative". For instance, in Venetian

1190-703: A decade many were allowed to return and even reclaim their possessions on Crete. During the Third Ottoman–Venetian War , the Ottomans demanded the recognition of the Sultan's overlordship over Crete and the payment of an annual tribute. In June 1538, the Ottoman admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa captured Mylopotamos , Apokoronas , and Kerameia , besieged Chania without success, and then marched to Rethymno and Candia. It

1360-413: A lesser extent of timber and cheese. Venetian rule over Crete proved troubled from the beginning, as it encountered the hostility of the local populace. In the words of the medievalist Kenneth Setton , it required "an unceasing vigilance and a large investment in men and money to hold on to the island". No fewer than 27 large and small uprisings or conspiracies are documented during Venetian rule. Although

1530-482: A nasal, whereas Italian only uses [ ŋ ] before velar stops: e.g. [kaŋˈtaɾ] "to sing", [iŋˈvɛɾno] "winter", [ˈoŋzaɾ] "to anoint", [ɾaŋˈdʒaɾse] "to cope with". Speakers of Italian generally lack this sound and usually substitute a dental [ n ] for final Venetian [ ŋ ] , changing for example [maˈniŋ] to [maˈnin] and [maˈɾiŋ] to [maˈrin] . An accented á

1700-609: A new airport at Kasteli , where there is presently an air force base, and the new Kasteli Airport is due to open by 2027. The island is well served by ferries, mostly from Piraeus , by ferry companies such as Minoan Lines and ANEK Lines with links to the Cyclades and Dodecanese islands. Seajets also operates routes to Cyclades . The main ports from west to east are at Kissamos (ferry link to Peloponnese), Souda (Chania), Rethymno , Heraklion (links to Cyclades), Agios Nikolaos and Sitia (link to Dodecanese). Most of Crete

1870-719: A practice dating to c.  1130 ) and confirmed as late as 1198 in a treaty with Emperor Alexios III Angelos . These same locations were largely allocated to the Republic of Venice in the partition of the Byzantine Empire that followed the capture of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade , in April 1204: in addition to the Ionian Islands , the Saronic Gulf islands and the Cyclades , she obtained several coastal outposts on

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2040-477: A retaliation, the authorities banned the ordination of Orthodox priests for five years. Another conspiracy was betrayed in 1460, causing the Venetians to launch a persecution of many locals, as well as Greek refugees from mainland Greece. The protopapas of Rethymno, Petros Tzangaropoulos, was among the leaders of the conspiracy. Although the revolutionary agitation subsided, the authorities remained nervous; in 1463,

2210-530: A similar Minoan name for the island. The current name Crete is first attested in the 15th century BC in Mycenaean Greek texts, written in Linear B , through the words ke-re-te 𐀐𐀩𐀳 , * Krētes ; later Greek: Κρῆτες [krɛː.tes] , plural of Κρής [krɛːs] ) and ke-re-si-jo 𐀐𐀩𐀯𐀍 , * Krēsijos ; later Greek: Κρήσιος [krέːsios] , 'Cretian'). In Ancient Greek ,

2380-516: A special interrogative verbal flexion used for direct questions, which also incorporates a redundant pronoun: Reflexive tenses use the auxiliary verb avér ("to have"), as in English, the North Germanic languages , Catalan, Spanish, Romanian and Neapolitan; instead of èssar ("to be"), which would be normal in Italian. The past participle is invariable, unlike Italian: Another peculiarity of

2550-427: A weakened or lenited ("evanescent") ⟨l⟩ , which in some orthographic norms is indicated with the letter ⟨ ł ⟩ or ⟨ ƚ ⟩ ; in more conservative dialects, however, ⟨l⟩ and ⟨ł⟩ are merged as ordinary [ l ] . In those dialects that have both types, the precise phonetic realization of ⟨ł⟩ depends both on its phonological environment and on

2720-521: A widespread literature using the local idiom emerged, culminating with the early 17th-century romances Erotokritos and Erophile . After the Ottoman conquest of Cyprus in 1571, Crete was Venice's last major overseas possession. The Republic's relative military weakness, coupled with the island's wealth and its strategic location controlling the waterways of the Eastern Mediterranean attracted

2890-464: Is Heraklion , on the north shore of the island. As of 2021 , the region had a population of 624,408. The Dodecanese are located to the northeast of Crete, while the Cyclades are situated to the north, separated by the Sea of Crete . The Peloponnese is to the region's northwest. Crete was the center of Europe 's first advanced civilization, the Minoans , from 2700 to 1420 BC. The Minoan civilization

3060-405: Is a "semi-analytical" verbal flexion, with a compulsory clitic subject pronoun before the verb in many sentences, echoing the subject as an ending or a weak pronoun. Independent/emphatic pronouns (e.g. ti ), on the contrary, are optional. The clitic subject pronoun ( te, el/ła, i/łe ) is used with the 2nd and 3rd person singular, and with the 3rd person plural. This feature may have arisen as

3230-635: Is adjacent to a front vowel ( ⟨i e⟩ ). In dialects further inland ⟨ł⟩ may be realized as a partially vocalised ⟨l⟩ . Thus, for example, góndoła 'gondola' may sound like góndoea [ˈɡoŋdoe̯a] , góndola [ˈɡoŋdola] , or góndoa [ˈɡoŋdoa] . In dialects having a null realization of intervocalic ⟨ł⟩ , although pairs of words such as scóła , "school" and scóa , "broom" are homophonous (both being pronounced [ˈskoa] ), they are still distinguished orthographically. Venetian, like Spanish, does not have

3400-609: Is also spoken in North and South America by the descendants of Italian immigrants. Notable examples of this are Argentina and Brazil , particularly the city of São Paulo and the Talian dialect spoken in the Brazilian states of Espírito Santo , São Paulo , Paraná , Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina . In Mexico , the Chipilo Venetian dialect is spoken in the state of Puebla and

3570-560: Is fairly mild. Snowfall is common on the mountains between November and May, but rare in the low-lying areas. The south coast, including the Mesara Plain and Asterousia Mountains , falls in the North African climatic zone, enjoying significantly more sunny days and high temperatures throughout the year. There, date palms bear fruit, and swallows remain year-round rather than migrate to Africa . The fertile region around Ierapetra , on

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3740-646: Is mostly mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from west to east. It includes Crete's highest point, Mount Ida , and the range of the White Mountains (Lefka Ori) with 30 summits above 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) in altitude and the Samaria Gorge , a World Biosphere Reserve . Crete forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece, while retaining its own local cultural traits (such as its own poetry and music ). The Nikos Kazantzakis airport at Heraklion and

3910-405: Is now pronounced either as [ dz ] (Italian voiced-Z ), or more typically as [ z ] (Italian voiced-S , written ⟨x⟩ , as in el pianxe ); in a few dialects the sound appears as [ d ] and may therefore be written instead with the letter ⟨d⟩ , as in el piande . Some varieties of Venetian also distinguish an ordinary [ l ] vs.

4080-649: Is one of the Italo-Dalmatian languages and most closely related to Istriot on the one hand and Tuscan – Italian on the other. Some authors include it among the Gallo-Italic languages , and according to others, it is not related to either one. Although both Ethnologue and Glottolog group Venetian into the Gallo-Italic languages, the linguists Giacomo Devoto and Francesco Avolio and the Treccani encyclopedia reject

4250-425: Is one of the few Greek islands that can support itself without a tourism industry. The economy began to change visibly during the 1970s as tourism gained in importance. Although an emphasis remains on agriculture and stock breeding, because of the climate and terrain of the island, there has been a drop in manufacturing, and an observable expansion in its service industries (mainly tourism-related). All three sectors of

4420-454: Is pronounced as [ ɐ ], (an intervocalic / u / could be pronounced as a [ w ] sound). While written Venetian looks similar to Italian, it sounds very different, with a distinct lilting cadence, almost musical. Compared to Italian, in Venetian syllabic rhythms are more evenly timed, accents are less marked, but on the other hand tonal modulation is much wider and melodic curves are more intricate. Stressed and unstressed syllables sound almost

4590-588: Is pronounced the same as Castilian Spanish cena (which has the same meaning). The voiceless interdental fricative occurs in Bellunese, north-Trevisan, and in some Central Venetian rural areas around Padua, Vicenza and the mouth of the river Po . Because the pronunciation variant [ θ ] is more typical of older speakers and speakers living outside of major cities, it has come to be socially stigmatized, and most speakers now use [ s ] or [ ts ] instead of [ θ ] . In those dialects with

4760-452: Is served by the road network. A modern highway is currently being upgraded along the north coast connecting the four major cities ( A90 motorway ), the sections bypassing the main cities (Heraklion to Malia, Rethymno, Chania to Kolymvari) are at motorway standard, while the sections in between, and west to Kissamos and east to Sitia, should be completed by 2028. A link will also connect to the new Kasteli international airport . In addition,

4930-579: Is spoken mainly in the Italian regions of Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia and in both Slovenia and Croatia ( Istria , Dalmatia and the Kvarner Gulf ). Smaller communities are found in Lombardy ( Mantua ), Trentino , Emilia-Romagna ( Rimini and Forlì ), Sardinia ( Arborea , Terralba , Fertilia ), Lazio ( Pontine Marshes ), Tuscany ( Grossetan Maremma ) and formerly in Romania ( Tulcea ). It

5100-628: Is the Linear B archive from Knossos, dated approximately to 1425–1375 BC. After the Bronze Age collapse , Crete was settled by new waves of Greeks from the mainland. A number of city states developed in the Archaic period . There was limited contact with mainland Greece, and Greek historiography shows little interest in Crete, as a result, there are few literary sources. During the 6th to 4th centuries BC, Crete

5270-767: Is to expropriate 850 ha (2,100 acres) of land. The port would handle two million containers per year, but the project has not been universally welcomed because of its environmental, economic and cultural impact. As of January 2013, the project has still not been confirmed, although there is mounting pressure to approve it, arising from Greece's difficult economic situation. There are plans for underwater cables going from mainland Greece to Israel and Egypt passing by Crete and Cyprus: EuroAfrica Interconnector and EuroAsia Interconnector . They would connect Crete electrically with mainland Greece, ending energy isolation of Crete. At present Greece covers electricity cost differences for Crete of around €300 million per year. In

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5440-615: Is used only in Veneto dialects of Venetian language. It will suffice to know that in Venetian language the letter L in word-initial and intervocalic positions usually becomes a "palatal allomorph", and is barely pronounced. Very few Venetic words seem to have survived in present Venetian, but there may be more traces left in the morphology, such as the morpheme - esto / asto / isto for the past participle, which can be found in Venetic inscriptions from about 500 BC: A peculiarity of Venetian grammar

5610-595: The Libro d'Oro of the Venetian nobility, but Kallergis' loyalty to Venice provoked the enmity of the other great Cretan families, who tried to assassinate him at Mylopotamos. Alexios Kallergis therefore spent his last years, until his death in 1321, in Candia. His enemies continued to try to assassinate him, but only managed to kill his son, Andreas, with many of his entourage. The peace established by Kallergis lasted until 1333, when Duke Viago Zeno ordered additional taxes to finance

5780-626: The Crete Region ( Greek : Περιφέρεια Κρήτης , Periféria Krítis , [periˈferia ˈkritis] ), one of the 13 regions of Greece which were established in the 1987 administrative reform. Under the 2010 Kallikratis plan , the powers and authority of the regions were redefined and extended. The region is based at Heraklion and is divided into four regional units (pre-Kallikratis prefectures ). From west to east these are: Chania , Rethymno , Heraklion , and Lasithi . These are further subdivided into 24 municipalities . Since 1 January 2011,

5950-738: The Daskalogiannis airport at Chania serve international travelers. The Minoan palace at Knossos is also located in Heraklion. The earliest references to the island of Crete come from texts from the Syrian city of Mari dating from the 18th century BC, where the island is referred to as Kaptara . This is repeated later in Neo-Assyrian records and the Bible ( Caphtor ). It was known in ancient Egyptian as Keftiu or kftı͗w , strongly suggesting

6120-449: The Italo-Dalmatian branch of Romance. Like all members of the Romance language family , Venetian evolved from Vulgar Latin , and is thus a sister language of Italian and other Romance languages. Venetian is first attested in writing in the 13th century. The language enjoyed substantial prestige in the days of the Republic of Venice , when it attained the status of a lingua franca in

6290-566: The Mediterranean , and Minoan cultural influence extended to Cyprus , Canaan , and Egypt . Some scholars have speculated that legends such as that of the minotaur have a historical basis in Minoan times. In 1420 BC, the Minoan civilization was subsumed by the Mycenaean civilization from mainland Greece. The oldest samples of writing in the Greek language, as identified by Michael Ventris ,

6460-586: The Mediterranean Sea , after Sicily , Sardinia , Cyprus , and Corsica . Crete is located about 100 km (62 mi) south of the Peloponnese , and about 300 km (190 mi) southwest of Anatolia . Crete has an area of 8,450 km (3,260 sq mi) and a coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi). It bounds the southern border of the Aegean Sea , with the Sea of Crete (or North Cretan Sea) to

6630-449: The Mediterranean Sea . Notable Venetian-language authors include the playwrights Ruzante (1502–1542), Carlo Goldoni (1707–1793) and Carlo Gozzi (1720–1806). Following the old Italian theatre tradition ( commedia dell'arte ), they used Venetian in their comedies as the speech of the common folk. They are ranked among the foremost Italian theatrical authors of all time, and plays by Goldoni and Gozzi are still performed today all over

6800-576: The Metropolitan of Athens Anthimos to the island as proedros (ecclesiastical locum tenens ) of Crete. Venice reacted by securing a declaration from the Pope granting absolution to any soldier fighting against the rebels, and engaging in extensive recruitment of mercenaries, including Turks. Nevertheless, the rebels managed to extend their reach into eastern Crete, with the Lasithi plateau once again becoming

6970-587: The Morean War failed, and these last Venetian outposts were finally taken by the Turks in 1715, during the last Ottoman–Venetian War . Venice had a long history of trade contact with Crete ; the island was one of the numerous cities and islands throughout Greece where the Venetians had enjoyed tax-exempted trade by virtue of repeated chrysobulls granted by the Byzantine emperors , beginning in 1147 (and in turn codifying

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7140-510: The Sideros peninsula. On the south side of Crete is the gulf of Messaras and Cape Lithinon . Crete is mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from west to east, formed by six different groups of mountains: These mountains lavish Crete with valleys, such as Amari valley , fertile plateaus, such as Lasithi plateau , Omalos and Nidha ; caves, such as Gourgouthakas , Diktaion , and Idaion (the birthplace of

7310-662: The destructive earthquake of that year, that had left the Venetian authorities in disarray. Later, in 1311, a letter by the Duke of Crete requests of him to gather information about insurrectionist agitation in Sfakia. When another revolt broke out in Sfakia in 1319, Kallergis interceded with the rebels and Duke Giustiniani to put an end to it. On the same year, minor uprisings by the Vlastoi and Barouches were also ended after Kallergis' intervention. The Venetians rewarded him by inscribing his family into

7480-593: The geminate consonants characteristic of standard Italian, Tuscan, Neapolitan and other languages of southern Italy; thus Italian fette ("slices"), palla ("ball") and penna ("pen") correspond to féte , bała , and péna in Venetian. The masculine singular noun ending, corresponding to -o / -e in Italian, is often unpronounced in Venetian after continuants, particularly in rural varieties: Italian pieno ("full") corresponds to Venetian pien , Italian altare to Venetian altar . The extent to which final vowels are deleted varies by dialect:

7650-573: The reconquest of Constantinople in 1261, and the restoration of the Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty , Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos endeavoured to recover Crete as well. A certain Sergios was sent to the island, and made contact with the Greek nobles Georgios Chortatzes and Michael Skordiles Psaromelingos. This led to the outbreak of another uprising in 1262, again led by the Skordilides,

7820-419: The south and east have a hot semi-arid climate ( Köppen climate classification : BSh ). The higher elevations fall into the warm-summer Mediterranean climate category ( Csb ) while the mountain peaks (>2,000 meters) might feature a cold-summer Mediterranean climate ( Csc ) or a continental climate ( Dfb or Dfc ). The atmosphere can be quite humid, depending on the proximity to the sea, while winter

7990-453: The subjunctive mood is widely used in subordinate clauses . Some dialects of Venetian have certain sounds not present in Italian, such as the interdental voiceless fricative [ θ ] , often spelled with ⟨ç⟩ , ⟨z⟩ , ⟨zh⟩ , or ⟨ž⟩ , and similar to English th in thing and thought . This sound occurs, for example, in çéna ("supper", also written zhena, žena ), which

8160-563: The "flower of the Venetian colony of Candia" fell. The rebels laid siege to Candia, but on the verge of success, the rebellion began to fall apart due to dissensions among the Cretan nobles: the Psaromelingoi fell out with the Chortatzes clan after one of their own killed a Chortatzes over the division of the spoils, while at the same time Alexios Kallergis openly collaborated with the Venetians. With

8330-828: The 'Captain of the Guard [Fleet] of Crete' ( Capitano alla guardia di Candia ) commanded the local naval forces. Just like the city of Venice itself , the "Venice of the East" was initially divided into six provinces, or sestieri . From east to west these were: From the early 14th century on, the island was divided into four larger provinces ( territoria ): With the creation of the territoria , rectors ( rettori ) began to be appointed in their capitals, with civil and held limited military authority in their province: from 1307 in Chania and Rethymno, and from 1314 in Siteia. The rettore of Chania originally

8500-539: The 14th century to some extent. Other noteworthy variants are: Like most Romance languages, Venetian has mostly abandoned the Latin case system , in favor of prepositions and a more rigid subject–verb–object sentence structure. It has thus become more analytic , if not quite as much as English. Venetian also has the Romance articles , both definite (derived from the Latin demonstrative ille ) and indefinite (derived from

8670-642: The 15-17th Centuries. Georgios Hortatzis was author of the dramatic work Erophile . The painter Domenicos Theotocopoulos , better known as El Greco , was born in Crete in this period and was trained in Byzantine iconography before moving to Italy and later, Spain. [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] 35°19′N 25°08′E  /  35.317°N 25.133°E  / 35.317; 25.133 Venetian language Although referred to as an "Italian dialect" (Venetian: diałeto ; Italian : dialetto ) even by some of its speakers,

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8840-670: The 2010 2nd Regional ad hoc Commission of the Regione del Veneto. The Academia de ła Bona Creansa – Academy of the Venetian Language, an NGO accredited according to the UNESCO 2003 Convention for the Venetian language and culture had already worked, tested, applied and certified a full writing system (presented in a scientific publication in linguistics in 2016), known with the DECA acronym ( Drio El Costumar de l'Academia , i.e. literally According to

9010-489: The 20th century also saw many Venetian-speakers settle in other regions of Italy, especially in the Pontine Marshes of southern Lazio where they populated new towns such as Latina , Aprilia and Pomezia , forming there the so-called " Venetian-Pontine " community ( comunità venetopontine ). Some firms have chosen to use Venetian language in advertising, as a beer did some years ago ( Xe foresto solo el nome , 'only

9180-460: The Cretan economy (agriculture/farming, processing-packaging, services), are directly connected and interdependent. The island has a per capita income much higher than the Greek average, whereas unemployment is at approximately 4%, one-sixth of that of the country overall. As in many regions of Greece, viticulture and olive groves are significant; oranges , citrons and avocadoes are also cultivated. Until recently there were restrictions on

9350-457: The Cretan nobleman Matthaios Kallergis managed to calm down spirits, and restore order. Two years later, in 1573, the area around Chania was raided. Another conflict broke out in November 1571, when the Venetian governor, Marino Cavalli , moved to subdue the area of Sfakia . The isolated and mountainous area had always remained free of effective Venetian control, and their raids in the lowlands and

9520-469: The Cretan nobles, awarding two more knightly fiefs to their leaders, and allowing the safe departure of Sergios from Crete. On the very next year, however, rumours spread that the Cretan nobles, including the Chortatzes brothers George and Theodore, but also Alexios Kallergis, were plotting another uprising. The dynamic intervention of the Duke Giovanni Velenio , and Kallergis' own misgivings, led to

9690-440: The Drakontopouloi, along with the remnants of the Nicaean troops (the so-called " Anatolikoi ") continued the fight, based on the fortress of Mirabello (modern Agios Nikolaos ). It was only with the aid of the autonomous Greek lord of Rhodes , Leo Gabalas , that the Venetians were able to force their withdrawal to Asia Minor in 1236. The fate of the Drakontopouloi is unknown, and they are no longer attested thereafter. Following

9860-706: The Gallo-Italic classification. Although the language region is surrounded by Gallo-Italic languages , Venetian does not share some traits with these immediate neighbors. Some scholars stress Venetian's characteristic lack of Gallo-Italic traits ( agallicità ) or traits found further afield in Gallo-Romance languages (e.g. French, Franco-Provençal ) or the Rhaeto-Romance languages (e.g. Friulian , Romansh ). For example, Venetian did not undergo vowel rounding or nasalization, palatalize /kt/ and /ks/ , or develop rising diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ , and it preserved final syllables, whereas, as in Italian , Venetian diphthongization occurs in historically open syllables. On

10030-403: The Greek mainland of interest as bases for her maritime commerce. Finally, on 12 August 1204, the Venetians preempted their traditional rivals, the Genoese , to acquire Crete from Boniface of Montferrat . Boniface had allegedly been promised the island by the Byzantine emperor Alexios IV Angelos , but as he had little use for it, he sold it in exchange for 1,000 silver marks, an annual portion of

10200-445: The Kallergis clan, and the revolt spread quickly to the rest of the island: in all major cities, the Venetian authorities were overthrown. Venice tried to negotiate with the rebels, but after this effort failed, it began assembling a large expeditionary force to recover the island by force. The army was headed by the Veronese mercenary captain Lucino dal Verme and the fleet by Domenico Michiele. Once news of this arrived in Crete, many of

10370-407: The Melissenoi, and the Chortatzes family, and supported by the Orthodox clergy. The rebellion raged for four years, but its prospects were never good; not only was Michael VIII unable to send any substantial aid, but the influential Greek noble Alexios Kallergis refused to support it, fearing the loss of his privileges. Finally, in 1265 another treaty ended the uprising, reconfirming the privileges of

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10540-419: The Republic until its expansion into the northern Italian mainland (the Terraferma ) in the early 15th century. In addition to the unfamiliar challenges of governing a territory of such size and eminence, the distance of Crete from the metropolis—about a month's journey by galley—raised dangers and complications. As a result, unlike other colonies, where the Venetian government was content to allow governance by

10710-416: The Skordyles family by the Venetian rector of Monopari (Venetian Bonrepare), and the failure of the Duke of Crete, Paolo Querini , to provide redress, resulted in the outbreak of a major rebellion, led by the Greek nobles Constantine Skordyles and Michael Melissenos. Based in the two mountainous provinces of Upper Syvritos and Lower Syvritos, the rebels inflicted successive defeats on the Venetian troops, and

10880-402: The Theologian on Patmos were confirmed, and Venetian citizens became liable for punishment for crimes against the Cretan commoners ( villani ). In exchange, the Cretan nobles swore allegiance to the Republic of Venice. This treaty had major repercussions, as it began the formation of a native Cretan noble class, set on equal footing with the Venetian colonial aristocracy. However, the arrival of

11050-602: The Tuscan-derived Italian language that had been proposed and used as a vehicle for a common Italian culture, strongly supported by eminent Venetian humanists and poets, from Pietro Bembo (1470–1547), a crucial figure in the development of the Italian language itself, to Ugo Foscolo (1778–1827). Venetian spread to other continents as a result of mass migration from the Veneto region between 1870 and 1905, and between 1945 and 1960. Venetian migrants created large Venetian-speaking communities in Argentina , Brazil (see Talian ), and Mexico (see Chipilo Venetian dialect ), where

11220-423: The Use of the Academia ). The DECA writing system has been officialized by the Veneto Region under the name Grafia Veneta Internazionale Moderna , by unanimous vote of the Commissione Grafia e Toponomastica (i.e. Script and Topononymy Committee of the Venetian language on December 14, 2017, and available at portal of the Venetian Regional Council dedicated to the Venetian language . The same writing system

11390-446: The Venetian colonists consciously maintained themselves apart; until the end of the 13th century, even mixed marriages between native Cretans and Venetians were prohibited. Already in 1212, the Hagiostephanites brothers rose in revolt in the Lasithi Plateau , possibly caused by the arrival of the first Venetian colonists, and the expropriation of the Cretan nobles and the Orthodox Church on the island. The rebellion soon spread throughout

11560-466: The Venetian feudal lords, led by the Gradenigo and Venier families, rose in rebellion on 9 August 1363. This " Revolt of Saint Titus ", as it became known, abolished the Venetian authorities in Candia and declared the island an independent state, the "Republic of Saint Titus", after the island's patron saint . The rebels sought the assistance of the Greek population, promising equality between Catholics and Orthodox. Several Greek nobles joined them, including

11730-444: The Venetians transported slaves from the Balkans across the Adriatic Sea to Chios or Candia in the Aegean Sea , from which they were sold on to either slavery in Spain in the West or slavery in Egypt in the South. Furthermore, they established a feudal state and administered a strict capitalist system for exploiting the island's agricultural produce. Exported products consisted primarily of wheat and sweet wine ( malmsey ), and to

11900-412: The ancient Greek god Zeus ); and a number of gorges. The mountains have been seen as a key feature of the island's distinctiveness, especially since the time of Romantic travellers' writing. Contemporary Cretans distinguish between highlanders and lowlanders; the former often claim to reside in places affording a higher/better climatic and moral environment. In keeping with the legacy of Romantic authors,

12070-420: The area, allowing its inhabitants to return to their homes, but soon Sfakia again became a hotbed of disorder, so that in 1608, the governor Nicolas Sagredo prepared to invade the area again, only for the plan to be dismissed by his successor, who restored order by personally touring the region. The conquest of Crete brought Venice its first major colony; indeed, the island would remain the largest possession of

12240-444: The arrival of substantial reinforcements from Venice, the uprising was finally defeated in 1278. Unlike with previous rebellions, the Venetians refused a negotiated settlement, and suppressed the revolt with a campaign of terror involving mass reprisals. The Chortatzes family and many of their supporters fled to Asia Minor, where several entered Byzantine service, but the brutal repression of the Venetians created an unbridgeable gulf with

12410-456: The attention of the Ottoman Empire . In the long and devastating Cretan War (1645–1669) , the two states fought over the possession of Crete: the Ottomans quickly overran most of the island, but failed to take Candia, which held out, aided by Venetian naval superiority and Ottoman distractions elsewhere, until 1669. Only the three island fortresses of Souda , Gramvousa and Spinalonga remained in Venetian hands. Attempts to recover Candia during

12580-758: The central–southern varieties delete vowels only after / n / , whereas the northern variety deletes vowels also after dental stops and velars; the eastern and western varieties are in between these two extremes. The velar nasal [ ŋ ] (the final sound in English "song") occurs frequently in Venetian. A word-final / n / is always velarized, which is especially obvious in the pronunciation of many local Venetian surnames that end in ⟨n⟩ , such as Mari n [maˈɾiŋ] and Mani n [maˈniŋ] , as well as in common Venetian words such as ma n ( [ˈmaŋ] "hand"), piro n ( [piˈɾoŋ] "fork"). Moreover, Venetian always uses [ ŋ ] in consonant clusters that start with

12750-430: The city and region, which is why the modern language has a similar name, while their language may have also left a few traces in modern Venetian as a substrate . The main regional varieties and subvarieties of Venetian language: All these variants are mutually intelligible, with a minimum 92% in common among the most diverging ones (Central and Western). Modern speakers reportedly can still understand Venetian texts from

12920-446: The clitic el marks the indicative verb and its masculine singular subject, otherwise there is an imperative preceded by a vocative. Although some grammars regard these clitics as "redundant", they actually provide specific additional information as they mark number and gender, thus providing number-/gender- agreement between the subject(s) and the verb, which does not necessarily show this information on its endings. Venetian also has

13090-629: The coast, at Aghios Nikolaos, was formerly a freshwater lake but is now connected to the sea, in Lasithi . Three artificial lakes created by dams also exist in Crete: the lake of Aposelemis Dam , the lake of Potamos Dam, and the lake of Mpramiana Dam. Download coordinates as: Download coordinates as: A large number of islands, islets , and rocks hug the coast of Crete. Many are visited by tourists, some are only visited by archaeologists and biologists . Some are environmentally protected . A small sample of

13260-420: The constant feuds between the leading Sfakian clans caused great insecurity in the wider area. After blockading all passes to Sfakia, Cavalli began laying waste to the region and killing large part of the population. The Sfakians were finally forced to submit, and delegations from the entire region appeared before Cavalli to swear allegiance to Venice. Cavalli's successor, Jacopo Foscarini , took measures to pacify

13430-507: The construction of additional galleys , to combat the ever-increasing threat of piracy and raiding along the Cretan coasts. The uprising began as a protest in Mylopotamos, but soon spread to the western provinces in September 1333, under the leadership of Vardas Kallergis, Nikolaos Prikosirides from Kissamos and the three Syropoulos brothers. Despite the participation of one of their relatives,

13600-537: The corresponding words of Italian. Venetian includes however many words derived from other sources (such as ancient Venetic, Greek, Gothic, and German), and has preserved some Latin words not used to the same extent in Italian, resulting in many words that are not cognate with their equivalent words in Italian, such as: Since December 2017 the Venetian language adopted a modern writing system, named GVIM (acronym for Grafia del Veneto Internazionale Moderno , i.e. Writing system for Modern International Venetian ) thanks to

13770-440: The dialect of the speaker. In Venice and its mainland as well as in most of central Veneto (excluding the peripheral provinces of Verona, Belluno and some islands of the lagoon) the realization is a non-syllabic [e̯] (usually described as nearly like an "e" and so often spelled as ⟨e⟩ ), when ⟨ł⟩ is adjacent (only) to back vowels ( ⟨a o u⟩ ), vs. a null realization when ⟨ł⟩

13940-447: The eastern part of Crete, capturing the forts of Sitia and Spinalonga , and was only suppressed through the intervention of Marco I Sanudo , the Duke of Naxos . Sanudo and Tiepolo then fell out, and Sanudo attempted to conquer the island for himself. Sanudo enjoyed considerable local support, including the powerful archon Sebastos Skordyles . He even seized Candia, while Tiepolo escaped to

14110-403: The empire and divided its territories amongst the crusader leaders (see Frankokratia ). Crete was initially allotted to Boniface of Montferrat , but, unable to enforce his control over the island, he soon sold his rights to Venice. Venetian troops first occupied the island in 1205, but it took until 1212 for it to be secured, especially against the opposition of Venice's rival Genoa . Thereafter,

14280-489: The entire island. The Venetians tried to suppress it through reprisals: Orthodox monasteries, which were often used as bases and refuges by the rebels, were torched, and torture was applied to prisoners. In 1284, entry and settlement in the Lasithi Plateau, which in previous rebellions had served as a base for rebels, was declared completely prohibited, even for herding sheep. Despite the constant stream of reinforcements from

14450-409: The exile of the rebels' families to Venice. Apart from the Greek nobles, dissatisfaction with the Republic was also growing among the Venetian feudal nobility in Crete, who resented both the heavy taxation and their relegation to a second rank against the nobility of the metropolis. This resentment came to the fore in 1363, when new taxes for repairs in the harbour of Candia were announced. In response,

14620-464: The failure of these plans. Michael VIII eventually recognised Venetian control of the island in treaties concluded in 1268 and 1277 . In 1272 or 1273, however, George and Theodore Chortatzes launched another uprising in eastern Crete, centred on the Lasithi Plateau. In 1276, the rebels scored a major victory in an open battle in the Messara Plain , in which the Duke of Crete, a ducal councillor, and

14790-480: The first century of Venetian rule—by comparison, Venice itself had a population of c.  60,000 at this period. The colonization wave of 1252 also resulted in the establishment of Canea (modern Chania ), on the site of the long abandoned ancient city of Kydonia . Venetians used Crete as a center for their profitable eastern trade. Candia was an important base for the traffic of the Balkan slave trade , during which

14960-635: The four modern prefectures . During the first two centuries of Venetian rule, revolts by the native Orthodox Greek population against the Roman Catholic Venetians were frequent, often supported by the Empire of Nicaea . Fourteen revolts are counted between 1207 and the last major uprising, the Revolt of St. Titus in the 1360s, which united the Greeks and the Venetian coloni against the financial exactions of

15130-577: The help of Angelo Sanudo , son and successor of Marco, while the Cretans looked to the Greek Empire of Nicaea for aid. A Nicaean fleet of 33 ships arrived on the island, and in the 1230s the Nicaeans were able to challenge Venetian control over much of Crete and maintain troops there. A series of treaties in 1233, 1234, and 1236, ended the uprising, with the concession of new privileges to the local nobility. Only

15300-439: The hierarchy were complemented by judges and police officials (the giudici and the signori di notte ), castellans ( castellani ) and the grand chancellor ( cancelliere grande ). As in most greater territories with a special military importance, military command was vested in a captain ( capitano ). In times of crisis or war, a provveditore generale (the provveditore generale [del regno] di Candia )

15470-494: The import of bananas to Greece, therefore bananas were grown on the island, predominantly in greenhouses. Dairy products are important to the local economy and there are a number of specialty cheeses such as mizithra , anthotyros , and kefalotyri . 20% of Greek wine is produced in Crete, mostly in the region of Peza. The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was €9.4 billion in 2018, accounting for 5.1% of Greek economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power

15640-516: The island was prohibited. In 1341, another uprising was launched, by yet another member of the Kallergis family, Leon . A grandson or nephew of Alexios, Leon was publicly loyal to Venice, but conspired with other Cretan nobles, the Smyrilios family of Apokoronas. The revolt broke out there, and soon spread to other areas, as other noble families joined it, including the Skordilides (Konstantinos Skordiles

15810-400: The island's biggest airport and ferry links with mainland Greece . Also, during the 1930s there was a narrow-gauge industrial railway in Heraklion, from Giofyros in the west side of the city to the port. There are now no railway lines on Crete. The government is planning the construction of a line from Chania to Heraklion via Rethymno. The construction sector in Crete responded well during

15980-418: The island's king. However, while Venice was determined to capture the island, Pescatore was largely left unsupported by Genoa. In 1209, the Venetians managed to capture Palaiokastro near Candia (Greek Chandax, Χάνδαξ ; modern Heraklion , Ηράκλειον ), but it took them until 1212 to evict Pescatore from the island, and the latter's lieutenant, Alamanno da Costa , held out even longer. Only on 11 May 1217 did

16150-450: The island's revenues totalling 10,000 hyperpyra , and the promise of Venetian support for his acquisition of the Kingdom of Thessalonica . To enforce their claim, the Venetians landed a small force on the offshore island of Spinalonga . The Genoese however, who already had a trading colony on Crete, moved more quickly: under the command of Enrico Pescatore, Count of Malta , and enjoying

16320-461: The island, particularly during what the historian Freddy Thiriet labelled the "half-century of prosperity", 1400–1450. Crete had always been of particular importance among Venice's colonies, but its importance increased as the Ottomans started wresting away Venice's overseas possessions in a series of conflicts that began after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. By the middle of the 16th century, Crete

16490-408: The island. Kallergis, however, refused. This act, together with the general war-weariness and the internal dissensions of the Cretan leaders, opened the path to ending the revolt and coming to terms with Venice. The uprising was terminated with the "Peace of Alexios Kallergis" ( Latin : Pax Alexii Callergi ), signed on 28 April 1299 between Duke Michel Vitali and the rebel leaders. In 33 articles,

16660-407: The islands includes: Off the south coast, the island of Gavdos is located 26 nautical miles (48 km) south of Hora Sfakion and is the southernmost point of Europe . Crete straddles two climatic zones, the Mediterranean and the semi-arid climate , mainly falling within the former. As such, the climate in Crete is primarily a hot-summer Mediterranean ( Csa ) climate while some areas in

16830-428: The label is primarily geographic. Venetian is a separate language from Italian, with many local varieties. Its precise place within the Romance language family remains somewhat controversial. Both Ethnologue and Glottolog group it into the Gallo-Italic branch (and thus, closer to French and Emilian–Romagnol than to Italian ). Devoto , Avolio and Ursini reject such classification, and Tagliavini places it in

17000-478: The language is still spoken today. In the 19th century large-scale immigration towards Trieste and Muggia extended the presence of the Venetian language eastward. Previously the dialect of Trieste had been a Rhaeto Romance dialect known as Tergestino . This dialect became extinct as a result of Venetian migration, which gave rise to the Triestino dialect of Venetian spoken there today. Internal migrations during

17170-672: The language is the use of the phrase eser drìo (literally, "to be behind") to indicate continuing action: Another progressive form in some Venetian dialects uses the construction èsar łà che (lit. "to be there that"): The use of progressive tenses is more pervasive than in Italian; e.g. That construction does not occur in Italian: *Non sarebbe mica stato parlandoti is not syntactically valid. Subordinate clauses have double introduction ("whom that", "when that", "which that", "how that"), as in Old English : As in other Romance languages,

17340-521: The late 19th century. The people of Chipilo preserve their dialect and call it chipileño , and it has been preserved as a variant since the 19th century. The variant of Venetian spoken by the Cipiłàn ( Chipileños ) is northern Trevisàn-Feltrìn-Belumàt. In 2009, the Brazilian city of Serafina Corrêa , in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, gave Talian a joint official status alongside Portuguese . Until

17510-614: The later Neolithic and Bronze Age periods, under the Minoans, Crete had a highly developed, literate civilization. It has been ruled by various ancient Greek entities, the Roman Empire , the Byzantine Empire , the Emirate of Crete , the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire . After a brief period of independence (1897–1913) under a provisional Cretan government, it joined the Kingdom of Greece. It

17680-408: The leadership of Georgios Kantanoleos , started taking place. Exasperated by the heavy tax burden and the arbitrariness of Venetian government, about 600 men rose up in revolt around Kerameia. The Venetian authorities initially hesitated to move against the rebels, for fear of causing a wider uprising. In October 1527, however, Geronimo Corner with 1,500 troops marched against the rebels. The uprising

17850-456: The local Greeks, both the noble families and the wider populace, were allowed to keep their own law and property, they resented Latin rule and the strict discrimination between them and the Latin Venetian elite, which monopolized the higher administrative and military posts of the island and reaped most of the benefits of the commerce passing through it. During the early period of Venetian rule,

18020-432: The local Venetian colonists, in Crete the Republic employed salaried officials dispatched from the metropolis. This "made subjects of both the Venetian colonizers and the colonized Greek people of the island", and despite the privileges accorded to the former, their common position of subservience to the metropolis made it more likely for the Venetians and Greeks of Crete to rally together in support of common interests against

18190-449: The local population. Despite his double-dealing and shifting allegiance between Venice and his own compatriots, the defeat of the Chortatzes brothers left Alexios Kallergis as the most prominent and respected of the Cretan nobles. His enormous wealth, as well as his strategically situated fief at Mylopotamos , also gave him great power. This led the Venetians to distrust him; their efforts to curb his power backfired, however, and provoked

18360-403: The metropolis, the uprising could not be quelled. The Venetian authorities also tried to capture Kallergis and the other leaders, but without success. The situation became dire for Venice in 1296, following the outbreak of war with Genoa. The Genoese admiral Lamba Doria captured and torched Chania , and sent envoys to Kallergis offering an alliance, along with recognition as hereditary ruler of

18530-462: The metropolis. Thereafter, and despite occasional revolts and Turkish raids, the island largely prospered, and Venetian rule opened up a window into the ongoing Italian Renaissance . As a consequence, an artistic and literary revival unparalleled elsewhere in the Greek world took place: the Cretan School of painting, which culminated in the works of El Greco , united Italian and Byzantine forms, and

18700-456: The metropolitan authorities. The regime established by Venice in Crete was modelled after that of the metropolis itself. It was headed by a Duke ( duca di Candia ), and included a Great Council , a Senate , a Council of Ten , an Avogadoria de Comùn , and other institutions that existed in the metropolis. The Duke of Crete was elected from among the Venetian patriciate for two-year terms, and

18870-620: The middle of the 20th century, Venetian was also spoken on the Greek Island of Corfu , which had long been under the rule of the Republic of Venice . Moreover, Venetian had been adopted by a large proportion of the population of Cephalonia , one of the Ionian Islands , because the island was part of the Stato da Màr for almost three centuries. Venetian is a Romance language and thus descends from Vulgar Latin . Its classification has always been controversial: According to Tagliavini, for example, it

19040-449: The mountains are seen as having determined their residents' 'resistance' to past invaders which relates to the oft-encountered idea that highlanders are 'purer' in terms of less intermarriages with occupiers. For residents of mountainous areas, such as Sfakia in western Crete, the aridness and rockiness of the mountains is emphasised as an element of pride and is often compared to the alleged soft-soiled mountains of others parts of Greece or

19210-458: The mountains of Sfakia and Syvritos. The rebels even besieged the younger Alexios Kallergis at Kastelli . The rebels suffered a major defeat, however, when the Duke managed to ambush the Psaromelingoi and their forces and destroy them at the Messara Plain. The loss of the Psaromelingoi was the prelude to the suppression of the rebellion in 1347, which was again characterized by great brutality and

19380-513: The name Crete ( Κρήτη ) first appears in Homer 's Odyssey . Its etymology is unknown. One proposal derives it from a hypothetical Luwian word * kursatta (compare kursawar 'island', kursattar 'cutting, sliver'). Another proposal suggests that it derives from the ancient Greek word "κραταιή" (krataie̅) , meaning strong or powerful, the reasoning being that Crete was the strongest thalassocracy during ancient times. In Latin ,

19550-401: The name is foreign'). In other cases advertisements in Veneto are given a "Venetian flavour" by adding a Venetian word to standard Italian: for instance an airline used the verb xe ( Xe sempre più grande , "it is always bigger") into an Italian sentence (the correct Venetian being el xe senpre pì grando ) to advertise new flights from Marco Polo Airport . In 2007, Venetian

19720-637: The name of the island became Creta . The original Arabic name of Crete was Iqrīṭiš ( Arabic : اقريطش < (τῆς) Κρήτης) , but after the Emirate of Crete 's establishment of its new capital at ربض الخندق Rabḍ al-Ḫandaq (modern Heraklion ; Greek : Ηράκλειο , Irákleio ), both the city and the island became known as Χάνδαξ ( Chandax ) or Χάνδακας ( Chandakas ), which gave Latin, Italian, and Venetian Candia , from which were derived French Candie and English Candy or Candia . Under Ottoman rule , in Ottoman Turkish , Crete

19890-421: The nearby fortress of Temenos disguised as a woman. The arrival of a Venetian fleet allowed Tiepolo to recover the capital, and Sanudo agreed to evacuate the island in exchange for money and provisions; twenty Greek lords who had collaborated with him accompanied him to Naxos. The failure of this first revolt did not reduce Cretan restiveness, however. In 1217, the theft of some horses and pasture land belonging to

20060-477: The new colony took shape: the island was divided into six provinces ( sestieri ) named after the divisions of the city of Venice itself, while the capital Candia was directly subjected to the Commune Veneciarum . The islands of Tinos and Cythera , also under Venetian control, came under the kingdom's purview. In the early 14th century, this division was replaced by four provinces, almost identical to

20230-519: The north and the Libyan Sea (or South Cretan Sea) to the south. Crete covers 260 km from west to east but is narrow from north to south, spanning three longitudes but only half a latitude. Crete and a number of islands and islets that surround it constitute the Region of Crete (Greek: Περιφέρεια Κρήτης ), which is the southernmost of the 13 top-level administrative units of Greece , and the fifth most populous of Greece's regions. Its capital and largest city

20400-452: The noun in gender and number, but it is important to mention that the suffix might be deleted because the article is the part that suggests the number. However, Italian is influencing Venetian language: In recent studies on Venetian variants in Veneto, there has been a tendency to write the so-called "evanescent L" as ⟨ł⟩ . While it may help novice speakers, Venetian was never written with this letter. In this article, this symbol

20570-528: The numeral unus ). Venetian also retained the Latin concepts of gender (masculine and feminine) and number (singular and plural). Unlike the Gallo-Iberian languages, which form plurals by adding -s , Venetian forms plurals in a manner similar to standard Italian. Nouns and adjectives can be modified by suffixes that indicate several qualities such as size, endearment, deprecation, etc. Adjectives (usually postfixed) and articles are inflected to agree with

20740-543: The other hand, Venetian does share many other traits with its surrounding Gallo-Italic languages, like interrogative clitics , mandatory unstressed subject pronouns (with some exceptions), the "to be behind to" verbal construction to express the continuous aspect ("El ze drio manjar" = He is eating, lit. he is behind to eat) and the absence of the absolute past tense as well as of geminated consonants . In addition, Venetian has some unique traits which are shared by neither Gallo-Italic, nor Italo-Dalmatian languages, such as

20910-420: The pandemic and has come out strong in the post-recession recovery period. Total construction spending recovered and is expected to peak a record high (approximately 8% higher than 2019 average levels) signalling consistent expansion in construction projects and real estate investments in Crete. The evolution of the private sector in Crete is tightly linked with the demand for tourism-related investments. Moreover,

21080-472: The primacy of ancient Knossos. While the cities continued to prey upon one another, they invited into their feuds mainland powers like Macedon and its rivals Rhodes and Ptolemaic Egypt . In 220 BC the island was tormented by a war between two opposing coalitions of cities . As a result, the Macedonian king Philip V gained hegemony over Crete which lasted to the end of the Cretan War (205–200 BC) , when

21250-599: The problem. The Fall of Constantinople caused a deep impression among the Cretans, and in its aftermath, a series of anti-Venetian conspiracies took place. The first was the conspiracy of Sifis Vlastos in Rethymno, which even included a fake letter by the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos . The conspiracy was betrayed to the Venetian authorities by the priest Ioannis Limas and Andrea Nigro, in exchange for money and privileges. 39 individuals were charged with participation, among them many priests. In November 1454, as

21420-475: The pronunciation [ s ] , the sound has fallen together with ordinary ⟨s⟩ , and so it is not uncommon to simply write ⟨s⟩ (or ⟨ss⟩ between vowels) instead of ⟨ç⟩ or ⟨zh⟩ (such as sena ). Similarly some dialects of Venetian also have a voiced interdental fricative [ ð ] , often written ⟨z⟩ (as in el pianze 'he cries'); but in most dialects this sound

21590-545: The rebels began wavering. When the Venetian fleet arrived on 7 May 1364, resistance collapsed quickly. Candia surrendered on 9 May, and most of the other cities followed. Nevertheless, on strict orders from the Venetian government, the Venetian commanders launched a purge of the rebel leadership, including the execution and proscription of the ringleaders, and the disbandment of the Gradenigo and Venier families, who were banished from all Venetian territories. The feudal charter of 1211

21760-780: The record for the highest temperatures ever recorded in Europe during October, November, January and February from World Meteorological Organization stations. According to the Hellenic National Meteorological Service , South Crete receives the most sunshine in Greece with more than 3,257 hours of sunshine per year. Crete is the most populous island in Greece with a population of more than 600,000 people. Approximately 42% live in Crete's main cities and towns whilst 45% live in rural areas. Crete with its nearby islands form

21930-451: The recovery of the tourism sector is expected to lead to further growth in housing prices and rental demand. Newspapers have reported that the Ministry of Mercantile Marine is ready to support the agreement between Greece, South Korea , Dubai Ports World and China for the construction of a large international container port and free trade zone in southern Crete near Tympaki ; the plan

22100-446: The region's population has increased by 1,343 people between 2011 and 2021, experiencing a rise of 0.22%. The island is home to 308,608 men and 315,800 women, accounting for 49.4% and 50.6% of the population respectively. The island is divided into four regional units, Heraklion, Rethymno, Chania, and Lasithi. The economy of Crete is predominantly based on services and tourism. However, agriculture also plays an important role and Crete

22270-555: The regional governor is Stavros Arnaoutakis of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement . First elected in 2010 , he was re-elected in 2014 , 2019 and 2023 . Heraklion is the largest city and capital of Crete, holding more than a fourth of the island's population. Chania was the capital until 1971. The principal cities are: According to official census data by the Hellenic Statistical Authority ,

22440-492: The same; there are no long vowels, and there is no consonant lengthening. Compare the Italian sentence va laggiù con lui [val.ladˌd͡ʒuk.konˈluː.i] "go there with him" (all long/heavy syllables but final) with Venetian va là zo co lu [va.laˌzo.koˈlu] (all short/light syllables). As a direct descent of regional spoken Latin, Venetian lexicon derives its vocabulary substantially from Latin and (in more recent times) from Tuscan, so that most of its words are cognate with

22610-549: The second wave of Venetian colonists in 1222 again led to uprisings, under Theodore and Michael Melissenos. Once again, the Venetian authorities concluded a treaty with the rebel leaders, conceding them two knightly fiefs. A new rebellion broke out in 1228, involving not only the Skordyloi and Melissenoi, but also the Arkoleos and Drakontopoulos families. Both sides requested external aid: the Duke of Crete, Giovanni Storlando , asked for

22780-500: The settlement of the Lasithi plateau was allowed to produce grain in order to counter the famine, but as soon as the immediate danger had passed, it was banned again in 1471, and remained so until the early 16th century. In 1471, during the First Ottoman–Venetian War , the Ottoman fleet plundered the eastern parts of the island around Siteia . It was not until 1523 that the first moves towards another Cretan revolt, under

22950-400: The sons of Alexios Kallergis sided openly with the Venetians, as did other Cretans. The uprising was suppressed in 1334, and its leaders arrested and executed, with the crucial collaboration of Cretan commoners. The families of the rebels were exiled, but the brothers and children of Vardas Kallergis were condemned to life imprisonment as an example; and the entry of non-Cretan Orthodox clergy in

23120-562: The southeastern corner of the island, has year-round agricultural production, with summer vegetables and fruit produced in greenhouses throughout the winter. Western Crete (Chania province) receives more rain and the soils there suffer more erosion compared to the Eastern part of Crete. Average annual temperatures reach up to 21.6°C in Psari Forada which is located in South Crete. Crete holds

23290-540: The start of the largest and most violent of all Cretan rebellions up to that point, in 1282. It is also likely that this uprising too was secretly encouraged by Michael VIII Palaiologos as a distraction for the Venetians, who were allied with his arch-enemy Charles of Anjou . Kallergis was joined by all the prominent families of the Cretan nobility: the Gabalades, Barouches, Vlastoi, and even by Michael Chortatzes, nephew of Theodore and George. The uprising quickly spread across

23460-411: The support of the local populace, they soon became masters over the eastern and central portions of the island. A first Venetian attack in summer 1207 under Ranieri Dandolo and Ruggiero Premarino was driven off, and for the next two years, Pescatore ruled the entire island with the exception of a few isolated Venetian garrisons. Pescatore even appealed to the Pope, and attempted to have himself confirmed as

23630-618: The three Kallergis brothers, John, George, and Alexios, as well as the brothers Tito and Teodorello Venier, Antonio and Francesco Gradenigo, Giovanni Molino, and Marco Vonale. These launched another uprising in August at Mylopotamos, which quickly spread throughout the western half of Crete. The aims of the rebels had now shifted towards liberating the island and seeking unification with the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine emperor John V Palaiologos also appears to have supported this uprising, sending

23800-503: The town of Chipilo . The town was settled by immigrants from the Veneto region, and some of their descendants have preserved the language to this day. People from Chipilo have gone on to make satellite colonies in Mexico, especially in the states of Guanajuato , Querétaro , and State of Mexico . Venetian has also survived in the state of Veracruz , where other Italian migrants have settled since

23970-423: The treaty proclaimed a general amnesty and the return of all confiscated possessions and the privileges formerly enjoyed by the rebel leaders, who were also granted a two-year tax exemption for the repayment of any debts accrued. The decisions of the tribunals that the rebels had established during the uprising were recognized, and the ban on mixed marriages between Cretans and Venetians was lifted. Kallergis himself

24140-456: The uprising soon spread across the entire western part of the island. As force proved unable to quell the rebellion, the Venetians resorted to negotiations. On 13 September 1219, the Duke of Crete, Domenico Delfino, and the rebel leaders concluded a treaty that gave the latter knightly fiefs and various privileges. 75 serfs were set free, the privileges of the metochi of the Monastery of Saint John

24310-466: The use of the impersonal passive forms and the use of the auxiliary verb "to have" for the reflexive voice (both traits shared with German ). Modern Venetian is not a close relative of the extinct Venetic language spoken in Veneto before Roman expansion, although both are Indo-European , and Venetic may have been an Italic language, like Latin , the ancestor of Venetian and most other languages of Italy . The ancient Veneti gave their name to

24480-504: The virtual ruler of the Orthodox population of Crete; the contemporary chronicler Michael Louloudes , who fled to Crete when Ephesus fell to the Turks, calls him "Lord of Crete", and mentions him right after the Byzantine emperor, Andronikos II Palaiologos . Kallergis steadfastly honoured the terms of the treaty, and remained conspicuously loyal to Venice thereafter. His intervention prevented another revolt from breaking out in 1303, following

24650-427: The war with Genoa end in a treaty that left Crete securely in Venetian hands. Giacomo Tiepolo became the first governor of the new province, with the title of "duke of Crete" ( duca di Candia ), based in Candia. To strengthen Venetian control over Crete, Tiepolo suggested the dispatch of colonists from the metropolis; the Venetian colonists would receive land, and in exchange provide military service. The suggestion

24820-523: The west under the Kallergis brothers, based in the inaccessible mountains of Sfakia, until April 1367, when the Venetian provveditore Giustiniani managed to enter Sfakia and capture the Kallergis by treason. Venetian reprisals were extensive, leading to the virtual destruction of the native nobility. To further ensure that no other uprisings could take place, the mountainous areas of Mylopotamos, Lasithi, and Sfakia were evacuated and entrance into them prohibited for any purpose whatsoever. The Kallergis uprising

24990-1183: The world. The island has a number of gorges, such as the Samariá Gorge , Imbros Gorge , Kourtaliotiko Gorge , Ha Gorge , Platania Gorge , the Gorge of the Dead (at Kato Zakros , Sitia ) and Richtis Gorge and (Richtis) waterfall at Exo Mouliana in Sitia . The rivers of Crete include the Geropotamos River , the Koiliaris, the Anapodiaris, the Almiros, the Giofyros, the Keritis, and Megas Potamos. There are only two freshwater lakes in Crete: Lake Kournas and Lake Agia , which are both in Chania regional unit . Lake Voulismeni at

25160-725: The world. Other notable works in Venetian are the translations of the Iliad by Giacomo Casanova (1725–1798) and Francesco Boaretti, the translation of the Divine Comedy (1875) by Giuseppe Cappelli and the poems of Biagio Marin (1891–1985). Notable too is a manuscript titled Dialogo de Cecco di Ronchitti da Bruzene in perpuosito de la stella Nuova attributed to Girolamo Spinelli , perhaps with some supervision by Galileo Galilei for scientific details. Several Venetian–Italian dictionaries are available in print and online, including those by Boerio , Contarini, Nazari and Piccio . As

25330-586: Was Leon Kallergis' father-in-law), Melissenoi, Psaromelingoi, and others. Alexios Kallergis' namesake grandson, however, again provided crucial assistance to the Venetians: he captured the Smyrilioi, who in turn betrayed Leon Kallergis, whom the Duke Andrea Cornaro threw alive into the sea, tied into a sack. Despite his loss, the revolt continued under the Skordilides and the Psaromelingoi, who had seized control of

25500-423: Was appointed, with supreme power over both civil and military officials on the island. After 1569, as the Ottoman danger increased, the appointment of a provveditore generale became regular even in peacetime for two-year tenures, and the post came to be held by some of the most eminent statesmen of Venice. A further provveditore generale was appointed from 1578 to command the island's cavalry, and an admiral,

25670-579: Was approved, and the relevant charter, the Carta Concessionis , proclaimed on 10 September 1211 at Venice. 132 nobles, who were to serve as knights ( milites or cavaleri ) and 45 burghers ( pedites , sergentes ) participated in the first colonization wave that left Venice on 20 March 1212. Three more waves of colonists were sent, in 1222, 1233, and 1252, and immigration continued in a more irregular fashion in later years as well. In total, about 10,000 Venetians are estimated to have moved to Crete during

25840-502: Was assisted by four, and later only two councillors ( consiglieri ), likewise appointed for two-year terms; of the original four, two were rectors of cities on the island. Together, the Duke and his councillors comprised the Signoria , the central government, of Crete. There were also two, and later three, chamberlains ( camerlenghi ), charged with fiscal affairs, and each province had its own treasury ( camera ). The lower strata of

26010-473: Was at the time and up to the early modern era commonly known as Candia after its capital, Candia or Chandax (modern Heraklion ). In modern Greek historiography, the period is known as the Venetocracy ( Greek : Βενετοκρατία , romanized :  Venetokratía , or Ενετοκρατία , Enetokratía ). The island of Crete had formed part of the Byzantine Empire until 1204, when the Fourth Crusade dissolved

26180-688: Was called Girit ( كريد ). In the Hebrew Bible, Crete is referred to as ( כְּרֵתִים ) "kretim". Crete is the largest island in Greece and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea . It is located in the southern part of the Aegean Sea separating the Aegean from the Libyan Sea . The island has an elongated shape: it spans 260 km (160 mi) from east to west, is 60 km (37 mi) at its widest point, and narrows to as little as 12 km (7.5 mi) (close to Ierapetra ). Crete covers an area of 8,336 km (3,219 sq mi), with

26350-460: Was comparatively free from warfare. The Gortyn code (5th century BC) is evidence for how codified civil law established a balance between aristocratic power and civil rights. In the late 4th century BC, the aristocratic order began to collapse due to endemic infighting among the elite, and Crete's economy was weakened by prolonged wars between city states. During the 3rd century BC, Gortyn , Kydonia ( Chania ), Lyttos and Polyrrhenia challenged

26520-627: Was further divided into castellanies and feudal domains held by the local aristocracy. During Venetian rule, the Greek population of Crete was exposed to Renaissance culture. A thriving literature in the Cretan dialect of Greek developed on the island. The best-known work from this period is the poem Erotokritos by Vitsentzos Kornaros (Βιτσένζος Κορνάρος). Another major Cretan literary figures were Marcus Musurus (1470–1517), Nicholas Kalliakis (1645–1707), Andreas Musalus (1665–1721), and other Greek scholars and philosophers who flourished in Italy in

26690-415: Was given extensive new privileges: an additional four knightly fiefs, the right of granting titles and fiefs himself, the right of keeping war horses, the right of leasing the properties of various monasteries, and the right of appointing an Orthodox bishop in the diocese of Arios (renamed as Kallergiopolis), and of renting the neighbouring bishoprics of Mylopotamos and Kalamonas. The treaty left Kallergis as

26860-488: Was given recognition by the Regional Council of Veneto with regional law no. 8 of 13 April 2007 "Protection, enhancement and promotion of the linguistic and cultural heritage of Veneto". Though the law does not explicitly grant Venetian any official status, it provides for Venetian as object of protection and enhancement, as an essential component of the cultural, social, historical and civil identity of Veneto. Venetian

27030-418: Was indeed to prove the last of the great Cretan rebellions against Venice: deprived of their natural leadership and naturally secure strongholds, and faced with the ever-increasing threat of Ottoman conquest, the Cretans, apart from some small-scale incidents, accommodated themselves to Venetian rule. The internal tranquility that followed the end of the large-scale uprisings led to considerable prosperity for

27200-563: Was occupied by Nazi Germany during the Second World War . Stone tools suggest that archaic humans may have visited Crete as early as 130,000 years ago, but there is no evidence of permanent settlement of the island until the Neolithic , around 7,000 BCE. Settlements dating to the aceramic Neolithic in the 7th millennium BC, used cattle , sheep , goats , pigs and dogs as well as domesticated cereals and legumes ; ancient Knossos

27370-512: Was one of the four councillors of the Duke of Crete. The rectors of Chania and Rethymno were also assisted by a provveditore and two councillors each. In addition, there was a special provveditore appointed over Sfakia, a region which in practice was mostly outside Venetian control. He was subordinate to Candia (but also sometimes to Chania). Provveditori were also appointed to the important island fortresses of Souda (since 1573), Spinalonga (since 1580), and Grambousa (since 1584). The island

27540-499: Was only the appeal of the Venetian authorities to the local population, offering amnesty and tax exemptions, that preserved the city, especially when the Kallergis brothers Antonios and Mathios used their fortune to recruit men and strengthen the island's fortifications. Nevertheless, the Turks ravaged the area around Fodele , and destroyed the forts of Mirabello, Siteia, and Palaiokastro . The Ottoman attacks resumed in 1539, when Selino

27710-592: Was overrun by the Mycenaean civilization from mainland Greece. Crete was later ruled by Rome, then successively by the Byzantine Empire , Andalusian Arabs, the Venetian Republic , and the Ottoman Empire . In 1898 Crete, whose people had for some time wanted to join the Greek state, achieved independence from the Ottomans, formally becoming the Cretan State . Crete became part of Greece in December 1913. The island

27880-409: Was revoked, and all noble families obliged to swear an oath of allegiance to Venice. 10 May was declared a local holiday in Candia, and celebrated with extravagant festivals. The quick restoration of Venetian control over the cities did not mean the end of violence on the island, as several proscribed members of the rebel leadership continued to oppose the Venetian authorities. Prominent among them were

28050-423: Was suppressed with great violence, and all the villages in the rebel area were destroyed. Three of the leaders, the brothers Georgios and Andronikos Chortatsis, and Leon Theotokopoulos, were betrayed in 1528 and hanged, while Kantanoleos himself was proscribed for 1,000 hyperpyra , and also betrayed. Altogether some 700 people were killed; many families were exiled to Cyprus, in the area of Paphos , but after about

28220-405: Was surrendered by its inhabitants and its Venetian garrison captured. The fortress of Ierapetra also fell, but Kissamos resisted successfully. In 1571, during the war for Cyprus, Uluç Ali briefly captured Rethymno and raided Crete, resulting in widespread famine on the island. Some local inhabitants, resentful at Venetian misgovernment, even made contact with the Turks, but the intervention of

28390-477: Was the only major Venetian possession left in the Aegean, and following the loss of Cyprus in 1570–1571, in the entire Eastern Mediterranean. The emergence of the Ottoman threat coincided with a period of economic decline for the Venetian Republic, which hampered its ability to effectively strengthen Crete. In addition, internal strife on the island, and the local aristocracy's resistance to reforms, compounded

28560-477: Was the site of one of these major Neolithic (then later Minoan) sites. Other neolithic settlements include those at Kephala , Magasa , and Trapeza . During the Bronze Age , Crete was the centre of the Minoan civilization , notable for its art , its writing systems such as Linear A , and for its massive building complexes including the palace at Knossos . Its economy benefited from a network of trade around much of

28730-522: Was then employed for the first grammar of the Venetian language to be published by a university, in Brasil, in 2018 Crete Crete ( / k r iː t / KREET ; Greek : Κρήτη , Modern : Kríti [ˈkriti] , Ancient : Krḗtē [krɛ̌ːtεː] ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands , the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in

28900-571: Was €17,800 or 59% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 68% of the EU average. Crete is the region in Greece with the fifth highest GDP per capita. The island has three significant airports, Nikos Kazantzakis at Heraklion, the Daskalogiannis airport at Chania and the smaller Sitia airport. The first two serve international routes, acting as the main gateways to the island for travellers. Work has begun plan to replace Heraklion airport with

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