Misplaced Pages

#824175

99-546: Valens ( Ancient Greek : Ουάλης , romanized :  Ouálēs ; 328 – 9 August 378) was Roman emperor from 364 to 378. Following a largely unremarkable military career, he was named co-emperor by his elder brother Valentinian I , who gave him the eastern half of the Roman Empire to rule. In 378, Valens was defeated and killed at the Battle of Adrianople against the invading Goths , which astonished contemporaries and marked

198-537: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in

297-467: A Greek school, the central mosque and fountain of 1875, an Armenian Church and school and the resting place of the Muslim saint Zuhurat Baba, a Turkish soldier who died during the conquest of Constantinople . His resting place is often visited by women on Fridays. The seafront is now a popular location for tea gardens, clubs and restaurants , (although the beaches have been unusable for decades). After 1960,

396-785: A compromise between Nicene Christianity and the various non-trinitarian Christian sects, and interfered little in the affairs of the pagans. Valens and his brother Valentinian were born, in 328 and 321 respectively, to an Illyrian family resident in Cibalae ( Vinkovci ) in Pannonia Secunda . Their father Gratianus Funarius , a native of Cibalae, had served as a senior officer in the Roman army and as comes Africae . The brothers grew up on estates purchased by Gratianus in Africa and Britain . Both were Christians, but favored different sects: Valentinian

495-524: A general disaffection and to the acceptability of a revolution. With the emperor absent from the imperial city, Procopius , a maternal cousin of Julian, declared himself augustus on 28 September 365. Procopius had held office under Constantius II and Julian and was rumored to have been Julian's intended successor, despite how he had died without naming one. Jovian, aside from depriving him of his command, took no measures against this potential rival, but Valentinian regarded Procopius with hostility. Procopius met

594-514: A greener appearance compared to the Istanbul average. The study also identified six veteran trees (three mastic trees and three hackberry trees) in the residential neighborhoods of Bakırköy. In comparison, neighboring Zeytinburnu has 151 hectares of green space, mostly in cemeteries, which covers 13.02% of the district. In the Byzantine period Bakırköy was a separate community outside Constantinople ,

693-472: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and

792-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in

891-543: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment

990-671: A separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek , and Koine may be classified as Ancient Greek in a wider sense. There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek

1089-417: A separate municipality in 1956. Bakırköy became a popular residential area in the late 19th century after the construction of a railroad connection to İstanbul and until the 1970s was one of the most relaxed and desirable locations in the city. It is still populated by Istanbul's upper middle-class (tradespeople, bureaucrats, the retired). Some parts of Bakırköy are very pleasant residential areas, particularly

SECTION 10

#1732851622825

1188-609: A standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c.  300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as

1287-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and

1386-639: A well-watered pleasant seaside retreat from the city, and was called Hebdomon ( Greek : Ἕβδομον , "the Seventh", i.e. seven Roman miles from the Milion , the mile-marker monument of Constantinople). Here - where nowadays the Ataköy Marina lies - the Emperor Valens built one of the two Imperial Palaces bearing the name of Magnaura , while Justinian erected another Palace named Jucundianae , also placed near

1485-517: Is a ferry boat service that takes passengers to Kadıköy and Bostancı on the Asian side of the city and also to the Adalar (Islands); and the light-railway from the airport to Aksaray runs through here. Moreover, the quarter has a station of the suburban railway line between Sirkeci and Halkalı. Built in 1913, Veliefendi Race Course , Turkey's largest and oldest modern horse-racing track (not including

1584-407: Is a huge shopping district (including a number of huge shiny shopping centres as Carousel ), a range of cinemas, bars and cafés , as well as conversion of streets to pedestrian malls. Bakırköy is easy to reach by public transport; there are minibuses (Turkish:Dolmuş) to Beyoğlu throughout the night; there are buses to Mecidiyeköy (although using the D.100 highway by bus is unpleasant indeed: there

1683-556: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of

1782-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected

1881-644: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to

1980-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in

2079-534: The Carpathian Mountains , and the campaign ended with no decisive conclusion. The following spring, a Danube flood prevented Valens from crossing; instead the Emperor occupied his troops with the construction of fortifications. In 369, Valens crossed again, from Noviodunum , and by devastating the country forced Athanaric into giving battle . Valens was victorious, and took the title Gothicus Maximus in time for

SECTION 20

#1732851622825

2178-677: The Cilician Gates into Syria . His first reaction was despair, and he considered abdication and perhaps even suicide. Procopius quickly gained control of the provinces of Asia and Bithynia , winning increasing support for his insurrection. Valens recovered his nerve and sent an army to Constantinople; according to Ammianus Marcellinus, the soldiers defected to Procopius, whose use of his Constantinian hostages had met with some success. Having reappointed Salutius, Valens dispatched more troops under veteran generals, Arinthaeus and Arbitio , to march on Procopius. According to Ammianus Marcellinus and

2277-745: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect

2376-526: The Huns to cross the river in the rear of Saturninus's ranged defenses. The Romans then fell back, incapable of containing the irruption, though with an elite force of his best soldiers the general Sebastian was able to fall upon and destroy several of the smaller predatory bands. By 378, Valens himself was ready to march west from his eastern base in Antioch . He withdrew all but a skeletal force—some of them Goths—from

2475-504: The Persians in June 363, and his successor Jovian died the following February while traveling home to Constantinople. The Latin historian Ammianus Marcellinus relates that Valentinian was summoned to Nicaea by a council of military and civil officials, who acclaimed him augustus on 25 February 364. Valentinian appointed his brother Valens tribunus stabulorum (or stabuli ) on 1 March 364. It

2574-782: The Saracens and Isaurians . Domestically, he inaugurated the Aqueduct of Valens in Constantinople , which was longer than all the aqueducts of Rome . In 376–77, the Gothic War broke out, following a mismanaged attempt to settle the Goths in the Balkans. Valens returned from the east to fight the Goths in person, but lack of coordination with his nephew, the western emperor Gratian (Valentinian I's son), as well as poor battle tactics, led to Valens and much of

2673-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)

2772-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):

2871-490: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from

2970-464: The Armenian sparapet (general) Mushegh Mamikonian at Bagavan and Gandzak . Valens had overstepped the 363 treaty and then successfully defended his transgression. A truce settled after the 371 victory held as a quasi-peace for the next five years while Shapur was forced to deal with a Kushan invasion on his eastern frontier. Meanwhile, troubles broke out with the boy-king Pap, who purportedly had

3069-456: The Armenian patriarch Nerses assassinated and demanded control of a number of Roman cities, including Edessa . Controversy also ensued over the issue of the appointment of a new patriarch of Armenia, with Pap appointing a candidate without the traditional approval from Caesarea. Pressed by his generals and fearing that Pap would defect to the Persians, Valens made an unsuccessful attempt to capture

Valens - Misplaced Pages Continue

3168-565: The Classical period of ancient Greek. (The second line is the IPA , the third is transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme .) Ὅτι [hóti Hóti μὲν men mèn ὑμεῖς, hyːmêːs hūmeîs,   Bak%C4%B1rk%C3%B6y#History Bakırköy, which was one of the largest districts of Istanbul with an area of 275 km² until 1989 and was bounded by Çatalca to

3267-583: The Eastern Mediterranean. The empire had recently retreated from most of its holdings in Mesopotamia and Armenia , because of a treaty that Jovian had made with Shapur II of the Sasanian Empire. Valens's first priority after the winter of 365 was to move east in hopes of shoring up the situation. Recent tax increases, and Valens's dismissal of Julian's popular minister Salutius , contributed to

3366-604: The Gothic camp sometime before the left wing arrived. It was a very hot day and the Roman cavalry was engaged without strategic support, wasting its efforts and suffering in the heat. Meanwhile, Fritigern once again sent an emissary of peace in his continued manipulation of the situation. The resultant delay meant that the Romans present on the field began to succumb to the heat. The army's resources were further diminished when an ill-timed attack by

3465-469: The Goths after inviting them into his territory, and compared unfavourably with Gratian as a military commander. Valens decided to advance at once and win a victory on his own. According to the Latin historians Ammianus Marcellinus and Paulus Orosius , on 9 August 378, Valens and most of his army were killed fighting the Goths near Hadrianopolis in Thrace (Adrianople, Edirne ). Ammianus is the primary source for

3564-417: The Roman archers made it necessary to recall Valens's emissary, comes Richomeres. The archers were beaten and retreated in humiliation. Returning from foraging to find the battle in full swing, Gothic cavalry under the command of Alatheus and Saphrax now struck and, in what was probably the most decisive event of the battle, the Roman cavalry fled. From here, Ammianus gives two accounts of Valens's demise. In

3663-484: The Romans from stopping a Danube crossing by a group of Ostrogoths and yet later on by Huns and Alans . What started out as a controlled resettlement might any moment turn into a major invasion. But the situation was worsened by corruption in the Roman administration, as Valens's generals accepted bribes rather than depriving the Goths of their weapons as Valens had stipulated and then proceeded to enrage them by such exorbitant prices for food that they were soon driven to

3762-613: The ancient hippodromes in Turkey), is in close proximity. Istanbul's largest mental hospital is in Bakırköy, and the parkland surrounding it is the largest green space in the district. There is a popular belief that the underground water of Bakırköy comes from the river Danube. Being near the Fault in the Sea of Marmara , Bakırköy is vulnerable to earthquake damage. The headquarters of Turkish Airlines are on

3861-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has

3960-609: The army on the Danube proclaimed augustus without consulting Gratian or Valens. Migrations of the Huns began to displace the Goths, who sought Roman protection. Valens allowed the Goths led by Fritigern to cross the Danube , but the Gothic settlers were abused by Roman officials and revolted in 377, seeking help from the Huns and the Alans and beginning the Gothic War (376–382) . Valens returned from

4059-510: The army. Among them were Valens , Arcadius , Honorius , Theodosius II , Phocas , and Nikephoros II Phokas . The Campus lay in the valley of Veli Efendi , where now the horse race course lies. The imperial court came often to the Hebdomon to attend military parades, to welcome the Emperor coming back from campaign, or to pray in the large church of St. John Baptist the Forerunner. Later

Valens - Misplaced Pages Continue

4158-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in

4257-470: The battle incapacitated the government. Emperor Gratian, nineteen years old, was unable to deal with the catastrophe, until he appointed Theodosius I . The total defeat cost the administration important precious metal resources, as bullion had been centralized with the imperial court. Valens was deified by consecratio as Latin: Divus Valens , lit.   'the Divine Valens';. "Valens

4356-427: The battle was over, two-thirds of the eastern army lay dead. Many of their best officers had also perished. What was left of the army of Valens was led from the field under the cover of night by comes Richomeres and general Victor. J. B. Bury , a noted historian of the period, provides a specific interpretation on the significance of the battle: it was "a disaster and disgrace that need not have occurred." For Rome,

4455-465: The battle. Valens opened the campaign with arrangements aimed at building his troop strength and gaining a toehold in Thrace, then moved out to Adrianople, from whence he marched against the confederated barbarian army. Although negotiations were attempted, these broke down when a Roman unit sallied forth and carried both sides into battle. Valens had left a sizeable guard with his baggage and treasures, depleting his force. His right cavalry wing arrived at

4554-498: The beginning of barbarian encroachment into Roman territory. As emperor, Valens continually faced threats both internal and external. He defeated, after some dithering, the usurper Procopius in 366, and campaigned against the Goths across the Danube in 367 and 369. In the following years, Valens focused on the eastern frontier, where he faced the perennial threat of Persia , particularly in Armenia , as well as additional conflicts with

4653-588: The celebration of his quinquennalia . Athanaric and his forces were able to withdraw in good order and pleaded for peace. Fortunately for the Goths, Valens expected a new war with the Sasanid Empire in the Middle East and was therefore willing to come to terms. In early 370 Valens and Athanaric met in the middle of the Danube and agreed to a treaty that ended the war. The treaty seems to have largely cut off relations between Goths and Romans, confining trade and

4752-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West

4851-512: The combined barbarian group spread out to devastate the country before combining to meet Roman advance forces under Traianus and Richomeres . In a sanguinary battle at Ad Salices , the Goths were momentarily checked, and Saturninus , now Valens's lieutenant in the province, undertook a strategy of hemming them in between the lower Danube and the Euxine , hoping to starve them into surrender. However, Fritigern forced him to retreat by inviting some of

4950-465: The danger from the new emperors with his own bid for power, emphasizing his connection to the revered Constantinian Dynasty : during his public appearances he was always accompanied by Constantia, the posthumous daughter of Constantius II, and her mother Faustina , the dowager empress. News of the revolt reached Valens at Caesarea in Cappadocia ( Kayseri ), after most of his troops had already crossed

5049-537: The defection of the Arsacid Armenian king, Arshak II (Arsaces II), whom he quickly arrested and incarcerated. The Armenian nobility responded by asking Valens to return Arshak's son, Pap . Valens agreed and sent Pap back to Armenia, but as these events took place during the war with the Goths he could not support him militarily. In response to the return of Pap, Shapur personally led an invasion force to seize control of Armenia. Pap and his followers took refuge in

SECTION 50

#1732851622825

5148-611: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of

5247-414: The dozen years of his reign. "An anxious regard to his personal safety was the ruling principle of the administration of Valens", writes Gibbon . To have died in so inglorious a battle has thus come to be regarded as the nadir of an unfortunate career. This is especially true because of the profound consequences of Valens's defeat. Adrianople spelled the beginning of the end for Roman territorial integrity in

5346-409: The east and moved west, reaching Constantinople by 30 May, 378. The imperial councillors, comes Richomeres, and the generals Frigeridus and Victor cautioned Valens to wait for the arrival of the western army, a course Gratian also recommended in his letters. The populace of Constantinople was impatient at the delay and its opinion of Valens became hostile: he was criticized for failing to control

5445-627: The east to campaign against the Goths. He asked for assistance from his nephew and co-emperor Gratian against the Goths in Thrace, and Gratian set out eastwards, though Valens did not wait for the western armies to arrive before taking the offensive. Valens's plans for an eastern campaign were never realized. A transfer of troops to the Western Empire in 374 had left gaps in Valens's mobile forces. In preparation for an eastern war, Valens initiated an ambitious recruitment program designed to fill those gaps. It

5544-440: The eastern Roman army dying in a battle near Adrianople in 378. A capable administrator who significantly relieved the burden of taxation on the population, Valens is also described as indecisive, impressionable, a mediocre general and overall "utterly undistinguished". His suspicious and fearful disposition resulted in numerous treason trials and executions which heavily stained his reputation. In religious matters, Valens favored

5643-707: The eastern half of the Empire: Greece , the Balkans , Egypt , Anatolia and the Levant as far as the border with the Sasanian Empire . Valentinian took the western half, where the Alemannic wars required his immediate attention. The brothers began their consulships in their respective capitals, Constantinople and Mediolanum ( Milan ). In the summer of 365, the 365 Crete earthquake and ensuing tsunami caused destruction around

5742-470: The enemy. In 376, the Visigoths under their leader Fritigern advanced to the far shores of the lower Danube and sent an ambassador to Valens who had set up his capital in Antioch , and requested asylum. As Valens's advisers were quick to point out, these Goths could supply troops who would at once swell Valens's ranks and decrease his dependence on conscription from provinces—thereby increasing revenues from

5841-479: The exchange of troops for tribute. As mentioned before, among Valens's reasons for contracting a hasty and not entirely favorable peace in 369 was the deteriorating state of affairs in the East. Jovian had surrendered Rome's much disputed claim to control over Armenia in 363, and Shapur II was eager to make good on this new opportunity. The Persian emperor began enticing Armenian lords over to his camp and eventually forced

5940-520: The faces of both emperors "heavy features", rendered with "no animation, and little consistency". Toward the end of his Res Gestae (XXXI.14.7), Ammianus says that Valens was physically compact, dark-complected, and of average height, " knock-kneed , and somewhat pot-bellied ", and had a "dimmed" pupil in one eye (the translator John C. Rolfe suggests that this is a description of a cataract ). Ancient Greek language Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes

6039-431: The farms and vineyards of the province. Valens, marching north after defeating Procopius, surrounded them with a superior force and forced them to surrender. Ermanaric protested, and when Valens, encouraged by Valentinian, refused to make atonement to the Goths for his conduct, war was declared. In spring 367, Valens crossed the Danube and attacked the Visigoths under Athanaric , Ermanaric's tributary. The Goths fled into

SECTION 60

#1732851622825

6138-407: The first account, Ammianus states that Valens was "mortally wounded by an arrow, and presently breathed his last breath" (XXXI.12). His body was never found or given a proper burial. In the second account, Ammianus states the Roman infantry was abandoned, surrounded and cut to pieces. Valens was wounded and carried to a small wooden hut. He died when the Goths, evidently unaware of the prize within, set

6237-663: The forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c.  1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c.  1200–800 BC ), the Archaic or Epic period ( c.  800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c.  500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been

6336-576: The grounds of Istanbul Atatürk Airport in Yeşilköy in Bakırköy. Borajet also has its head office in Yeşilköy. Bakırköy experiences a Mediterranean climate ( Csa/Cs ) according to both Köppen and Trewartha climate classifications, with cool winters and warm to hot summers. Bakırköy is, by a margin, the warmest district in Istanbul, with an average temperature of almost 15 °C (59 °F), with an especially significant difference in summer. Bakırköy

6435-556: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from

6534-472: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to

6633-431: The hut on fire (XXXI.13.14–16). A third, apocryphal, account states that Valens was struck in the face by a Gothic dart and then perished while leading a charge. He wore no helmet, in order to encourage his men. This action turned the tide of the battle which resulted in a tactical victory but a strategic loss. The church historian Socrates likewise gives two accounts for the death of Valens. Some have asserted that he

6732-482: The last extremity. Meanwhile, the Romans failed to prevent the crossing of other barbarians who were not included in the treaty. In early 377, the Goths revolted after a commotion with the people of Marcianopolis , and defeated the corrupt Roman governor Lupicinus near the city at the Battle of Marcianople . After joining forces with the Ostrogoths under Alatheus and Saphrax who had crossed without Valens's consent,

6831-462: The late Empire and this fact was recognized even by contemporaries. Ammianus understood that it was the worst defeat in Roman history since the Battle of Edessa , and Rufinus called it "the beginning of evils for the Roman empire then and thereafter." Valens is also credited with the commission of a short history of the Roman State. This work, produced by Valens's secretary Eutropius , and known by

6930-449: The later Greek historians Socrates Scholasticus and Sozomen , the forces of Valens eventually prevailed after eight months, defeating Procopius in battles at Thyatira and Nacoleia . On both occasions, Procopius was deserted by his own following in fear of their adversaries' formidable commanders. Put on trial by members of his own escort, Procopius was executed on 27 May 366. Ammianus Marcellinus relates that Procopius's relative Marcellus

7029-752: The mountains while Artaxata , the Armenian capital, and the city of Artogerassa along with several strongholds and castles were destroyed. Shapur sent a second invasion force to Caucasian Iberia to drive out the pro-Roman king Sauromaces II , and put his own appointee, Sauromaces's uncle Aspacures II , on the throne. In the summer following his Gothic settlement, Valens sent his magister peditum (Master of Foot) Arinthaeus to support Pap. The following spring twelve legions were sent under Terentius to regain Iberia and to garrison Armenia near Mount Npat. When Shapur counterattacked into Armenia in 371, his forces were bested by Valens's generals Traianus and Vadomarius and

7128-485: The name Breviarium ab Urbe condita , tells the story of Rome from its founding. According to some historians, Valens was motivated by the necessity of learning Roman history, that he, the royal family, and their appointees might better mix with the Roman senatorial class. During his reign, Valens had to confront the theological diversity that was beginning to create division in the Empire. Julian (361–363), had tried to revive

7227-600: The north of the district. The ridges slope north-south towards the Marmara Sea. The coastal length of Bakırköy is 13 km, with small cliffs in Yeşilköy and Yeşilyurt neighborhoods and a sandy beach in Florya. According to a 2024 urban ecology study focusing on Bakırköy and Zeytinburnu, Bakırköy's green areas are 520 hectares, covering 17.39% of the overall area of the district. Since these green areas are not cemeteries but roads, streets and large parks or urban forests, Bakırköy presents

7326-477: The number of 200,000 warriors and almost a million all told, crossed the Danube, Valens's mobile forces were tied down in the east, on the Persian frontier (Valens was attempting to withdraw from the harsh terms imposed by Shapur and was meeting some resistance on the latter's part). This meant that only limitanei units were present to oversee the Goths' settlement. The small number of imperial troops present prevented

7425-499: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which

7524-511: The opportunities for action on the eastern frontier were limited by these skirmishes closer to home. Valens became the senior augustus on 17 November 375, after his older brother Valentinian died suddenly at Brigetio ( Szőny ) while on campaign against the Quadi in Pannonia. In the west, Valentinian was succeeded by his elder son Gratian , co-emperor since 367, and his younger son Valentinian II , whom

7623-467: The oppressive burden of the taxes which had been instituted by Constantine and his sons, and was humbly deferential to Valentinian's edicts of reform, as with the institution of Defensors (a sort of substitute for the ancient Tribunes , guardians of the lower classes). His moderation and chastity in his private life were everywhere celebrated. At the same time, continuous proscriptions and executions, originating in his weak and fearful disposition, disgraced

7722-455: The pagan religions. His reactionary attempt took advantage of the dissensions among the different Christian factions, and a largely Pagan rank and file military . However, in spite of broad support, his actions were often viewed as excessive, and before he died in a campaign against the Persians, he was often treated with disdain. His death was considered a sign from the Christian God. Valens

7821-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c.  1450 BC ) are in

7920-553: The place acquired the name of Makrohori ( Greek : Μακροχώρι "Long Village"), which was adapted to Makriköy ( Turkish : Köy "village") in the Ottoman period, when many large houses were built there. Yeşilköy (San Stefano), located within the present boundaries of the district, was occupied by the Russians in 1877-1878, and the Treaty of San Stefano was signed there on 3 March 1878. By

8019-460: The population increased rapidly. As a result of this rapid growth, in the 1950s, rural settlements such as Güngören, Kocasinan and Sefaköy quickly turned into slums with title deeds. A similar development took place in Esenler, Yenibosna and Yeşilbağ around Halkalı in the 1970s. However, Küçükçekmece was the first settlement within the borders of Bakırköy district that showed rapid development and became

8118-566: The pre-First World War period it was known as a holiday resort for residents within Constantinople proper. In 1925 the ancient denomination was changed to Bakırköy ("Copper Village") by a law suppressing place names of non-Turkish derivation. It was a district in Beyoğlu province between 1923 and 1926 and also at that time included the present Avcılar , Bağcılar , Bahçelievler , Başakşehir , Esenler , Güngören and Küçükçekmece districts,

8217-412: The prince and later had him executed inside Armenia. In his stead, Valens imposed another Arsacid, Varazdat , who ruled under the regency of the sparapet Mushegh Mamikonian, a friend of Rome. None of this sat well with the Persians, who began agitating again for compliance with the 363 treaty. As the eastern frontier heated up in 375, Valens began preparations for a major expedition. Meanwhile, trouble

8316-422: The recruitment tax. However, it would mean hiring them and paying in gold or silver for their services. Fritigern and Valens knew each other from an alliance in the 370s against Athanaric, who had persecuted Gothic Christians . Though a number of Gothic groups apparently requested entry, Valens granted admission only to Fritigern and his followers. Others would soon follow, however. When Fritigern and his Goths, to

8415-778: The seaside. Two churches, dedicated respectively to St. John the Evangelist and to St. John Baptist the Forerunner, the latter hosting the head of the Saint and burial place of the Emperor Basil II , were also erected here. Hebdomon was a place of military exercise and concentration in what became known in Greek as the Kampos tou Tribounaliou ( Greek : Κάμπος τοῦ τριβουναλίου ) (in Latin Campus Tribunalis ), where several Roman and Byzantine Emperors were elected through acclamation by

8514-544: The streets from the hospital downwards to the sea. The planned satellite town of Ataköy to the west of Bakırköy centre is very tidy indeed, and was one of Turkey's first planned residential developments. Ataköy contains much social infrastructure including the Galleria shopping center and yacht marina. There are 15 neighbourhoods in Bakırköy District: The centre of Bakırköy is an important commercial district. There

8613-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies

8712-410: The west, Eyüpsultan and Gaziosmanpaşa to the north, shrunk both in terms of population and area with the local elections of 1989 and 1992, first with the separation of Küçükçekmece and then Bahçelievler, Bağcılar and Güngören districts. Nowadays Bakırköy has a surface area of 29.22 km² with its new borders. While the average elevation is 20-30 meters throughout Bakırköy, this value rises to 70 meters in

8811-621: The western boroughs of Zeytinburnu and until 1957 a small part of the Arnavutköy district. It was the biggest district of Turkey before the separation of Küçükçekmece . There is little remaining of historical significance in the area: what there is includes a cistern ( Fildamı Sarnıcı ), a powder house from the 17th century (today used as Yunus Emre Kültür Merkezi in Ataköy), the Greek Orthodox church of Saint George (consecrated on May 2, 1832) and

8910-475: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,

9009-402: Was a Nicene Christian and Valens was an Arian Christian (specifically a Homoean ). In adulthood, Valens served in the protectores domestici under the emperors Julian and Jovian . According to the 5th-century Greek historian Socrates Scholasticus , Valens refused pressure to offer pagan sacrifices during the reign of the polytheist emperor Julian. Julian was killed in battle against

9108-634: Was baptised by the Arian bishop of Constantinople before he set out on his first war against the Goths . While the Nicene Christian writers of his time identified Valens with the Arian faction and accused him of persecuting Nicene Christians, modern historians have described both Valens and Valentinian I as primarily interested in maintaining social order and have minimized their theological concerns. Although Athanasius

9207-466: Was brewing elsewhere. In Isauria , the mountainous region of western Cilicia , a major revolt had broken out in 375 which diverted troops formerly stationed in the East. Furthermore, by 377, the Saracens under Queen Mavia had broken into revolt and devastated a swath of territory stretching from Phoenicia and Palestine as far as the Sinai . Though Valens successfully brought both uprisings under control,

9306-488: Was burnt to death in a village whither he had retired, which the barbarians assaulted and set on fire. But others affirm that having put off his imperial robe he ran into the midst of the main body of infantry; and that when the cavalry revolted and refused to engage, the infantry were surrounded by the barbarians, and completely destroyed in a body. Among these it is said the Emperor fell, but could not be distinguished, in consequence of his not having on his imperial habit. When

9405-598: Was impelled, under his reign, to briefly go into hiding, Valens maintained a close dependency on his brother Valentinian and treated St. Basil mildly, both of whom supported the Nicene position. Not long after Valens died the cause of Arianism in the Roman East was to come to an end. His successor Theodosius I made Nicene Christianity the state religion of Rome and suppressed the Arians. The coin portraits of Valentinian and Valens give

9504-665: Was proclaimed emperor in his place, but according to Zosimus he was swiftly captured and executed. Valens could turn his attention back to external enemies, the Sasanian Empire and the Goths . During Procopius's insurrection, the Gothic king Ermanaric , who ruled a powerful kingdom north of the Danube from the Euxine to the Baltic Sea , had engaged to supply him with troops for the struggle against Valens. The Gothic army, reportedly numbering 30,000 men, arrived too late to help Procopius, but nevertheless invaded Thrace and began plundering

9603-648: Was the general opinion that Valentinian needed help to handle the administration, civil and military, of the large and unwieldy empire, and, on 28 March, at the express demand of the soldiers for a second augustus , he selected Valens as co-emperor at the Hebdomon , before the Constantinian Walls . Both emperors were briefly ill, delaying them in Constantinople. As soon as they recovered, the two augusti travelled together through Adrianople and Naissus to Mediana , where they divided their territories. Valens obtained

9702-536: Was thus not entirely unwelcome news when Valens heard of Ermanaric 's death and the disintegration of his kingdom before an invasion of hordes of barbaric Huns from the far east. After failing to hold the Dniester or the Prut rivers against the Huns, the Goths retreated southward in a massive emigration, seeking new settlements and shelter south of the Danube , i.e. Roman lands, which they may have thought could be held against

9801-400: Was utterly undistinguished, still only a protector , and possessed no military ability: he betrayed his consciousness of inferiority by his nervous suspicion of plots and savage punishment of alleged traitors," writes A. H. M. Jones . But Jones admits that "he was a conscientious administrator, careful of the interests of the humble. Like his brother, he was an earnest Christian." He diminished

#824175