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141-694: The Kamloops Indian Residential School was part of the Canadian Indian residential school system . Located in Kamloops , British Columbia, it was once the largest residential school in Canada, with its enrolment peaking at 500 in the 1950s. The school was established in 1890 and operated until 1969, when it was taken over from the Catholic Church by the federal government to be used as a day school residence. It closed in 1978. The school building still stands today, and

282-462: A concept of land ownership based on the discovery doctrine . As explained in the executive summary of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 's (TRC) final report: "Underlying these arguments was the belief that the colonizers were bringing civilization to savage people who could never civilize themselves ... a belief of racial and cultural superiority." Assimilation efforts began as early as

423-555: A day school on the reserve was the result of pressure from missionary representatives. Reliant on student enrolment quotas to secure funding, they were struggling to attract new students due to increasingly poor school conditions. The introduction of the Family Allowance Act in 1945 stipulated that school-aged children had to be enrolled in school for families to qualify for the " baby bonus ", further coercing Indigenous parents into having their children attend. Students in

564-401: A different alphabet: A Shuswap word consists of a stem, to which can be added various affixes. Very few words contain two roots. Any stressed root can have an unstressed alternative, where the vowel is replaced by [ə]. Most roots have the form CVC or CC (the latter only if unstressed). Other roots are CVCC or CCVC. Suffixes begin either with a stressed vowel (dropped in forms where the root

705-450: A few examples taken from the extensive collection of Shuswap suffixes: Shuswap makes extensive use of reduplication . Some examples of simple reduplication are: In addition, there are several types of complex reduplication, involving patterns such as 11V12, 112V23, and 1123V34 (where 1 represents C 1 , etc.). Not all types of reduplication are productive and functional. Total reduplication indicates plurality and consonant reduplication

846-572: A health crisis within the schools and a financial crisis within the missionary groups. In 1911, in an attempt to alleviate the health crisis, the federal government increased per capita grant funding. However, the funding did not adjust for inflation. In the 1930s, throughout the Great Depression and World War II , it was repeatedly reduced, and by 1937, the per capita grant averaged just $ 180 per student per year. For perspective, per-capita costs for comparable institutions included: Manitoba School for

987-665: A larger report entitled Statistics Respecting Indian Schools . The Gradual Civilization Act of 1857 and the Gradual Enfranchisement Act of 1869 formed the foundations for this system prior to Confederation. These acts assumed the inherent superiority of French and British ways, and the need for Indigenous peoples to become French or English speakers, Christians, and farmers. At the time, many Indigenous leaders argued to have these acts overturned. The Gradual Civilization Act awarded 50 acres (200,000 m ) of land to any Indigenous male deemed "sufficiently advanced in

1128-504: A legal settlement. These gains were achieved through the persistent organizing and advocacy by Indigenous communities to draw attention to the residential school system's legacy of abuse, including their participation in hearings of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples . The Truth and Reconciliation Commission list three reasons behind the federal government's decision to establish residential schools. In addition to these three

1269-437: A life different from their parents and cause them to forget the customs, habits & language of their ancestors." In 1883 Parliament approved $ 43,000 for three industrial schools and the first, Battleford Industrial School , opened on December 1 of that year. By 1900, there were 61 schools in operation. The government began purchasing church-run boarding schools in the 1920s. During this period capital costs associated with

1410-460: A passable standard of health" and "[a]ll but four were infected with tuberculosis". In one classroom, he found 16 ill children, many near death, who were being forced to sit through lessons. In 2011, reflecting on the TRC's research, Justice Sinclair told The Toronto Star : "Missing children – that is the big surprise for me ... That such large numbers of children died at the schools. That

1551-649: A poll released on June 17, 2021, by the Innovative Research Group, 77% of Canadian respondents said they were "very familiar" or "somewhat familiar" with the reports of possible human remains of Kamloops Indian Residential School. On June 22, 2021, the Chinese government demanded an investigation into the human rights violations against the Indigenous people in Canada at the UN Human Rights Council , which

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1692-401: A process that could help lay victims properly to rest, while others want them left undisturbed." The RCMP "E" Division stated at the time that while it had opened an investigation "so that we can assist should our assistance be required", it was "respect[ing] that Tk'emlúps te Secwépemc remains as the lead official at this time", and was not looking into the site itself. As of March 2024,

1833-616: A recreation area. After first principal Michel Hagan resigned in 1892, the government put the Oblates of Mary Immaculate in charge of the school. Father Alphonse-Marie Carion was named principal of the school in March 1893. In his 1896 annual report to the Department of Indian Affairs, Carion emphasized that the moral and religious training of students at the school was "the most important of all" and that school officials kept "constantly before their mind

1974-547: A report outlining the conditions at the school concluded that the poor construction of buildings at the school led to "numerous infections, colds, bronchitis, and pneumonia" during the previous winter. During the 1957–1958 influenza pandemic , the Kamloops district health officer, D. M. Black, reported that half of the students at the school had been ill. At the time, health officials from the University of British Columbia acknowledged

2115-501: A residence for students attending other area schools until it permanently closed. The school was featured in the 1962 Christmas-themed film Eyes of the Children . Produced by George Robertson, the film followed 400 students as they prepared for Christmas and aired on the CBC on Christmas Day. Gerald Mathieu Moran worked there while the documentary was filmed. A boy's supervisor, he was charged in

2256-436: A role in the decision to halt the education programs. An increase in orphaned and foundling colonial children limited church resources, and colonists benefited from favourable relations with Indigenous peoples in both the fur trade and military pursuits. Educational programs were not widely attempted again by religious officials until the 1820s, prior to the introduction of state-sanctioned operations. Included among them

2397-424: A rounded form are rounded before and after [u] . However, glottalization can be contrastive (the root q’e y -, "set up a structure," versus q’e y’ -, "write") or allophonic (the root q’e y - appears with a glottalized final consonant in s-t-q‘e y’ -qn, "shed"). Consonant reduplication can also have an effect on glottalization. There are a number of ways in which sounds are affected by their environments. Resonants in

2538-712: A short time, efforts persisted. The Mohawk Institute Residential School , the oldest continuously operated residential school in Canada, opened in 1834 on Six Nations of the Grand River near Brantford , Ontario. Administered by the Anglican Church, the facility opened as the Mechanics' Institute, a day school for boys, in 1828 and became a boarding school four years later when it accepted its first boarders and began admitting female students. It remained in operation until June 30, 1970. The renewed interest in residential schools in

2679-495: A trade or being otherwise educated. Such employment he can get at home." Both academic research and the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Committee relay evidence that students were included in several scientific research experiments without their knowledge, their consent or the consent of their parents. These experiments include nutrition experiments which involved intentional malnourishment of children, vaccine trials for

2820-470: Is 7–36% of what other Canadian child-welfare institutions were paying ($ 3,300 and $ 9,855) and 5–25% of what U.S. residential care was paying ($ 4,500 and $ 14,059.) Government officials believed that since many staff members belonged to religious orders with vows of poverty or missionary organizations, pay was relatively unimportant. Thus, almost all staff were poorly paid, and schools had trouble recruiting and retaining staff. In 1948, C.H. Birdsall, chair of

2961-399: Is based on automatically applied rules. The reader is expected to know these rules. The rules cover three classes of changes: (1) automatic darkening of vowels (Non-automatic darkening of vowels is covered under Phonological Processes .), (2) automatic alternation of sonorants between consonantal and vocalic pronunciation, and (3) alternation of plain velars, uvulars, and laryngeals with

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3102-671: Is conducted entirely in the Secwepemc language. A language nest program in Secwepemctsín also takes place with the Splatsin Tsm7aksaltn (Splatsin Teaching Centre) Society where the grandmothers ( kikia7a ) interact with and teach the children. On January 21, 2013, Thompson Rivers University began offering a Secwepemctsín language class taught by fluent speaker Janice Billy. The Shuswap language has many consonants which

3243-490: Is diminutive, but most other reduplications are difficult to explain. In addition to reduplication, root morphemes can be modified by interior glottalization, such that a root CVC appears as CʔVC. Although the process is not productive, many recorded forms refer to a state, for example [pʔeɣ] (cooled off) from [peɣns] (he cools it off). Consonant reduplication can proceed as usual with interior glottalization. Word order in Shuswap

3384-514: Is located on the Tk’emlúps te Secwépemc First Nation . In 2021, Sarah Beaulieu, an anthropologist at the University of the Fraser Valley , surveyed the apple orchard on the grounds with ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and concluded some 200 targets of interest, but noted that "only forensic investigation with excavation" could confirm the presence of human remains. As of May 2022, decision-making

3525-498: Is rare and often replaced by /e/ or /a/ . Its description is ambiguous. Kuipers gave its phonetic value as [ʌ] , indicating a mid unrounded back vowel, but described it in words as a mid central vowel. There are restrictions on the distribution of vowels. The vowel /ə/ is restricted to unstressed syllables. The vowels /a/ and /o/ also occur in unstressed syllables, but only in a few words. Vowels /i/ and /u/ are restricted to stressed syllables. The previous table shows

3666-416: Is relatively free; syntactical relationships are easily conveyed by the case marking system. However, it is common but not necessary for the predicate to head the sentence. Sentences with predicate first: Sentences with subject first (rare): Shuswap uses two cases: the absolutive, for the subject of an intransitive verb , the subject of a transitive verb , and the object of a transitive verb; and

3807-549: Is sadly not a surprise and illustrates the damaging and lasting impacts that the residential school system continues to have on First Nations people, their families and communities." Premier of British Columbia John Horgan said that he was "horrified and heartbroken" at the discovery, and that he supported further efforts to bring to "light the full extent of this loss". Federal Minister of Indigenous Services Marc Miller also offered his support. Prime Minister Justin Trudeau called

3948-441: Is stressed) or a consonant. Prefixes generally have the form C- or CC-. Stress in Shuswap is not very prominent, and occurs only in longer words. Since [u] and [i] are always stressed and [ə] never is, stress is usually fairly simple to predict. Although Kuipers (1974) does not specify, in many cases the glottalized or rounded version of a consonant seems to represent an allophonic variation. For example, consonants which have

4089-457: Is the prefix - e kst ("hand, arm"), which is darkened in x°əl’- a kst. The darkened vowels are as follows: Shuswap's affixation system is robust. A nominalizing prefix s- is used to derive nouns from verbs, and prefixes to indicate a resulting state are added to verbs. A sample of Shuswap's small number of prefixes is below: Most nouns contain suffixes . Suffixes are also used to indicate transitive, intransitive, and imperative verbs. Below are

4230-435: Is the symbol 7, which is used to represent a glottal stop . The Bouchard style system appears to be the one in use among Shuswap people themselves. Aside from the different symbols used, other differences exist between the two systems. The Kuipers' system makes extensive use of automatic alternations. For example, the letter n is sometimes pronounced [n] , sometimes [ən] , and sometimes [nə] . The choice of pronunciation

4371-722: The Indian Act by what was then the federal Department of the Interior . Adopted in 1876 as An Act to amend and consolidate the laws respecting Indians , it consolidated all previous laws placing Indigenous communities, land and finances under federal control. As explained by the TRC, the act "made Indians wards of the state, unable to vote in provincial or federal elections or enter the professions if they did not surrender their status, and severely limited their freedom to participate in spiritual and cultural practices." The report commissioned by Governor General Charles Bagot , titled Report on

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4512-500: The 3D Toronto sign dimmed for 215 hours. In a statement released May 31, 2021, the Office of the Chief of Tk’emlúps te Secwépemc acknowledged the gestures made by the government and federal parties, but insisted the government face accountability to all communities subjected to the enduring effects of the federally-mandated Indian Residential School system. Angela White, executive director for

4653-574: The BCG vaccine , as well as studies on extrasensory perception, vitamin D diet supplements, amebicides , isoniazid , hemoglobin , bedwetting, and dermatoglyphics . Residential school deaths were common and have been linked to poorly constructed and maintained facilities. The actual number of deaths remains unknown due to inconsistent reporting by school officials and the destruction of medical and administrative records in compliance with retention and disposition policies for government records. Research by

4794-503: The Indian Act made attendance at a day school, if there was a day school on the reserve on which the child resided, compulsory for status Indian children between 7 and 16 years of age. The changes included a series of exemptions regarding school location, the health of the children and their prior completion of school examinations. It was changed to children between 6 and 15 years of age in 1908. The introduction of mandatory attendance at

4935-469: The Ontario Legislative Building , security initially ordered the shoes removed before acquiescing. The Anishinabek Nation tweeted in support of social media calls to put out teddy bears on porches on May 31, similar to what was done after the 2018 Humboldt Broncos bus crash with hockey sticks. Another popular campaign called on people to wear orange on May 31. Within days of the report,

5076-484: The United Church of Canada , and 2 were operated by Presbyterians . The approach of using established school facilities set up by missionaries was employed by the federal government for economic expedience: the government provided facilities and maintenance, while the churches provided teachers and their own lesson-planning. As a result, the number of schools per denomination was less a reflection of their presence in

5217-555: The United Conservative Party , argued in a June 3 op-ed on the front page of the National Post that "If we want to get into cancelling every figure in our history who took positions on issues at the time that we now judge harshly, and rightly, in historical retrospect, then I think the entire founding leadership of our country gets cancelled." On June 4, 2021, nine United Nations human rights experts called on Canada and

5358-491: The University of British Columbia announced a review of an honorary degree it had granted in 1986 to Bishop James Fergus O'Grady, a former principal of Kamloops Indian Residential School. He had written a letter to parents in 1948 about the "privilege" of Christmas break, stating that any travel costs associated with students going home would have to be covered by their families and that any children who failed to return to school by January 3 would be prohibited from Christmas break

5499-511: The vocational training and social skills required to obtain employment and integrate into Canadian society after graduation. In actuality, these goals were poorly and inconsistently achieved. Many graduates were unable to land a job due to poor educational training. Returning home was equally challenging due to an unfamiliarity with their culture and, in some cases, an inability to communicate with family members using their traditional language. Instead of intellectual achievement and advancement, it

5640-504: The 17th century with the arrival of French missionaries in New France . They were resisted by Indigenous communities who were unwilling to leave their children for extended periods. The establishment of day and boarding schools by groups including the Recollets , Jesuits and Ursulines was largely abandoned by the 1690s. The political instability and realities of colonial life also played

5781-470: The 1920s. The children who attended were not allowed to speak their native languages and were whipped for using them. In addition to Secwépemc children, students from communities across British Columbia attended the school, including Penticton , Hope , Mount Currie , and Lillooet , along with students from other provinces. At one point, this was the largest Canadian residential school . Canadian politician Leonard Marchand ( Okanagan Indian Band ) attended

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5922-529: The 1990s with several dozen sex crimes committed at the Kamloops Indian Residential School. He pled guilty and spent three years in jail. A former student told a TRC hearing that another instructor would come into the girls' dorm at night with a flashlight and choose a girl to assault. In the 1988 book Resistance and renewal: surviving the Indian residential school, Celia Haig-Brown argued that

6063-433: The 215 suspected burial sites as "anomalies" rather than "children", which was used in its 2021 statement. In May 2022, Casimir said that a technical taskforce had been formed "of various professors as well as technical archeologists" and that work on an archeological dig and possible exhumations could soon begin. CBC reported that the proposed idea remained controversial among school survivors, "with some seeing exhumation as

6204-502: The Catholic Church to carry out thorough investigations, and "conduct full-fledged investigations into the circumstances and responsibilities surrounding these deaths, including forensic examinations of the remains found, and to proceed to the identification and registration of the missing children." On June 6, 2021, speaking to people gathered in St. Peter's Square , Pope Francis commented on

6345-611: The Commission stated a national security element and quoted Andsell Macrae, a commissioner with Indian Affairs: "it is unlikely that any Tribe or Tribes would give trouble of a serious nature to the Government whose members had children completely under Government control." The federal government sought to cut costs by adopting the residential industrial school system of the United States. Indian Commissioner Edgar Dewdney aspired to have

6486-495: The Deaf: $ 642, Manitoba School for Boys: $ 550, U.S. Chilocco Indian Agricultural School : $ 350. The Child Welfare League of America stated per capita costs for "well-run institutions" ranged between $ 313 and $ 541; Canada was paying 57.5% of the minimum figure. Changes in per capita costs did not occur until the 1950s and were seen as insignificant. In 1966, Saskatchewan residential schools per capita costs ranged from $ 694 and $ 1,193, which

6627-560: The Indian Residential School Survivors Society, also called on the Canadian federal government and Catholic Church to take action and responsibility towards reconciliation efforts, stating "Reconciliation does not mean anything if there is no action to those words   ... [w]ell-wishes and prayers only go so far. If we are going to actually create positive strides forward there needs to be that ability to continue

6768-516: The Kamloops Industrial School. The school was established as part of government policy of forced assimilation of Indigenous children. J.D. Ross of Kamloops was awarded the $ 10,000 contract to erect the initial set of industrial school buildings in April 1889. The first three two-story wooden structures had with separate living quarters for boys and girls and teachers, along with classrooms and

6909-630: The North, are recording pronunciation. As of 2013 , a language tutor was also in preparation, exportable onto CD for use offline. David Lacho, a University of British Columbia master's student, developed an augmented reality storybook app called Tuwitames , available on the Apple App Store , to help people learn the Splatsin dialect of Secwepemctsín in support of the community's language revitalization initiatives. A cseyseten (language nest) at Adams Lake

7050-527: The Regional Chief of the British Columbia Assembly of First Nations, said he believed that human remains were at the site. In May 2021 he said that plans were being made for forensic experts to exhume , identify and repatriate the potential remains of children from the school. In May 2024, on the third anniversary of Beaulieu's survey, Tkʼemlúps te Secwépemc issued a statement that referred to

7191-587: The Roman alphabet is typically not used to represent. Two systems of representing Shuswap sounds are in use. One is the system used in Kuipers' 298-page monograph on the language. It uses some letters which are not part of the Roman alphabet. The other system is based on one devised by Randy Bouchard of the British Columbia Language Project. It is based entirely on the Roman alphabet. The one exception

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7332-547: The TRC concluded with the establishment of the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation and released a report that concluded that the school system amounted to cultural genocide . Ongoing efforts since 2021 have identified thousands of possible unmarked graves on the grounds of former residential schools, though no human remains have been exhumed. During a penitential pilgrimage to Canada in July 2022, Pope Francis reiterated

7473-442: The TRC revealed that at least 3,201 students had died, mostly from disease. TRC chair Justice Murray Sinclair has suggested that the number of deaths may exceed 6,000. The vast majority of deaths occurred before the 1950s. The 1906 Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, submitted by chief medical officer Peter Bryce , highlighted that the "Indian population of Canada has a mortality rate of more than double that of

7614-424: The TRC's final report, dedicated to missing children and unmarked burials, was developed after the original TRC members realized, in 2007, that the issue required its own working group. In 2009, the TRC requested $ 1.5   million in extra funding from the federal government to complete this work, but was denied. The researchers concluded, after searching land near schools using satellite imagery and maps, that, "for

7755-477: The Tk’emlúps te Secwépemc said that a decision to excavate the unmarked graves is "unresolved". Chief Rosanne Casimir called the finding "an unthinkable loss ... never documented by the school's administrators". Numerous political leaders expressed opinions about the potential findings. Richard Jock, CEO of First Nations Health Authority , expressed sadness in a released statement. "That this situation exists

7896-540: The United Church committee responsible for the Edmonton school, in regard to the lack of funding for salaries, accommodations, and equipment, stated that it was "doubtful the present work with Indian Children could properly be called education." In 1948, Sechelt school staff were paying full-time staff a salary of $ 1800. In the 1960s, Christie school staff were paid $ 50 a month. The per capita grant system severely decreased

8037-559: The United States. While the Indian and Northern Affairs estimates that 11,132 children were adopted between 1960 and 1990, the actual number may be as high as 20,000. In 1969, after years of sharing power with churches, the DIA took sole control of the residential school system. The last federally-funded residential school, Kivalliq Hall in Rankin Inlet , closed in 1997. Residential schools operated in every Canadian province and territory with

8178-701: The affairs of the Indians in Canada and referred to as the Bagot Report, is seen as the foundational document for the federal residential school system. It was supported by James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin , who had been impressed by industrial schools in the West Indies , and Egerton Ryerson , who was then the Chief Superintendent of Education in Upper Canada . This letter was published in 1898 as an appendix to

8319-458: The apologies of the Catholic Church for its role, also acknowledging the system as genocide. In October 2022, the House of Commons unanimously passed a motion calling on the federal Canadian government to recognize the residential school system as genocide. Attempts to assimilate Indigenous peoples were rooted in imperial colonialism centred around European worldviews and cultural practices, and

8460-509: The approvals required to undertake expensive renovations and repairs. By the 1930s, government officials recognized that the residential school system was financially unsustainable and failing to meet the intended goal of training and assimilating Indigenous children into European-Canadian society. Robert Hoey , Superintendent of Welfare and Training in the Indian Affairs Branch of the federal Department of Mines and Resources, opposed

8601-711: The assimilation pursued by President of the United States Ulysses S. Grant . Davin's report relied heavily on findings he acquired through consultations with government officials and representatives of the Five Civilized Tribes in Washington, DC , and church officials in Winnipeg , Manitoba. He visited only one industrial day school, in Minnesota , before submitting his findings. In his report Davin concluded that

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8742-495: The best way to assimilate Indigenous peoples was to start with children in a residential setting, away from their families. Davin's findings were supported by Vital-Justin Grandin , who felt that while the likelihood of civilizing adults was low, there was hope when it came to Indigenous children. He explained in a letter to Public Works Minister Hector-Louis Langevin that the best course of action would be to make children "lead

8883-531: The claims, due to the lack of exhumations. 50°40′47″N 120°17′42″W  /  50.67972°N 120.29500°W  / 50.67972; -120.29500 Canadian Indian residential school system The Canadian Indian residential school system was a network of boarding schools for Indigenous peoples . The network was funded by the Canadian government 's Department of Indian Affairs and administered by various Christian churches . The school system

9024-412: The control sample. Details of the mistreatment of students were published numerous times throughout the 20th century by government officials reporting on school conditions, and in the proceedings of civil cases brought forward by survivors seeking compensation for the abuse they endured. The conditions and impact of residential schools were also brought to light in popular culture as early as 1967, with

9165-604: The corresponding rounded sounds. The Bouchard style system does not appear to require the reader to know so many alternation rules. Examples of words written in the Bouchard style can be seen on two websites. These websites do not contain enough examples to show how all the automatic alternations are handled in the Bouchard style system. Therefore the Kuipers' system of spelling is used in this article. The Shuswap language has five full vowels, /a/ , /e/ , /i/ , /o/ , /u/ , and one reduced vowel, /ə/ . An additional vowel, /ʌ/ ,

9306-612: The discovery "heartbreaking" the day of the announcement, and, on May 30, advised the Governor General to order flags on federal buildings to be flown at half-mast until further notice. Some institutions flew the Canadian flag at half-mast for 215 hours, to mark one hour for each suspected missing child. Other half-mastings included flags at the BC and Manitoba legislatures as well as individual municipalities such as Ottawa, Montreal, Edmonton, Mississauga, Brampton, and Toronto, which also ordered

9447-529: The discovery. On June 10, the city of Victoria, British Columbia announced the cancellation of its Canada Day festivities – already a virtual event due to COVID-19 restrictions. An alternative broadcast would be produced in collaboration with the local First Nations to "[explore] what it means to be Canadian, in light of recent events." Similar decisions to cancel municipality-led Canada Day festivities were made by Prince Edward County, Ontario , Air Ronge , La Ronge , and Lac La Ronge Indian Band . According to

9588-587: The discovery: "This sad discovery increases the awareness of the sorrows and sufferings of the past ... May the political and religious authorities continue to collaborate with determination to shed light on this sad affair and to commit to a path of healing." In response to the initial announcement, the Government of Ontario pledged $ 10 million to fund a search for unmarked graves at Ontario residential schools. Many Canada Day festivities were either cancelled or modified to promote reconciliation, out of respect for

9729-627: The early 1800s can be linked to the decline in military hostility faced by the settlers, particularly after the War of 1812 . With the threat of invasion by American forces minimized, Indigenous communities were no longer viewed as allies but as barriers to permanent settlement. This change was also associated with the transfer of responsibility for interactions with Indigenous communities from military officials, familiar with and sympathetic to their customs and way of life, to civilian representatives concerned only with permanent colonial settlement. Beginning in

9870-400: The education quality. British Columbia Indian Superintendent Arthur Wellesley Vowell in response to one of his agents recommending they only approve qualified teaching staff stated that that would require more funding and that Indian Affairs did not "entertain requests for increased grants to Indian boarding and industrial schools." The pay was so low relative to provincial schools that many of

10011-522: The elementary branches of education" and would automatically enfranchise him, removing any tribal affiliation or treaty rights. With this legislation, and through the creation of residential schools, the government believed Indigenous peoples could eventually become assimilated into the general population. Individual allotments of farmland would require changes in the communal reserve system, something fiercely opposed by First Nations governments. In January 1879, John A. Macdonald , Prime Minister of what

10152-639: The establishment of the residential school. On June 24, 2021, Chief Cadmus Delorme of Cowessess First Nation held a virtual press conference. From June 2 to 23 they found an estimated 751 unmarked graves. Delorme went on to state: Shuswap language Shuswap is the northernmost of the Interior Salish languages, which are spoken in Canada and the Pacific Northwest of the United States. There are two dialects of Shuswap: The other Northern Interior Salish languages are Lillooet and Thompson . Most of

10293-649: The exception of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island . It is estimated that the number of residential schools reached its peak in the early 1930s with 80 schools and more than 17,000 enrolled students. About 150,000 children are believed to have attended a residential school over the course of the system's existence. Some parents and families of Indigenous children resisted the residential school system throughout its existence. Children were kept from schools and, in some cases, hidden from government officials tasked with rounding up children on reserves. Parents regularly advocated for increased funding for schools, including

10434-452: The expansion of new schools, noting in 1936 that "to build educational institutions, particularly residential schools, while the money at our disposal is insufficient to keep the schools already erected in a proper state of repair, is, to me, very unsound and a practice difficult to justify." He proposed the expansion of day schools, an approach to educating Indigenous children that he would continue to pursue after being promoted to director of

10575-448: The following year. In the 2007 documentary The Fallen Feather , Ernie Philip shared his experience of corporal punishment as a student at the school, stating that he "got 50 lashes on my back" from O'Grady after Philip was caught running away from the school. On June 2, 2021, Archbishop of Vancouver J. Michael Miller said that the Catholic Church would help to identify the deceased children. Alberta premier Jason Kenney , leader of

10716-470: The future generations. After residential schools were shut down, Aboriginal children entered the mainstream schooling system which is dominated by English. Inter-generational transmission of Indigenous languages was severely disrupted due to the dominance of English in education and in the workplace. This further contributed to the drastic decline of Indigenous languages. For example, the number of fluent speakers of Secwepemctsín had dwindled to 3.5 per cent by

10857-500: The general population, but rather their legacy of missionary work. Although the British North America Act , 1867 made education in Canada the jurisdiction of the provincial governments, the Indigenous peoples and their treaties fell under the jurisdiction of the federal government. As a condition of several treaties, the federal government agreed to provide for Indigenous education. Residential schools were funded under

10998-592: The impact of the illness. Streptomycin , the first effective treatment, was not introduced until 1943. In 1920 and 1922, Regina physician F.   A. Corbett was commissioned to visit the schools in the west of the country, and found similar results to those reported by Bryce. At the Ermineskin school in Hobbema , Alberta, he found that 50 percent of the children had tuberculosis. At Sarcee Boarding School near Calgary , he noted that all 33 students were "much below even

11139-436: The increase of centrally located day schools to improve access to their children, and made repeated requests for improvements to the quality of education, food, and clothing being provided at the schools. Demands for answers in regards to claims of abuse were often dismissed as a ploy by parents seeking to keep their children at home, with government and school officials positioned as those who knew best. In 1894, amendments to

11280-418: The infection rate was "slightly more than normal but not a serious worry." In 2015, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada determined that the residential schools were a system of " cultural genocide ". It concluded that at least 4,100 students died while attending the schools, many of them due to abuse, negligence, disease, and accidents. The report concluded that it would be impossible to estimate

11421-431: The information of their deaths was not communicated back to their families." The Truth and Reconciliation Commission wrote that the policy of Indian Affairs was to refuse to return the bodies of children home due to the associated expense, and to instead require the schools to bear the cost of burials. The TRC concluded that it may be impossible to ever identify the number of deaths or missing children, in part because of

11562-446: The late 1800s, the Canadian government's Department of Indian Affairs (DIA) officially encouraged the growth of the residential school system as a valuable component in a wider policy of integrating Indigenous people into European Canadian society. The TRC found that the schools, and the removal of children from their families, amounted to cultural genocide , a conclusion that echoed the words of historian John S. Milloy, who argued that

11703-405: The legal responsibility of the school. Overcrowding, poor sanitation, inadequate heating, and a lack of medical care led to high rates of influenza and tuberculosis ; in one school, the death rate reached 69 percent. Federal policies that tied funding to enrollment numbers led to sick children being enrolled to boost numbers, thus introducing and spreading disease. The problem of unhealthy children

11844-540: The material in this article is from Kuipers (1974). Many Indigenous languages, like Secwepemctsín, experienced rapid decline with the institution of the residential schools . These schools prohibited the use of Indigenous languages in speech and in writing, resulting in two to three generations of students who were severely punished for not using English. Although some children forced to attend these residential schools can still speak their mother tongue, they have experienced much trauma which has great negative consequences on

11985-734: The mid-1990s. An interface to Facebook is available in Secwepemctsín. The First Voices website has a Secwepemctsin (Eastern Dialect) Community Portal, a Secwepemc Community Portal, and a Splatsin (Eastern dialect) Community Portal for language learning. A November 2012 article estimated about 150 fluent speakers, mostly over 65, adding that "an estimated 400 students are learning the language, and "the majority of Secwepemctsin learners are under age 19." Secwépemc language applications are available for iOS . The Secwepemc Cultural Education Society released Nintendo DSi software in 2013 that teaches Secwepemctsin to young children. A language authority of ten elder fluent speakers, from East, West, and

12126-402: The monitoring of child welfare . With no requirement for specialized training regarding the traditions or lifestyles of the communities they entered, provincial officials assessed the welfare of Indigenous children based on Euro-Canadian values that, for example, deemed traditional diets of game, fish and berries insufficient and grounds for taking children into custody. This period resulted in

12267-508: The most part, the cemeteries that the Commission documented are abandoned, disused, and vulnerable to accidental disturbance". In May 2021, a possible burial site was found in the Kamloops Indian Residential School in Kamloops, British Columbia , on the lands of the Tkʼemlúps te Secwépemc First Nation . The site was located with the assistance of a ground-penetrating radar specialist and Tk’emlups te Secwepemc Chief Rosanne Casimir wrote that

12408-436: The normal pronunciation of the vowels. Three of the full vowels, /e/ , /i/ , and /u/ , are subject to an automatic process called darkening, which changes how these vowels are pronounced. Automatic darkening is predictable; it occurs before uvular obstruents and before or after uvularized sonorants. It is not reflected in the Kuipers spelling system. Consonants are divided into two classes, obstruents and sonorants . In

12549-480: The object which the Government has in view in carrying on the industrial-schools, which is to civilize the Indians, to make them good, useful and lawabiding members of society." He remained principal of the school until 1916. In 1927, John Duplanil succeeded James Mcguire as principal of the school, following Maguire's (McGuire's) appointment as curate of St. Patrick's Church in Lethbridge , Alberta. James Fergus O'Grady

12690-658: The pass system restricted and closely monitored the movement of Indigenous peoples off reserves. Launched in 1885 as a response to the North-West Rebellion , and later replaced by permits, the system was designed to prevent Indigenous people from leaving reserves without a pass issued by a local Indian agent. Instruction provided to students was rooted in an institutional and European approach to education. It differed dramatically from child rearing in traditional knowledge systems based on 'look, listen, and learn' models. Corporal punishment and loss of privileges characterized

12831-503: The practice of burying students in unmarked graves. The work is further complicated by a pattern of poor record keeping by school and government officials, who neglected to keep reliable numbers about the number of children who died or where they were buried. While most schools had cemeteries on site, their location and extent remain difficult to determine as cemeteries that were originally marked were found to have been later razed, intentionally hidden or built over. The fourth volume of

12972-513: The procedures enforced in the prison system. In some cases schools denied parents access to their children altogether. Others required families to meet with them in the presence of school officials and speak only in English; parents who could not speak in English were unable to talk to their children. The obstacles families faced to visit their children were further exacerbated by the pass system . Introduced by Reed, without legislative authority to do so,

13113-452: The program were prohibited from learning indigenous dances. Dancers from the program were featured at the 1960 Pacific National Exhibition . In July 1964, girls from the school went to Mexico and performed in a series of festivals. Canadian embassy officials called them the "finest ambassadors ever to come from Canada". The Knights of Columbus raised the funds for the trip. The same year, group leader Sister Mary Leonita transferred away from

13254-603: The public policy which led to the 80-year operation of the school had "done its job; English is now the predominant language within the Shuswap Nation and the survival of the Shuswap language is uncertain." In 1982, the building opened for use as the first location of the Secwepemc Museum . Hundreds of children attended the school, many forcibly removed from their homes following the introduction of mandatory attendance laws in

13395-508: The publication of "The Lonely Death of Chanie Wenjack " by Ian Adams in Maclean's and the Indians of Canada Pavilion at Expo 67 . In the 1990s, investigations and memoirs by former students revealed that many students at residential schools were subjected to severe physical, psychological , and sexual abuse by school staff members and by older students. Among the former students to come forward

13536-437: The rampant disrepair present in the buildings resulted in their having no economic value. Schools continued to be maintained by churches in instances where they failed to reach an agreement with government officials with the understanding that the government would provide support for capital costs. The understanding ultimately proved complicated due to the lack of written agreements outlining the extent and nature of that support or

13677-498: The remote nature of many communities, school locations meant that for some families, residential schools were the only way to comply. The schools were intentionally located at substantial distances from Indigenous communities to minimize contact between families and their children. Indian Commissioner Hayter Reed argued for schools at greater distances to reduce family visits, which he thought counteracted efforts to assimilate Indigenous children. Parental visits were further restricted by

13818-477: The residential school system were faced with a multitude of abuses by teachers and administrators, including sexual and physical assault. They suffered from malnourishment and harsh discipline that would not have been tolerated in any other Canadian school system. Corporal punishment was often justified by a belief that it was the only way to save souls or punish and deter runaways – whose injuries or death sustained in their efforts to return home would become

13959-400: The residential school system, while traditional Indigenous approaches to education favour positive guidance toward desired behaviour through game-based play, story-telling, and formal ritualized ceremonies. While at school, many children had no contact with their families for up to 10 months at a time, and in some cases had no contact for years. The impact of the disconnect from their families

14100-454: The residential school system. Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered a public apology on his behalf and that of the other federal political party leaders. On June 1, 2008, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) was established to uncover the truth about the schools. The commission gathered about 7,000 statements from residential school survivors through various local, regional and national events across Canada. In 2015,

14241-527: The residential school, attested to by oral history and eyewitness' memories. Individuals who had once been forced to attend the Kamloops Indian Residential School as children have described recollections of hearing of children being forced to dig holes (which some referred to as graves) at the site of the Apple Orchard. Additionally, some former students have reported seeing what they believed appeared to be children's or infant's bodies in various locations within

14382-417: The residential schools, through forced labour , be financially independent a few years after opening. The government believed through the industrial system and cheap labour costs of missionary staff it could "operate a residential school system on a nearly cost-free basis." Students "were expected to raise or grow and prepare most of the food they ate, to make and repair much of their clothing, and to maintain

14523-484: The school and its grounds. These recollections lead to the Apple Orchard site being chosen as the location to undergo GPR analysis. Kúkpi7 Rosanne Casimir of the Tkʼemlúps te Secwépemc (TteS) said that work was underway to determine whether the Royal British Columbia Museum held relevant records. The National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation had officially documented 51 students who died at

14664-543: The school system had failed due to the resistance of the Shuswap ( Secwepemc ) people, since they still existed as a nation: "Although its effects have been devastating for individuals, the Kamloops Indian Residential School was not successful in its attempts to assimilate the Native people of the Central Interior of the province." In 1991, a special edition of Secwepemc News offered a different perspective, reporting that

14805-492: The school, and the dance program ended. In 2021, Dr. Sarah Beaulieu, an anthropologist with "about a decade of experience searching for historical grave sites", surveyed the area with ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and observed "disruptions in the ground" which could be 200 unmarked graves , based on "their placement, size, depth, and other features" but we're not conclusively proven as human remains. The indigenous community had long suspected that unmarked graves were located at

14946-497: The school. So did George Manuel (Secwépemc Nation), who said his three strongest memories of the school were: "hunger; speaking English; and being called a heathen because of my grandfather." In 1910, the principal said that the government did not provide enough money to properly feed the students. On December 24, 1924, the girls' wing of the school was destroyed by a fire, forcing 40 students into −10 °C (14 °F) weather in only their night clothes. Three years later, in 1927,

15087-418: The school. Their dates of death range from 1919 until 1971. In July 2021, Beaulieu revised her estimate to 200 and noted that they should be considered "probable burials" or "targets of interest", and said that only with an excavation could they be confirmed as human remains. Beaulieu also noted that the apple orchard she surveyed constituted only two acres of the 160-acre residential school site. Terry Teegee,

15228-476: The schools led to student malnutrition, starvation, and disease. Students were also subjected to forced enfranchisement as "assimilated" citizens that removed their legal identity as Indians. Disconnected from their families and culture and forced to speak English or French, students often graduated being unable to fit into their communities but remaining subject to racist attitudes in mainstream Canadian society. The system ultimately proved successful in disrupting

15369-402: The schools were assumed by the government, leaving administrative and instructional duties to church officials. The hope was that minimizing facility expenditures would allow church administrators to provide higher quality instruction and support to the students in their care. Although the government was willing to, and did, purchase schools from the churches, many were acquired for free given that

15510-500: The schools." Most schools did this through a system where students studied for half the day and did "vocational training" for the other half. This system failed and the schools never became self-supporting. By 1891, the government cut already low salaries, stopped covering operating costs, and implemented a fixed amount of funding per student. This policy drove competition and encouraged the admission of students that were deemed "too young or too sick." The chronic underfunding developed

15651-438: The shift in policy from educational assimilation to integration, the removal of Indigenous children from their families by state officials continued through much of the 1960s and 70s. The removals were the result of the 1951 addition of section 88 of the Indian Act , which allowed for the application of provincial laws to Indigenous peoples living on reserves in instances where federal laws were not in place. The change included

15792-496: The site was undocumented and that work was underway to determine if related records were held at the Royal British Columbia Museum . As of May 2024, no remains have been excavated. On June 23, 2021, ground-penetrating radar suggested the presence of an estimated 751 unmarked graves on the site of Marieval Indian Residential School in Marieval, Saskatchewan , on the lands of Cowessess First Nation . Some of these graves predated

15933-416: The system's aim was to "kill the Indian in the child." Over the course of the system's more than hundred-year existence, around 150,000 children were placed in residential schools nationally. As the system was designed as an immersion program, Indigenous children were in many schools prohibited from, and sometimes punished for, speaking their own languages or practising their own faiths. The primary goal

16074-583: The tables which follow, pronunciations are given in square brackets in IPA transcription. The notation is the same as that of Kuipers (1974). The variation of sonorants between consonantal and vocalic pronunciations is automatic, and is not indicated in the Kuipers’ spelling system. The rule for determining this as follows: Kuipers (1974) uses the alphabet shown in the Phonology section. The Shuswap Language Department uses

16215-577: The teachers lacked any teaching qualifications. Federal cuts to funding during the Great Depression resulted in students paying the price. By 1937, at the Kamloops Indian Residential School , milk production among the schools dairy herds was reduced by 50%. The federal government refused to fund construction for an additional barn to increase milk production and isolate the sick animals. Even among other schools dairy herds, funding

16356-448: The total number of deaths that occurred at the schools. Students at the school received harsh treatment, including being hit with a shillelagh or being shamed for minor mistakes. The school operated a girls' folk dancing program beginning in the 1940s that focused only on European dance styles. Sister Mary Leonita initially taught Irish dancing , and later, other European folk styles including Swiss and Ukrainian dancing . Children in

16497-446: The transmission of Indigenous practices and beliefs across generations. The legacy of the system has been linked to an increased prevalence of post-traumatic stress , alcoholism , substance abuse , suicide , and intergenerational trauma which persist within Indigenous communities today. Starting in the late 2000s, Canadian politicians and religious communities have begun to recognize, and issue apologies for, their respective roles in

16638-417: The trip that Indian Commissioner Hayter Reed argued that the schools should be moved farther from the reserves to make visiting more difficult. He also objected to allowing children to return home during school breaks and holidays because he believed the trips interrupted their assimilation. Visitation, for those who could make the journey, was strictly controlled by school officials in a manner similar to

16779-524: The use of a pass system designed to confine Indigenous peoples to reserves . The last federally-funded residential school, Kivalliq Hall in Rankin Inlet , closed in 1997. Schools operated in every province and territory with the exception of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island . The residential school system harmed Indigenous children significantly by removing them from their families , depriving them of their ancestral languages , and exposing many of them to physical and sexual abuse . Conditions in

16920-522: The vocalic position are preceded by an automatic schwa, for example the word /stʼmkelt/ ("daughter"), pronounced [stɬʼ ə mkelt] . The darkening of vowels, as described below, is another case. The distribution of vowels is quite complex. The vowels have the following main variants: /a/ and /ʌ/ are unchanged. The environment around uvulars and velars produces a different set of variants, including occasional slight diphthongs. Additionally, some roots cause darkened vowels to appear in suffixes; one example

17061-482: The welfare and training branch in 1945. The proposal was resisted by the United Church, the Anglican Church, and the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate , who believed that the solution to the system's failure was not restructuring but intensification. Between 1945 and 1955, the number of First Nations students in day schools run by Indian Affairs expanded from 9,532 to 17,947. This growth in student population

17202-414: The whole population, and in some provinces more than three times". Among the list of causes he noted the infectious disease of tuberculosis and the role residential schools played in spreading the disease by way of poor ventilation and medical screening. In 1907, Bryce reported on the conditions of Manitoba and North-West residential schools: "we have created a situation so dangerous to health that I

17343-635: The widespread removal of Indigenous children from their traditional communities, first termed the Sixties Scoop by Patrick Johnston, the author of the 1983 report Native Children and the Child Welfare System . Often taken without the consent of their parents or community elders, some children were placed in state-run child welfare facilities, increasingly operated in former residential schools, while others were fostered or placed up for adoption by predominantly non-Indigenous families throughout Canada and

17484-477: The work, like the Indian Residential School Survivors Society does, in a meaningful way." The discovery inspired a community memorial at the Vancouver Art Gallery , at which 215 pairs of children's shoes were laid out in rows. Similar memorials were created across Canada, including in front of government buildings and buildings of churches that had been in charge of running the residential school system. At

17625-556: Was Phil Fontaine , then Grand Chief of the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs , who in October 1990 publicly discussed the abuse he and others suffered while attending Fort Alexander Indian Residential School. After the government closed most of the schools in the 1960s, the work of Indigenous activists and historians led to greater awareness by the public of the damage the schools had caused, as well as to official government and church apologies, and

17766-536: Was a school established by John West , an Anglican missionary, at the Red River Colony in what is today Manitoba . Protestant missionaries also opened residential schools in what is now the province of Ontario , spreading Christianity and working to encourage Indigenous peoples to adopt subsistence agriculture as a way to ensure they would not return to their original, nomadic ways of life upon graduation. Although many of these early schools were open for only

17907-440: Was accompanied by an amendment to the Indian Act in 1951 that allowed federal officials to establish agreements with provincial and territorial governments and school boards regarding the education of Indigenous students in the public school system. These changes marked the government's shift in policy from assimilation-driven education at residential schools to the integration of Indigenous students into public schools. Despite

18048-437: Was arduous, and severely compromised the academic and social development of the students. School books and textbooks were drawn mainly from the curricula of the provincially funded public schools for non-Indigenous students, and teachers at the residential schools were often poorly trained or prepared. During this period, Canadian government scientists performed nutritional tests on students and kept some students undernourished as

18189-628: Was created to isolate Indigenous children from the influence of their own culture and religion in order to assimilate them into the dominant Euro-Canadian culture. Over the course of the system's more than hundred-year existence, around 150,000 children were placed in residential schools nationally. By the 1930s, about 30 percent of Indigenous children were attending residential schools. The number of school-related deaths remains unknown due to incomplete records. Estimates range from 3,200 to over 30,000, mostly from disease. The system had its origins in laws enacted before Confederation , but it

18330-440: Was further exacerbated by the conditions of the schools themselves – overcrowding and poor ventilation, water quality and sewage systems. Until the late 1950s, when the federal government shifted to a day school integration model, residential schools were severely underfunded and often relied on the forced labour of their students to maintain their facilities, although it was presented as training for artisanal skills. The work

18471-425: Was furthered by students being discouraged or prohibited from speaking Indigenous languages , even among themselves and outside the classroom, so that English or French would be learned and their own languages forgotten. In some schools, they were subject to physical violence for speaking their own languages or for practicing non-Christian faiths. Most schools operated with the stated goal of providing students with

18612-427: Was in progress on whether to investigate the site or to leave it undisturbed. The Tk’emlups te Secwepemc band announced on the third anniversary of their initial announcement of the suspected gravesite that their investigation was proceeding but would remain confidential to preserve its integrity. What would become the Kamloops Indian Residential School was established in 1893, after initially opening on May 19, 1890, as

18753-607: Was named principal in 1939, following the departure of T. Kennedy. G. P. Dunlop took over as head of the school in 1958, relocating from a position at the Eugene Mission Indian School in Cranbrook, British Columbia . The school, located on the traditional territory of the Secwepemc (Secwépemcúl'ecw), continued to operate until 1978. The school was taken over by the federal government in 1969. During this time it operated as

18894-473: Was no longer working for the government, published The Story of a National Crime: Being a Record of the Health Conditions of the Indians of Canada from 1904 to 1921. In particular, he alleged that the high mortality rates could have been avoided if healthy children had not been exposed to children with tuberculosis. At the time, no antibiotic had been identified to treat the disease, and this exacerbated

19035-595: Was often physical appearance and dress, like that of middle class , urban teenagers, or the promotion of a Christian ethic, that was used as a sign of successful assimilation. There was no indication that school attendees achieved greater financial success than those who did not go to school. As the father of a pupil who attended Battleford Industrial School, in Saskatchewan, for five years explained: "he cannot read, speak or write English, nearly all his time having been devoted to herding and caring for cattle instead of learning

19176-441: Was often surprised that the results were not even worse than they have been shown statistically to be." In 1909, Bryce reported that, between 1894 and 1908, mortality rates at some residential schools in western Canada ranged from 30 to 60 per cent over five years (that is, five years after entry, 30 to 60 per cent of students had died, or 6 to 12 per cent per annum). These statistics did not become public until 1922, when Bryce, who

19317-519: Was primarily active from the passage of the Indian Act in 1876, under Prime Minister Alexander MacKenzie . Under Prime Minister John A. Macdonald , the government adopted the residential industrial school system of the United States, a partnership between the government and various church organizations. An amendment to the Indian Act in 1894, under Prime Minister Mackenzie Bowell , made attendance at day schools , industrial schools , or residential schools compulsory for First Nations children. Due to

19458-523: Was so low that milk was separated with "skimmed milk served to the children" and the fat turned to dairy products sold to fund the schools. In 1939, the Presbyterian school in Kenora began charging students 10 cents a loaf until their Indian agent ordered the school to stop. Parents and family members regularly travelled to the schools, often camping outside to be closer to their children. So many parents made

19599-570: Was supported by Belarus, Iran, North Korea, Syria, Russia, and Venezuela. Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau responded that, "In Canada, we had a Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Where's China's Truth and Reconciliation Commission? China is not recognizing there is even a problem. That is a pretty fundamental difference." Journalist Terry Glavin of the National Post and American political scientist Wilfred Reilly , writing in British internet-based magazine Spiked , have stated skepticism about

19740-520: Was then post-Confederation Canada , commissioned politician Nicholas Flood Davin to write a report regarding the industrial boarding-school system in the United States. Now known as the Davin Report, the Report on Industrial Schools for Indians and Half-Breeds was submitted to Ottawa on March 14, 1879, and made the case for a cooperative approach between the Canadian government and the church to implement

19881-509: Was to convert Indigenous children to Christianity and acculturate them. Many of the government-funded residential schools were run by churches of various denominations. Between 1867 and 1939, the number of schools operating at one time peaked at 80 in 1931. Of those schools, 44 were operated by 16 Catholic dioceses and about three dozen Catholic communities; 21 were operated by the Church of England / Anglican Church of Canada ; 13 were operated by

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