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91-603: Ustica ( Italian pronunciation: [ˈustika] ; Sicilian : Ùstica ) is a small Italian island in the Tyrrhenian Sea . It is about 5 kilometres (3 mi) across and is situated 52 kilometres (32 mi) north of Capo Gallo , Sicily . Roughly 1,300 people live in the comune (municipality) of the same name. There is a regular ferry service from the island to Palermo in Sicily. Excavations begun in 1989 at Tramontana, also known as Faraglioni, have unearthed what

182-701: A / , / ɔ / , / u / . The mid-vowels / ɛ / and / ɔ / do not occur in unstressed position in native words but may do so in modern borrowings from Italian, English, or other languages. Historically, Sicilian / i / and / u / each represent the confluence of three Latin vowels (or four in unstressed position), hence their high frequency. Unstressed / i / and / u / generally undergo reduction to [ ɪ ] and [ ʊ ] respectively, except in word-/phrase-final position, as in [pʊsˈsibbɪli] ‘possible’ and [kʊˈniɟɟu] ‘rabbit’. As in Italian, vowels are allophonically lengthened in stressed open syllables . In

273-495: A GPR on its underside to investigate the soil and crust of the Moon. Engineering applications include nondestructive testing (NDT) of structures and pavements, locating buried structures and utility lines, and studying soils and bedrock. In environmental remediation , GPR is used to define landfills, contaminant plumes, and other remediation sites, while in archaeology it is used for mapping archaeological features and cemeteries. GPR

364-578: A Greek origin (including some examples where it is unclear whether the word is derived directly from Greek, or via Latin): From 476 to 535, the Ostrogoths ruled Sicily, although their presence apparently did not affect the Sicilian language. The few Germanic influences to be found in Sicilian do not appear to originate from this period. One exception might be abbanniari or vanniari "to hawk goods, proclaim publicly", from Gothic bandwjan "to give

455-406: A comprehensive Sicilian language dictionary intended to capture the language universally spoken across Sicily in a common orthography. Later in the century, Giuseppe Pitrè established a common grammar in his Grammatica Siciliana (1875). Although it presents a common grammar, it also provides detailed notes on how the sounds of Sicilian differ across dialects. In the 20th century, researchers at

546-442: A few centimetres. Ground-penetrating radar antennas are generally in contact with the ground for the strongest signal strength; however, GPR air-launched antennas can be used above the ground. Cross borehole GPR has developed within the field of hydrogeophysics to be a valuable means of assessing the presence and amount of soil water . The first patent for a system designed to use continuous-wave radar to locate buried objects

637-701: A language, Sicilian has its own dialects in the following main groupings: First let us turn our attention to the language of Sicily, since the Sicilian vernacular seems to hold itself in higher regard than any other, because all the poetry written by the Italians is called "Sicilian"... Because Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and many peoples have passed through it ( Phoenicians , Ancient Greeks , Carthaginians , Romans , Vandals , Jews , Byzantine Greeks , Arabs , Normans , Swabians , Spaniards , Austrians , Italians ), Sicilian displays

728-506: A language, not a dialect, in official communication. The language is officially recognized in the municipal statutes of some Sicilian towns, such as Caltagirone and Grammichele , in which the "inalienable historical and cultural value of the Sicilian language" is proclaimed. Furthermore, the Sicilian language would be protected and promoted under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML). Although Italy has signed

819-503: A particular word has a prehistoric derivation, but it is not known whether the Sicilians inherited it directly from the indigenous populations, or whether it came via another route. Similarly, it might be known that a particular word has a Greek origin but it is not known from which Greek period the Sicilians first used it (ancient Magna Grecia or the Byzantine period ), or once again, whether

910-408: A radar signal travels is dependent upon the composition of the material being penetrated. The depth to a target is determined based on the amount of time it takes for the radar signal to reflect back to the unit’s antenna. Radar signals travel at different velocities through different types of materials. It is possible to use the depth to a known object to determine a specific velocity and then calibrate

1001-474: A receiver. The travel time of the reflected signal indicates the depth. Data may be plotted as profiles, as planview maps isolating specific depths, or as three-dimensional models. GPR can be a powerful tool in favorable conditions (uniform sandy soils are ideal). Like other geophysical methods used in archaeology (and unlike excavation) it can locate artifacts and map features without any risk of damaging them. Among methods used in archaeological geophysics, it

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1092-404: A rich and varied influence from several languages in its lexical stock and grammar. These languages include Latin (as Sicilian is a Romance language itself), Ancient Greek , Byzantine Greek , Spanish , Norman , Lombard , Hebrew , Catalan , Occitan , Arabic and Germanic languages , and the languages of the island's aboriginal Indo-European and pre-Indo-European inhabitants, known as

1183-486: A sectional (profile) view of the subsurface. Multiple lines of data systematically collected over an area may be used to construct three-dimensional or tomographic images. Data may be presented as three-dimensional blocks, or as horizontal or vertical slices. Horizontal slices (known as "depth slices" or "time slices") are essentially planview maps isolating specific depths. Time-slicing has become standard practice in archaeological applications , because horizontal patterning

1274-578: A separate language", and it is recognized as a minority language by UNESCO . It has been referred to as a language by the Sicilian Region. It has the oldest literary tradition of the Italo-Romance languages . A version of the UNESCO Courier is also available in Sicilian. Sicilian is spoken by most inhabitants of Sicily and by emigrant populations around the world. The latter are found in

1365-454: A signal". Also possible is schimmenti "diagonal" from Gothic slimbs "slanting". Other sources of Germanic influences include the Hohenstaufen rule of the 13th century, words of Germanic origin contained within the speech of 11th-century Normans and Lombard settlers, and the short period of Austrian rule in the 18th century. Many Germanic influences date back to the time of

1456-671: A significant influence on the Sicilian vocabulary. The following words are of Spanish derivation: Since the Italian Unification (the Risorgimento of 1860–1861), the Sicilian language has been significantly influenced by (Tuscan) Italian. During the Fascist period it became obligatory that Italian be taught and spoken in all schools, whereas up to that point, Sicilian had been used extensively in schools. This process has quickened since World War II due to improving educational standards and

1547-602: A system to determine whether landmines are present in areas using ultra wideband synthetic aperture radar units mounted on blimps . In Pipe-Penetrating Radar (IPPR) and In Sewer GPR (ISGPR) are applications of GPR technologies applied in non-metallic-pipes where the signals are directed through pipe and conduit walls to detect pipe wall thickness and voids behind the pipe walls. SewerVUE Technology, an advanced pipe condition assessment company utilizes Pipe Penetrating Radar (PPR) as an in pipe GPR application to see remaining wall thickness, rebar cover, delamination, and detect

1638-409: A well-preserved example of ancient Mediterranean civilization between 1400 and 1200 BC. Recent archaeological investigations unveiled a sophisticated fortification system beneath the village. Using non-invasive techniques such as ground-penetrating radar and electrical resistivity tomography, researchers identified an 820-foot-long arc-shaped stone wall, standing 13 to 16 feet tall. Ustica's climate

1729-605: Is always a trade-off between resolution and penetration. Optimal depth of subsurface penetration is achieved in ice where the depth of penetration can achieve several thousand metres (to bedrock in Greenland) at low GPR frequencies. Dry sandy soils or massive dry materials such as granite , limestone , and concrete tend to be resistive rather than conductive, and the depth of penetration could be up to 15 metres (49 ft). However, in moist or clay-laden soils and materials with high electrical conductivity, penetration may be as little as

1820-504: Is classified as hot-summer mediterranean climate ( Köppen : Csa ). The annual average temperature is 18.13 °C (64.6 °F), the hottest month in July is 26.58 °C (79.8 °F), and the coldest month is 11.27 °C (52.3 °F) in February. The annual precipitation is 525.72 millimetres (20.70 in), of which October is the wettest with 78.85 millimetres (3.10 in), while July

1911-444: Is distinctive for most consonant phonemes, but a few can be geminated only after a vowel: / b / , / dʒ / , / ɖ / , / ɲ / , / ʃ / and / ts / . Rarely indicated in writing, spoken Sicilian also exhibits syntactic gemination (or dubbramentu ), which means that the first consonant of a word is lengthened when it is preceded by words like è, ma, e, a, di, pi, chi - meaning ‘it is, but, and, to, of, for, what’. For instance in

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2002-488: Is less clear is the extent to which a Latin-speaking population survived on the island. While a form of Vulgar Latin clearly survived in isolated communities during the Islamic epoch, there is much debate as to the influence it had (if any) on the development of the Sicilian language, following the re-Latinisation of Sicily (discussed in the next section). By AD 1000, the whole of what is today Southern Italy , including Sicily,

2093-558: Is often the most important indicator of cultural activities. The most significant performance limitation of GPR is in high-conductivity materials such as clay soils and soils that are salt contaminated. Performance is also limited by signal scattering in heterogeneous conditions (e.g. rocky soils). Other disadvantages of currently available GPR systems include: Radar is sensitive to changes in material composition; detecting changes requires movement. When looking through stationary items using surface-penetrating or ground-penetrating radar,

2184-401: Is one method used in archaeological geophysics . GPR can be used to detect and map subsurface archaeological artifacts , features , and patterning. The concept of radar is familiar to most people. With ground penetrating radar, the radar signal – an electromagnetic pulse – is directed into the ground. Subsurface objects and stratigraphy (layering) will cause reflections that are picked up by

2275-547: Is rather small (20–30 cm), but lateral resolution is enough to discriminate different types of landmines in the soil, or cavities, defects, bugging devices, or other hidden objects in walls, floors, and structural elements. GPR is used on vehicles for high-speed road survey and landmine detection. EU Detect Force Technology, an advanced soil research company, design utilizes X6 Plus Grounding Radar (XGR) as an hybrid GPR application for military mine detection and also police bomb detection. The "Mineseeker Project" seeks to design

2366-534: Is the case with seismic energy. The electrical conductivity of the ground, the transmitted center frequency , and the radiated power all may limit the effective depth range of GPR investigation. Increases in electrical conductivity attenuate the introduced electromagnetic wave, and thus the penetration depth decreases. Because of frequency-dependent attenuation mechanisms, higher frequencies do not penetrate as far as lower frequencies. However, higher frequencies may provide improved resolution . Thus operating frequency

2457-535: Is the driest with only 3.91 millimetres (0.15 in). Sicilian language Sicilian (Sicilian: sicilianu , Sicilian: [sɪ(t)ʃɪˈljaːnu] ; Italian : siciliano ) is a Romance language that is spoken on the island of Sicily and its satellite islands. It belongs to the broader Extreme Southern Italian language group (in Italian italiano meridionale estremo ). Ethnologue (see below for more detail) describes Sicilian as being "distinct enough from Standard Italian to be considered

2548-441: Is unique both in its ability to detect some small objects at relatively great depths, and in its ability to distinguish the depth of anomaly sources. The principal disadvantage of GPR is that it is severely limited by less-than-ideal environmental conditions. Fine-grained sediments (clays and silts) are often problematic because their high electrical conductivity causes loss of signal strength; rocky or heterogeneous sediments scatter

2639-407: Is used in law enforcement for locating clandestine graves and buried evidence. Military uses include detection of mines, unexploded ordnance, and tunnels. Borehole radars utilizing GPR are used to map the structures from a borehole in underground mining applications. Modern directional borehole radar systems are able to produce three-dimensional images from measurements in a single borehole. One of

2730-455: The Angevin army over the Sicilians at Benevento in 1266 not only marked the end of the 136-year Norman- Swabian reign in Sicily but also effectively ensured that the centre of literary influence would eventually move from Sicily to Tuscany. While Sicilian, as both an official and a literary language, would continue to exist for another two centuries, the language would soon follow the fortunes of

2821-516: The Centro di studi filologici e linguistici siciliani developed an extensive descriptivist orthography which aims to represent every sound in the natural range of Sicilian accurately. This system is also used extensively in the Vocabolario siciliano and by Gaetano Cipolla in his Learn Sicilian series of textbooks and by Arba Sicula in its journal. In initially 2017, with an updated version in 2024

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2912-648: The Elymians arrived between the second and first millennia BC. These aboriginal populations in turn were followed by the Phoenicians (between the 10th and 8th centuries BC) and the Greeks . The heavy Greek-language influence remains strongly visible, while the influences from the other groups are smaller and less obvious. What can be stated with certainty is that in Sicilian remain pre-Indo-European words of an ancient Mediterranean origin, but one cannot be more precise than that: of

3003-458: The Fascist years in Italy and until the 1950s, Ustica was used as an island prison. Benito Mussolini banished thousands of political opponents to Ustica, often as many as 1,500 at a time; many were homosexuals. Both Antonio Gramsci and Amadeo Bordiga were sent there. In the early 1940s Yugoslav war prisoners were crammed onto the island, and many of them died from malnutrition and tuberculosis. In

3094-541: The Greek language to a position of prestige, at least on an official level. At this time the island could be considered a border zone with moderate levels of bilingualism : Latinisation was mostly concentrated in western Sicily, largely among the upper class, whereas Eastern Sicily remained predominantly Greek. As the power of the Byzantine Empire waned, Sicily was progressively conquered by Saracens from Ifriqiya , from

3185-535: The Saracens introduced to Sicily their advanced irrigation and farming techniques and a new range of crops, nearly all of which remain endemic to the island to this day. Some words of Arabic origin : Throughout the Islamic epoch of Sicilian history, a significant Greek-speaking population remained on the island and continued to use the Greek language, or most certainly a variant of Greek influenced by Tunisian Arabic. What

3276-576: The Sicels , Sicanians and Elymians . The very earliest influences, visible in Sicilian to this day, exhibit both prehistoric Mediterranean elements and prehistoric Indo-European elements, and occasionally a blending of both. Before the Roman conquest (3rd century BC), Sicily was occupied by various populations. The earliest of these populations were the Sicanians , considered to be autochthonous. The Sicels and

3367-497: The 13th century. The Northern Italian influence is of particular interest. Even to the present day, Gallo-Italic of Sicily exists in the areas where the Northern Italian colonies were the strongest, namely Novara , Nicosia , Sperlinga , Aidone and Piazza Armerina . The Siculo-Gallic dialect did not survive in other major Italian colonies, such as Randazzo , Caltagirone , Bronte and Paternò (although they influenced

3458-451: The 1950s they were followed by suspected Mafiosi expelled from Sicily. On 27 June 1980, Itavia Flight 870 crashed into the sea off the island while en route to Palermo , killing all 81 people on board. The event became known as the Ustica massacre . The island has limited sources of water, and vegetation is consequently scarce. The coast has numerous rocks and grottoes. Ustica is home to

3549-521: The GPR signal, weakening the useful signal while increasing extraneous noise. In the field of cultural heritage GPR with high frequency antenna is also used for investigating historical masonry structures, detecting cracks and decay patterns of columns and detachment of frescoes. GPR is used by criminologists, historians, and archaeologists to search burial sites. In his publication, Interpreting Ground-penetrating Radar for Archaeology , Lawrence Conyers, one of

3640-587: The Institute had used GPR to locate suspected unmarked graves in areas near historic cemeteries and Indian Residential Schools. On May 27, 2021, it was reported that 215 unmarked anomalies (possibly children's graves) were found using GPR at a burial site at the Kamloops Indian Residential School on Tk’emlúps te Secwépemc First Nation land in British Columbia. In June 2021, GPR technology

3731-512: The Island was named Osteodes (ossuary) in memory of the thousands of Carthaginian mutineers left there to die of hunger in the 4th century BC. The Romans renamed the island Ustica , Latin for burnt , for its black rocks. The island is also known locally as the "black pearl". In the 6th century, a Benedictine community settled in the island, but was soon forced to move because of ongoing wars between Europeans and Arabs . Attempts to colonize

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3822-406: The Sicilian language continues to adopt Italian vocabulary and grammatical forms to such an extent that many Sicilians themselves cannot distinguish between correct and incorrect Sicilian language usage. Sicilian has a number of consonant sounds that set it apart from the other major Romance languages, notably its retroflex consonants . Sicilian has five phonemic vowels: / i / , / ɛ / , /

3913-519: The Swabian kings (amongst whom Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor enjoyed the longest reign). Some of the words below are "reintroductions" of Latin words (also found in modern Italian) that had been Germanicized at some point (e.g. vastāre in Latin to guastare in modern Italian). Words that probably originate from this era include: In 535, Justinian I made Sicily a Byzantine province, which returned

4004-498: The U.S. military ordered ground-penetrating radar system from Chemring Sensors and Electronics Systems (CSES), to detect improvised explosive devices (IEDs) buried in roadways, in $ 200.2 million deal. A recent novel approach to vehicle localization using prior map based images from ground penetrating radar has been demonstrated. Termed "Localizing Ground Penetrating Radar" (LGPR), centimeter level accuracies at speeds up to 100 km/h (60 mph) have been demonstrated. Closed-loop operation

4095-605: The countries that attracted large numbers of Sicilian immigrants during the course of the past century or so, especially the United States (specifically in the Gravesend and Bensonhurst neighborhoods of Brooklyn , New York City , and in Buffalo and Western New York State), Canada (especially in Montreal , Toronto and Hamilton ), Australia , Venezuela and Argentina . During

4186-563: The definite article: di lu = dû ("of the"), a lu = ô ("to the"), pi lu = pû ("for the"), nta lu = ntô ("in the"), etc. Most feminine nouns and adjectives end in -a in the singular: casa ('house'), porta ('door'), carta ('paper'). Exceptions include soru ('sister') and ficu ('fig'). The usual masculine singular ending is -u : omu ('man'), libbru ('book'), nomu ('name'). The singular ending -i can be either masculine or feminine. Unlike Standard Italian, Sicilian uses

4277-557: The depth calculations. In 2005, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute introduced legislation to regulate GPR equipment and GPR operators to control excess emissions of electromagnetic radiation. The European GPR association (EuroGPR) was formed as a trade association to represent and protect the legitimate use of GPR in Europe. Ground-penetrating radar uses a variety of technologies to generate

4368-617: The education system have been slow. The CSFLS created a textbook "Dialektos" to comply with the law but does not provide an orthography to write the language. In Sicily, it is taught only as part of dialectology courses, but outside Italy, Sicilian has been taught at the University of Pennsylvania , Brooklyn College and Manouba University . Since 2009, it has been taught at the Italian Charities of America , in New York City (home to

4459-419: The equipment needs to be moved in order for the radar to examine the specified area by looking for differences in material composition. While it can identify items such as pipes, voids, and soil, it cannot identify the specific materials, such as gold and precious gems. It can, however, be useful in providing subsurface mapping of potential gem-bearing pockets, or "vugs". The readings can be confused by moisture in

4550-530: The far south of Italy ( Apulia and Calabria ). It took Roger 30 years to complete the conquest of Sicily (Robert died in 1085). In the aftermath of the Norman conquest of Sicily, the reintroduction of Latin in Sicily had begun, and some Norman words would be absorbed, that would be accompanied with an additional wave of Parisian French loanwords during the rule of Charles I from the Capetian House of Anjou in

4641-451: The field remained sparse until the 1970s, when military applications began driving research. Commercial applications followed and the first affordable consumer equipment was sold in 1975. In 1972, the Apollo 17 mission carried a ground penetrating radar called ALSE (Apollo Lunar Sounder Experiment) in orbit around the Moon. It was able to record depth information up to 1.3 km and recorded

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4732-794: The first archaeological specialists in GPR, described the process. Conyers published research using GPR in El Salvador in 1996, in the Four Corners region Chaco period in southern Arizona in 1997, and in a medieval site in Ireland in 2018. Informed by Conyer's research, the Institute of Prairie and Indigenous Archaeology at the University of Alberta , in collaboration with the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation , have been using GPR in their survey of Indian Residential Schools in Canada . By June 2021,

4823-435: The first of the modern Italic languages to be used as a literary language . The influence of the school and the use of Sicilian itself as a poetic language was acknowledged by the two great Tuscan writers of the early Renaissance period, Dante and Petrarch . The influence of the Sicilian language should not be underestimated in the eventual formulation of a lingua franca that was to become modern Italian . The victory of

4914-515: The ground and they can't separate gem-bearing pockets from non-gem-bearing ones. When determining depth capabilities, the frequency range of the antenna dictates the size of the antenna and the depth capability. The grid spacing which is scanned is based on the size of the targets that need to be identified and the results required. Typical grid spacings can be 1 meter, 3 ft, 5 ft, 10 ft, 20 ft for ground surveys, and for walls and floors 1 inch–1 ft. The speed at which

5005-520: The honeybee Apis mellifera sicula . Ustica is particularly known for scuba diving , with a number of diving schools established on the island. Recreational divers are attracted by the relatively deep dives, which are a feature of the island's volcanic geology. Ustica contains the remains of the Bronze Age settlement of Villaggio dei Faraglioni. It showcases organized urban planning with huts and narrow roadways along its northern periphery, representing

5096-430: The impact of mass media, such that increasingly, even within the family home, Sicilian is not necessarily the language of choice. The Sicilian Regional Assembly voted to make the teaching of Sicilian a part of the school curriculum at primary school level, but as of 2007 only a fraction of schools teach Sicilian. There is also little in the way of mass media offered in Sicilian. The combination of these factors means that

5187-533: The island in the Middle Ages failed because of raids by Barbary pirates . In the mid-18th century, the island was settled by approximately 90 people from the island of Lipari , an island also located north of Sicily, but east of Ustica. They brought with them the patron saint of Lipari, Bartholomew the Apostle , who became the patron saint of Ustica as well. In the mid-to-late 19th century and early 20th century, as

5278-559: The kingdom itself in terms of prestige and influence. Following the Sicilian Vespers of 1282, the kingdom came under the influence of the Crown of Aragon , and the Catalan language (and the closely related Aragonese ) added a new layer of vocabulary in the succeeding century. For the whole of the 14th century, both Catalan and Sicilian were the official languages of the royal court. Sicilian

5369-478: The language in Sicily itself: specifically, the term sìculu originally describes one of the larger prehistoric groups living in Sicily (the Italic Sicels or Siculi ) before the arrival of Greeks in the 8th century BC (see below ). It can also be used as a prefix to qualify or to elaborate further on the origins of a person, for example: Siculo-American ( sìculu-miricanu ) or Siculo-Australian. As

5460-444: The language via any of the major language groups normally associated with Sicilian, i.e. they have been independently derived from a very early Indo-European source. The Sicels are a possible source of such words, but there is also the possibility of a cross-over between ancient Mediterranean words and introduced Indo-European forms. Some examples of Sicilian words with an ancient Indo-European origin: The following Sicilian words are of

5551-401: The largest Sicilian speaking community outside of Sicily and Italy) and it is also preserved and taught by family association, church organisations and societies, social and ethnic historical clubs and even Internet social groups, mainly in Gravesend and Bensonhurst, Brooklyn . On 15 May 2018, the Sicilian Region once again mandated the teaching of Sicilian in schools and referred to it as

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5642-547: The last four or five decades, large numbers of Sicilians were also attracted to the industrial zones of Northern Italy and areas of the European Union . Although the Sicilian language does not have official status (including in Sicily), in addition to the standard Sicilian of the medieval Sicilian school, academics have developed a standardized form. Such efforts began in the mid-19th century when Vincenzo Mortillaro published

5733-472: The local Sicilian vernacular). The Gallo-Italic influence was also felt on the Sicilian language itself, as follows: The origins of another Romance influence, that of Occitan , had three reasons: Some examples of Sicilian words derived from Occitan: It was during the reign of Frederick II (or Frederick I of Sicily) between 1198 and 1250, with his patronage of the Sicilian School, that Sicilian became

5824-527: The mid 9th to mid 10th centuries. The Emirate of Sicily persisted long enough to develop a distinctive local variety of Arabic, Siculo-Arabic (at present extinct in Sicily but surviving as the Maltese language ). Its influence is noticeable in around 300 Sicilian words, most of which relate to agriculture and related activities. This is understandable because of the Arab Agricultural Revolution ;

5915-517: The new standard". Radioglaciology is the study of glaciers , ice sheets , ice caps and icy moons using ice penetrating radar . It employs a geophysical method similar to ground-penetrating radar and typically operates at frequencies in the MF , HF , VHF and UHF portions of the radio spectrum . This technique is also commonly referred to as "Ice Penetrating Radar (IPR)" or "Radio Echo Sounding (RES)". Individual lines of GPR data represent

6006-485: The nonprofit organisation Cademia Siciliana created an orthographic proposal to help to normalise the language's written form. This orthography was used by the organisation in their collaboration with Google to bring the Sicilian Language to Google Translate. The autonomous regional parliament of Sicily has legislated Regional Law No. 9/2011 to encourage the teaching of Sicilian at all schools, but inroads into

6097-435: The other main applications for ground-penetrating radars is for locating underground utilities. Standard electromagnetic induction utility locating tools require utilities to be conductive. These tools are ineffective for locating plastic conduits or concrete storm and sanitary sewers. Since GPR detects variations in dielectric properties in the subsurface, it can be highly effective for locating non-conductive utilities. GPR

6188-502: The parliamentary and court records had commenced. By 1543 this process was virtually complete, with the Tuscan dialect of Italian becoming the lingua franca of the Italian peninsula and supplanting written Sicilian. Spanish rule had hastened this process in two important ways: Spanish rule lasted over three centuries (not counting the Aragonese and Bourbon periods on either side) and had

6279-665: The particular word may even have come to Sicily via another route. For instance, by the time the Romans had occupied Sicily, the Latin language had made its own borrowings from Greek. The words with a prehistoric Mediterranean derivation often refer to plants native to the Mediterranean region or to other natural features. Bearing in mind the qualifiers mentioned above (alternative sources are provided where known), examples of such words include: There are also Sicilian words with an ancient Indo-European origin that do not appear to have come to

6370-498: The phrase è bonu ‘it's good’, there is a doubled /bb/ in pronunciation. The letter ⟨j⟩ at the start of a word can have two separate sounds depending on what precedes the word. For instance, in jornu ("day"), it is pronounced [ j ] . However, after a nasal consonant or if it is triggered by syntactic gemination, it is pronounced [ ɟ ] as in un jornu with [nɟ] or tri jorna ("three days") with [ɟɟ] . Another difference between

6461-501: The plural: manu ('hand[s]'), ficu ('fig[s]') and soru ('sister[s]'). Sicilian has only one auxiliary verb , aviri , 'to have'. It is also used to denote obligation (e.g. avi a jiri , '[he/she] has to go'), and to form the future tense, as Sicilian for the most part no longer has a synthetic future tense: avi a cantari , '[he/she] will sing'. As in English and like most other Romance languages, Sicilian may use

6552-759: The population of the island grew too large, hundreds of Ustican families emigrated to the United States. Many of these families settled in New Orleans and surrounding areas, where there are today thousands of descendants whose ties remain strong to Ustica. Among them was Angelina Caravella, the mother of famous jazz singer and trumpet player Louis Prima . A smaller number of families settled in San Jose and San Francisco, in New York, Massachusetts, Oregon, Montana and in Chicago. During

6643-458: The presence of voids developing outside the pipe. Wall-penetrating radar can read through non-metallic structures as demonstrated for the first time by ASIO and Australian Police in 1984 while surveying an ex Russian Embassy in Canberra . Police showed how to watch people up to two rooms away laterally and through floors vertically, could see metal lumps that might be weapons; GPR can even act as

6734-467: The radar signal: these are impulse, stepped frequency, frequency-modulated continuous-wave ( FMCW ), and noise. Systems on the market in 2009 also use Digital signal processing (DSP) to process the data during survey work rather than off-line. A special kind of GPR uses unmodulated continuous-wave signals. This holographic subsurface radar differs from other GPR types in that it records plan-view subsurface holograms. Depth penetration of this kind of radar

6825-636: The range 10 MHz to 2.6 GHz. A GPR transmitter and antenna emits electromagnetic energy into the ground. When the energy encounters a buried object or a boundary between materials having different permittivities , it may be reflected or refracted or scattered back to the surface. A receiving antenna can then record the variations in the return signal. The principles involved are similar to seismology , except GPR methods implement electromagnetic energy rather than acoustic energy, and energy may be reflected at boundaries where subsurface electrical properties change rather than subsurface mechanical properties as

6916-504: The results on film due to the lack of suitable computer storage at the time. GPR has many applications in a number of fields. In the Earth sciences it is used to study bedrock , soils, groundwater , and ice . It is of some utility in prospecting for gold nuggets and for diamonds in alluvial gravel beds, by finding natural traps in buried stream beds that have the potential for accumulating heavier particles. The Chinese lunar rover Yutu has

7007-731: The same standard plural ending -i for both masculine and feminine nouns and adjectives: casi ('houses' or 'cases'), porti ('doors' or 'harbors'), tàuli ('tables'). Some masculine plural nouns end in -a instead, a feature that is derived from the Latin neuter endings -um, -a : libbra ('books'), jorna ('days'), vrazza ('arms', compare Italian braccio , braccia ), jardina ('gardens'), scrittura ('writers'), signa ('signs'). Some nouns have irregular plurals: omu has òmini (compare Italian uomo , uomini ), jocu ('game') jòcura (Italian gioco , giochi ) and lettu ("bed") letta (Italian letto , ' letti ). Three feminine nouns are invariable in

7098-509: The three main prehistoric groups, only the Sicels were known to be Indo-European with a degree of certainty, and their speech is likely to have been closely related to that of the Romans. The following table, listing words for "twins", illustrates the difficulty linguists face in tackling the various substrata of the Sicilian language. A similar qualifier can be applied to many of the words that appear in this article. Sometimes it may be known that

7189-540: The treaty, the Italian Parliament has not ratified it. It is not included in Italian Law No. 482/1999 although some other minority languages of Sicily are. Alternative names of Sicilian are Calabro-Sicilian , sicilianu , and sìculu . The first term refers to the fact that a form of Sicilian is spoken in southern Calabria, particularly in the province of Reggio Calabria . The other two are names for

7280-455: The vast majority of instances in which the originating word had an initial /i/ , Sicilian has dropped it completely. That has also happened when there was once an initial /e/ and, to a lesser extent, /a/ and /o/ : mpurtanti "important", gnuranti "ignorant", nimicu "enemy", ntirissanti "interesting", llustrari "to illustrate", mmàggini "image", cona "icon", miricanu "American". In Sicilian, gemination

7371-408: The verb jiri , 'to go', to signify the act of being about to do something. Vaiu a cantari , 'I'm going to sing'. In this way, jiri + a + infinitive can also be a way to form the simple future construction. The main conjugations in Sicilian are illustrated below with the verb èssiri , 'to be'. Extracts from three of Sicily's more celebrated poets are offered below to illustrate

7462-427: The written and the spoken languages is the extent to which contractions occur in everyday speech. Thus a common expression such as avemu a accattari... ("we have to go and buy...") is generally reduced to âma 'ccattari in talking to family and friends. The circumflex accent is commonly used in denoting a wide range of contractions in the written language, particularly the joining of simple prepositions and

7553-471: The written form of Sicilian over the last few centuries: Antonio Veneziano , Giovanni Meli and Nino Martoglio . A translation of the Lord's Prayer can also be found in J. K. Bonner. This is written with three variations: a standard literary form from the island of Sicily and a southern Apulian literary form. Ground-penetrating radar GPR uses high-frequency (usually polarized) radio waves, usually in

7644-490: Was a complex mix of small states and principalities , languages and religions. The whole of Sicily was controlled by Saracens, at the elite level, but the general population remained a mix of Muslims and Christians who spoke Greek, Latin or Siculo-Arabic. The far south of the Italian peninsula was part of the Byzantine empire although many communities were reasonably independent from Constantinople . The Principality of Salerno

7735-513: Was a large prehistoric village dating from the 14th to the 13th century BC. The foundations of some 300 stone-built houses were discovered, and the defensive walls of the settlement are among the strongest fortifications of any period known in Italy. It is believed that these early settlers came over from the Aeolian Islands . In historic times, the island has been populated at least since about 1500 BC by Phoenician peoples. In ancient Greece ,

7826-587: Was also used to record the proceedings of the Parliament of Sicily (one of the oldest parliaments in Europe) and for other official purposes. While it is often difficult to determine whether a word came directly from Catalan (as opposed to Occitan), the following are likely to be such examples: By the time the crowns of Castille and Aragon were united in the late 15th century, the Italianisation of written Sicilian in

7917-550: Was controlled by Lombards (or Langobards), who had also started to make some incursions into Byzantine territory and had managed to establish some isolated independent city-states . It was into this climate that the Normans thrust themselves with increasing numbers during the first half of the 11th century. When the two most famous of Southern Italy's Norman adventurers, Roger of Hauteville and his brother, Robert Guiscard , began their conquest of Sicily in 1061, they already controlled

8008-498: Was first demonstrated in 2012 for autonomous vehicle steering and fielded for military operation in 2013. Highway speed centimeter-level localization during a night-time snow-storm was demonstrated in 2016. This technology was exclusively licensed and commercialized for vehicle safety in ADAS and Autonomous Vehicle positioning and lane-keeping systems by GPR Inc. and marketed as Ground Positioning Radar(tm). Ground penetrating radar survey

8099-716: Was often used on the Channel 4 television programme Time Team which used the technology to determine a suitable area for examination by means of excavations. GPR was also used to recover £150,000 in cash ransom that Michael Sams had buried in a field, following his 1992 kidnapping of an estate agent. Military applications of ground-penetrating radar include detection of unexploded ordnance and detecting tunnels. In military applications and other common GPR applications, practitioners often use GPR in conjunction with other available geophysical techniques such as electrical resistivity and electromagnetic induction methods. In May 2020,

8190-401: Was submitted by Gotthelf Leimbach and Heinrich Löwy in 1910, six years after the first patent for radar itself (patent DE 237 944). A patent for a system using radar pulses rather than a continuous wave was filed in 1926 by Dr. Hülsenbeck (DE 489 434), leading to improved depth resolution. A glacier's depth was measured using ground penetrating radar in 1929 by W. Stern. Further developments in

8281-637: Was used by the Cowessess First Nation in Saskatchewan to locate 751 unmarked gravesites on the Marieval Indian Residential School site, which had been in operation for a century until it was closed down in 1996. Advancements in GPR technology integrated with various 3D software modelling platforms generate three-dimensional reconstructions of subsurface "shapes and their spatial relationships". By 2021, this has been "emerging as

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