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60-542: The Lasithi Plateau stretches 11 km (6.8 mi) in the E-W direction and 6 km (3.7 mi) in the N-S direction. It is approximately 70 km (43 mi) east from Heraklion and lies at an average altitude of 840 m (2,760 ft). Winters can be harsh and snow on the plain and surrounding mountains can persist until mid-spring. The plateau is famous for its white-sailed windmills , (more accurately, wind-pumps ), made to

120-546: A sinkhole in the west edge of the plateau, that feeds the river Aposelemis. During the Greek War of Independence in January 1823, Hassan Pasha led an army of Ottoman and Egyptian forces sent by Muhammad Ali that seized the plateau killing most residents who had not fled to the mountains. In May 1867 during the great Cretan revolt , Ottoman and Egyptian forces under the command of Pashas Omar and Ismail Selim marched towards

180-501: A terminal SNP , the SNP furthest down in the Y-chromosome phylogenetic tree. The Y Chromosome Consortium (YCC) developed a system of naming major Y-DNA haplogroups with the capital letters A through T, with further subclades named using numbers and lower case letters (YCC longhand nomenclature ). YCC shorthand nomenclature names Y-DNA haplogroups and their subclades with the first letter of

240-628: A fortress in the harbour. Chandax was renamed Candia and became the seat of the Duke of Candia , and the Venetian administrative district of Crete became known as "Regno di Candia" ( Kingdom of Candia ). The city retained the name of Candia for centuries and the same name was often used to refer to the whole island of Crete as well. To secure their rule, the Venetians began in 1212 to settle families from Venice on Crete. The coexistence of two different cultures and

300-401: A local design, that have been used since the 1920s to irrigate the land. Despite there being around 10,000 in the past, most of them have been abandoned in recent times in favour of modern diesel and electric pumps. Because the water table is close to the surface of the ground, the bodies of the dead are often housed above ground during burial, in stone mausoleums, or decorative stone boxes. This

360-729: A major tourist destination from the 1980s onwards. The oldest monument of architecture is the palace in Knossos on the outskirts of the city. Two largest medieval churches in the city were the Dominican church of St. Peter (built between 1248 and 1253) and the San Salvatore, belonging to the Augustinian Friars . The latter one stood in Kornaros Square, but was demolished in 1970. Other monuments of architecture from Venetian times include

420-523: A measurable amount on the ground occurring in February 2004. Heraklion falls in 11a hardiness zone . NOAA (precipitation days - dew point 1961-1990) The Cultural and Conference Center of Heraklion is a centre for the performing arts. The city is home to several sports clubs. Most notably, Heraklion hosts OFI and Ergotelis , two football clubs with earlier presence in the Greek Superleague ,

480-533: A move toward using the simpler shorthand nomenclature. Y-chromosomal Adam Haplogroup A Haplogroup B Haplogroup D Haplogroup E Haplogroup C Haplogroup G Haplogroup H Haplogroup I Haplogroup J Haplogroup L Haplogroup T Haplogroup N Haplogroup O Haplogroup S Haplogroup M Haplogroup Q Haplogroup R Haplogroup A is the NRY ( non-recombining Y ) macrohaplogroup from which all modern paternal haplogroups descend. It

540-489: A period that started in 1293 and lasted for over two centuries during the Venetian occupation of Crete. During that time and due to frequent rebellions and strong resistance, villages were demolished, cultivation prohibited, and natives were forced to leave and forbidden to return under penalty of death. A Venetian manuscript of the thirteenth century describes the troublesome plateau of Lasithi as spina nel cuore (di Venezia) -

600-517: A railway line in Crete, linking Chania, Rethymno, and Heraklion. No official plans exist for implementing this idea. Heraklion has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Csa in the Köppen climate classification ). Summers are warm to hot and dry with clear skies. Dry hot days are often relieved by seasonal breezes. Winters are mild with moderate rain. Because Heraklion is further south than Athens , it has

660-511: A smaller number from tourism. Because of its isolated nature, the Lasithi plateau has attracted the attention of population geneticists. A 2007 Y-DNA study showed that Y-DNA samples from the Lasithi plateau differed significantly from those of lowland Crete, and may be indicative of it having served as a refugium of the Minoan civilization. A 2013 mtDNA study of bone samples from a Minoan ossuary in

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720-477: A thorn in the heart of Venice. Later, in the early 15th century, Venetian rulers allowed refugees from the Greek mainland (eastern Peloponnese ) to settle in the plain and cultivate the land again. To ensure good crops, Venetians designed a large system of drainage ditches (linies, Greek : λίνιες ) that were constructed between 1514 - 1560 and are still in use. The ditches transfer the water to Honos ( Greek : Χώνος ),

780-466: A warmer climate during winter but cooler during summer because of the Aegean Sea . The maximum temperature during the summer period is usually not more than 28 - 30 °C (Athens normal maximum temperature is about 5 °C higher). The minimum temperature record is -0.8 °C in the airport while in the port it has never dropped below 0 °C. Snowfalls are rare with the last significant snowfall with

840-668: Is also the parent node of two primary clades: Haplogroup Q (MEH2, M242, P36) found in Siberia and the Americas Haplogroup R (M207, M306): found in Europe , West Asia , Central Asia , and South Asia Q is defined by the SNP M242. It is believed to have arisen in Central Asia approximately 32,000 years ago. The subclades of Haplogroup Q with their defining mutation(s), according to

900-445: Is because the plateau is endorheic , and there is impermeable rock just below the surface of the ground. Floodwater from the plateau is diverted via a 3.5 km tunnel to Aposelemis Dam reservoir. The fertile soil of the plateau, due to alluvial run-off from melting snow, has attracted inhabitants since Neolithic times (6000 BC ). Minoans and Dorians followed and the plateau has been continuously inhabited since then, except

960-563: Is found mainly in the Middle East , Caucasus and South-East Europe . Haplogroup K (M9) is spread all over Eurasia , Oceania and among Native Americans . K(xLT,K2a,K2b) – that is, K*, K2c, K2d or K2e – is found mainly in Melanesia , Aboriginal Australians , India , Polynesia and Island South East Asia . Haplogroup L (M20) is found in South Asia, Central Asia, South-West Asia, and

1020-567: Is one of the most significant archaeological sites in Greece, second only to the Parthenon in terms of visitor numbers. Heraklion was Europe's fastest growing tourism destination for 2017, according to Euromonitor, with an 11.2% growth in international arrivals. According to the ranking, Heraklion was ranked as the 20th most visited region in Europe, as the 66th area on the planet and as the 2nd in Greece for

1080-801: Is sparsely distributed in Africa, being concentrated among Khoisan populations in the southwest and Nilotic populations toward the northeast in the Nile Valley. BT is a subclade of haplogroup A, more precisely of the A1b clade (A2-T in Cruciani et al. 2011), as follows: The defining mutations separating CT (all haplogroups except for A and B) are M168 and M294. The site of origin is likely in Africa. Its age has been estimated at approximately 88,000 years old, and more recently at around 100,000 or 101,000 years old. The groups descending from haplogroup F are found in some 90% of

1140-399: Is the most recent common ancestor from whom all currently living humans are descended patrilineally . Y-chromosomal Adam is estimated to have lived around 236,000 years ago in Africa . By examining other population bottlenecks , most Eurasian men trace their descent from a man who lived in Africa approximately 69,000 years ago ( Haplogroup CT ). Although Southeast Asia has been proposed as

1200-587: Is the fourth largest city in Greece with a municipal population of 179,302 (2021) and 211,370 in its wider metropolitan area, according to the 2011 census. The greater area of Heraklion has been continuously inhabited since at least 7000 BCE, making it one of the oldest inhabited regions in Europe. It is also home to the ancient Knossos Palace, a major center of the Minoan civilization dating back to approximately 2000-1350 BCE, often considered Europe's oldest city. The palace

1260-877: The Caucasus , Iran , Anatolia and the Levant . Found in almost all European countries, but most common in Gagauzia , southeastern Romania , Greece , Italy , Spain , Portugal , Tyrol , and Bohemia with highest concentrations on some Mediterranean islands; uncommon in Northern Europe . G-M201 is also found in small numbers in northwestern China and India , Bangladesh , Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Malaysia , and North Africa . Haplogroup H (M69) probably emerged in Southern Central Asia , South Asia or West Asia , about 48,000 years BP, and remains largely prevalent there in

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1320-834: The Emirate of Crete moved the island's capital from Gortyna to a new castle they called rabḍ al-ḫandaq ("Castle of the Moat"). 3. Chándax (Χάνδαξ) / Chándakas (Χάνδακας): The Arabic name rabḍ al-ḫandaq was Hellenized to Χάνδαξ ( Chándax ) or Χάνδακας ( Chándakas ). 4. Candia : This name, derived from Chándax, was Latinized as Candia and adopted into other European languages: in Italian and Latin as Candia , in Spanish as Candía , in French as Candie , and in English as Candy . These names could refer to

1380-602: The Mediterranean and South Asia . The only living males reported to carry the basal paragroup K2* are indigenous Australians . Major studies published in 2014 and 2015 suggest that up to 27% of Aboriginal Australian males carry K2*, while others carry a subclade of K2. Haplogroup N (M231) is found in northern Eurasia, especially among speakers of the Uralic languages . Haplogroup N possibly originated in eastern Asia and spread both northward and westward into Siberia , being

1440-589: The Republic of Venice as part of a complicated political deal which involved, among other things, the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade restoring the deposed Eastern Roman Emperor Isaac II Angelus to his throne. The Venetians improved on the ditch of the city by building enormous fortifications, most of which are still in place, including a giant wall, in places up to 40 metres (130 ft) thick, with seven bastions, and

1500-927: The SNP P14/PF2704 (which is equivalent to M89), comprise 1.8% of men in West Timor , 1.5% of Flores 5.4% of Lembata 2.3% of Sulawesi and 0.2% in Sumatra . F* (F xF1,F2,F3) has been reported among 10% of males in Sri Lanka and South India , 5% in Pakistan, as well as lower levels among the Tamang people (Nepal), and in Iran . F1 (P91), F2 (M427) and F3 (M481; previously F5) are all highly rare and virtually exclusive to regions/ethnic minorities in Sri Lanka, India, Nepal, South China , Thailand , Burma , and Vietnam . In such cases, however,

1560-569: The Saint Mark's Basilica and the Renaissance loggia next to Lions Square (1626–28). Around the historic city center of Heraklion there are also a series of defensive walls, bastions and other fortifications which were built earlier in the Middle Ages, but were completely rebuilt by the Republic of Venice . The fortifications managed to withstand the longest siege in history for 21 years, before

1620-474: The 59th busiest in Europe, because of Crete being a major holiday destination with 8,066,000 passengers in 2022 ( List of the busiest airports in Europe ). The airfield is shared with the 126th Combat Group of the Hellenic Air Force . European route E75 runs through the city and connects Heraklion with the three other major cities of Crete: Agios Nikolaos , Chania , and Rethymno . Urban buses serve

1680-501: The Aegean. In 960, Byzantine forces under the command of Nikephoros Phokas , later to become Emperor, landed in Crete and attacked the city. After a prolonged siege , the city fell in March 961. The Saracen inhabitants were slaughtered, the city looted and burned to the ground. Soon rebuilt, the town remained under Byzantine control for the next 243 years. In 1204, the city was bought by

1740-460: The Lasithi Plateau, dated to 4,400-3,700 years ago, showed that Minoan samples were closest to samples drawn from the modern population of the plateau, as well as other Greek, western and northern European samples, while being distant from North African and Egyptian samples. According to the authors, these results are consistent with the hypothesis the plateau served as a Minoan refugium, and that

1800-428: The Lasithi plateau. Their aim was to strike a decisive blow on the revolutionaries who used it as their hideout. After fierce fighting, the outnumbered rebels were defeated and forced to retreat to the slopes of Dikti . Between 21 and 29 of May, many village dwellers were slaughtered or taken as slaves, their homes were set ablaze after being looted and livestock and crops were destroyed. The monastery of Kroustalenia that

1860-523: The Mediterranean. Haplogroup T (M184, M70, M193, M272) is found at high levels in the Horn of Africa (mainly Cushitic -speaking peoples), parts of South Asia , the Middle East , and the Mediterranean . T-M184 is also found in significant minorities of Sciaccensi , Stilfser , Egyptians , Omanis , Sephardi Jews , Ibizans (Eivissencs), and Toubou . It is also found at low frequencies in other parts of

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1920-652: The Minoans, Heraklion, as well as the rest of Crete in general, fared poorly, with very little development in the area. Only with the arrival of the Romans did some construction in the area begin, yet especially early into Byzantine times the area abounded with pirates and bandits. Heraklion was chosen as capital in 824, with fortifications starting being built the following year, by the Arabs under Abu Hafs Umar who had been expelled from Al-Andalus by Emir Al-Hakam I and had taken over

1980-601: The Ottoman period, the harbour silted up, so most shipping shifted to Chania in the west of the island. An earthquake located off the northern coast of Crete on October 12, 1856, destroyed most of the over 3,600 homes in the city. Only 18 homes were left intact. The disaster claimed 538 victims in Heraklion. In 1898, the autonomous Cretan State was created, under Ottoman suzerainty , with Prince George of Greece as its High Commissioner and under international supervision. During

2040-642: The Yeni Cami ("New Mosque"), and the Agios Minas Cathedral (1862–95). An example of modern architecture in Heraklion is the Heraklion Archaeological Museum built between 1937 and 1940 by architect Patroklos Karantinos. Several sculptures, statues and busts commemorating significant events and figures of the city's and island's history, like El Greco , Vitsentzos Kornaros , Nikos Kazantzakis and Eleftherios Venizelos can be found around

2100-689: The city fell to the Ottomans in 1669. The Koules Fortress ( Castello a Mare ), the ramparts and the arsenal dominate the port area. Many fountains of the Venetian era are preserved, such as the Bembo fountain, the Priuli fountain, Palmeti fountain, Sagredo fountain and Morosini fountain in Lions Square (1628). Architecture from the 19th century is represented by the St Titus Cathedral , built in 1869 as

2160-440: The city of Heraklion served as the port for the ancient city of Knossos , one of the centers of the Minoan civilization. This strategic location facilitated trade and communication across the Mediterranean. Over time, as Knossos declined, the port area grew in significance, eventually becoming a prominent urban center. 2. Rabḍ al-ḫandaq (ربض الخندق): In 824 CE, Arab exiles from al-Andalus (Iberia) who conquered Crete and founded

2220-478: The city's Christian defenders perished. The Ottoman army under an Albanian grand vizier , Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed Pasha conquered the city in 1669. Under the Ottomans, Kandiye ( Ottoman Turkish قنديه) was the capital of Crete ( Girit Eyâleti ) until 1849, when Chania ( Hanya ) became the capital, and Kandiye became a sancak . In Greek, it was commonly called Megalo Castro (Μεγάλο Κάστρο 'Big Castle'). During

2280-514: The city, with 39 different routes. Intercity buses connect Heraklion to many major destinations in Crete. From 1922 to 1937, a working industrial railway connected the Koules in Heraklion to Xiropotamos for the construction of the harbor. In the summer of 2007, at the Congress of Cretan emigrants held in Heraklion, two engineers, George Nathenas and Vassilis Economopoulos, recommended the development of

2340-612: The city. The municipality Heraklion was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 5 former municipalities, that became municipal units: The municipality has an area of 244.613 km , the municipal unit 109.026 km . Heraklion is an important shipping port and ferry dock. Travellers can take ferries and boats from Heraklion to destinations including Santorini , Ios Island , Paros , Mykonos , and Rhodes . There are direct ferries to Naxos , Karpathos , Kasos , Sitia , Anafi , Chalki and Diafani . There are also several daily ferries to Piraeus ,

2400-486: The connection between the two. The site of the ancient port falls within the boundaries of the modern city, near today’s port area. Although ecclesiastical records do not list it as a bishopric, a bishop named Theodoros of Heracleopolis is mentioned at the Second Council of Nicaea . The name was revived in the 19th century and was in use by locals as early as 1867. 1. In antiquity : The area that would later become

2460-429: The current inhabitants of the plateau carry the maternal signature of the Minoan population. Heraklion Heraklion or Herakleion ( / h ɪ ˈ r æ k l i ə n / hih- RAK -lee-ən ; Greek : Ηράκλειο , Irákleio , pronounced [iˈrakli.o] ), sometimes Iraklion , is the largest city and the administrative capital of the island of Crete and capital of Heraklion regional unit. It

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2520-734: The extremely rare P2 (P-B253). P*, P1* and P2 are found together only on the island of Luzon in the Philippines . In particular, P* and P1* are found at significant rates among members of the Aeta (or Agta) people of Luzon. While, P1* is now more common among living individuals in Eastern Siberia and Central Asia , it is also found at low levels in mainland South East Asia and South Asia . Considered together, these distributions tend to suggest that P* emerged from K2b in South East Asia. P1

2580-678: The forms of H1 (M69) and H3 (Z5857). Its sub-clades are also found in lower frequencies in Iran, Central Asia, across the middle-east, and the Arabian peninsula. However, H2 (P96) is present in Europe since the Neolithic and H1a1 (M82) spread westward in the Medieval era with the migration of the Roma people . Haplogroup I (M170, M258) is found mainly in Europe and the Caucasus . Haplogroup J (M304, S6, S34, S35)

2640-493: The island from the Eastern Roman Empire. They built a moat around the city for protection, and named the city rabḍ al-ḫandaq (ربض الخندق, "Castle of the Moat", hellenized as Χάνδαξ, Chandax ). It became the capital of the Emirate of Crete ( c.  827 –961). The Saracens allowed the port to be used as a safe haven for pirates who operated against Imperial (Byzantine) shipping and raided Imperial territory around

2700-428: The island of Crete as a whole as well as to the city alone; the Ottoman name for the city was Kandiye . 5. Megalo Kastro (Μεγάλο Κάστρο): After the Byzantine reconquest of Crete , the city was locally known as Megalo Kastro ( Μεγάλο Κάστρο , 'Big Castle' in Greek ) and its inhabitants were called Kastrinoi (Καστρινοί, "castle-dwellers"). Heraklion is home to the ruins of the palace of Knossos , located in

2760-472: The major Y-DNA haplogroup followed by a dash and the name of the defining terminal SNP. Y-DNA haplogroup nomenclature is changing over time to accommodate the increasing number of SNPs being discovered and tested, and the resulting expansion of the Y-chromosome phylogenetic tree. This change in nomenclature has resulted in inconsistent nomenclature being used in different sources. This inconsistency, and increasingly cumbersome longhand nomenclature, has prompted

2820-514: The male-specific Y chromosome (Y-DNA). Individuals within a haplogroup share similar numbers of short tandem repeats (STRs) and single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). The Y-chromosome accumulates approximately two mutations per generation, and Y-DNA haplogroups represent significant branches of the Y-chromosome phylogenetic tree , each characterized by hundreds or even thousands of unique mutations. The Y-chromosomal most recent common ancestor (Y-MRCA), often referred to as Y-chromosomal Adam ,

2880-636: The most common group found in some Uralic-speaking peoples . Haplogroup O (M175) is found with its highest frequency in East Asia and Southeast Asia , with lower frequencies in the South Pacific , Central Asia , South Asia , and islands in the Indian Ocean ( e.g. Madagascar, the Comoros). No examples of the basal paragroup K2b1* have been identified. Males carrying subclades of K2b1 are found primarily among Papuan peoples , Micronesian peoples , indigenous Australians , and Polynesians . Its primary subclades are two major haplogroups: Haplogroup P (P295) has two primary branches: P1 (P-M45) and

2940-422: The novelist Nikos Kazantzakis (best known for Zorba the Greek ), the poet and Nobel Prize winner Odysseas Elytis and the world-famous painter Domenicos Theotokopoulos ( El Greco ). Heraklion is twinned with: Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup In human genetics , a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup is a haplogroup defined by specific mutations in the non- recombining portions of DNA on

3000-490: The origin for all non-African human Y chromosomes, this hypothesis is considered unlikely. Other bottlenecks occurred roughly 50,000 and 5,000 years ago, and the majority of Eurasian men are believed to be descended from four ancestors who lived 50,000 years ago, all of whom were descendants of an African lineage (Haplogroup E-M168). Y-DNA haplogroups are defined by the presence of a series of Y-DNA single-nucleotide polymorphisms genetic markers . Subclades are defined by

3060-542: The period of direct occupation of the island by the Great Powers (1898–1908), Candia was part of the British zone. At this time the ancient name of "Heraklion" was revived. In 1913, with the rest of Crete , Heraklion was incorporated into the Kingdom of Greece . Heraklion was severely damaged in the bombing campaign in May 1941 during the German invasion in the Battle of Crete . The city remained under German rule until 1945. Heraklion again became capital of Crete in 1971, replacing Chania. The city, and Crete generally, became

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3120-448: The port of Athens in mainland Greece. The port of Heraklion was built by Sir Robert McAlpine and completed in 1928. Heraklion International Airport , or Nikos Kazantzakis Airport is located about 5 kilometres (3 miles) east of the city. The airport is named after Heraklion native Nikos Kazantzakis , a writer and a philosopher. It is the second busiest airport of Greece after Athens International Airport , first in charter flights and

3180-402: The possibility of misidentification is considered to be relatively high and some may belong to misidentified subclades of Haplogroup GHIJK . Haplogroup G (M201) originated some 48,000 years ago and its most recent common ancestor likely lived 26,000 years ago in the Middle East. It spread to Europe with the Neolithic Revolution . It is found in many ethnic groups in Eurasia; most common in

3240-403: The southern periphery of the city and part of the Heraklion municipality. In Minoan times, Knossos was the largest centre of population on Crete and is considered by many to be the oldest city in Europe. Knossos itself had a port at the site of Heraklion (in the modern area of Poros-Katsambas neighborhood) from the beginning of the Early Minoan period (3500 to 2100 BC). After the fall of

3300-425: The stimulus of the Italian Renaissance led to a flourishing of letters and the arts in Candia and Crete in general, that is today known as the Cretan Renaissance . During the Cretan War (1645–1669) , the Ottomans besieged the city for 21 years, from 1648 to 1669, the longest siege in history up until that time. In its final phase, which lasted for 22 months, 70,000 Turks, 38,000 Cretans and slaves and 29,088 of

3360-463: The top tier of the Greek football league system . Furthermore, the city is the headquarters of the Heraklion Football Clubs Association , which administers football in the entire region . Other notable sport clubs include Iraklio B.C. ( basketball ), Atsalenios (football) and Irodotos (football) in the suburbs of Atsalenio and Nea Alikarnassos respectively. Heraklion has been the home town of some of Greece's most significant people, including

3420-444: The village of Psychro ( Greek : Ψυχρό ) is reputedly the birthplace of Zeus according to Greek Mythology . Zeus is also said to have used the cave as his hiding place after abducting Europa . The archeological site of Karfi , believed to be the last outpost of the Minoan civilization is located in the mountains immediately north of the plateau. Permanent residents derive most of their income from agriculture and animal farming,

3480-455: The world's population, but almost exclusively outside of sub-Saharan Africa. F xG,H,I,J,K is rare in modern populations and peaks in South Asia , especially Sri Lanka . It also appears to have long been present in South East Asia ; it has been reported at rates of 4–5% in Sulawesi and Lembata . One study, which did not comprehensively screen for other subclades of F-M89 (including some subclades of GHIJK), found that Indonesian men with

3540-431: The year 2017, with 3.2 million visitors and the 19th in Europe for 2018, with 3.4 million visitors. The name Herakleion (Ηράκλειον) is derived from an ancient port of Heracleium that served as the harbour for Knossos . The port, bearing the same name, was named in honour of the hero Heracles (Hercules). In antiquity, it was located about 20 stadia (approximately 3.7 kilometers) from Knossos. Strabo also confirms

3600-413: Was the seat of the revolutionary committee was also demolished. During the Axis occupation of Greece in 1941–1944, the peaks surrounding the plateau were used as hideouts by local resistance fighters. There are several caves of archaeological interest in the plateau and surrounding mountains. The Psychro Cave ( Greek : Δικταίον Άντρον , also Diktaean / Diktaian Cave ) in the Dikti mountains near

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