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89-471: Many of the Afshar governors of Urmia bore the prominent title of beglarbegi , i.e. governor-general. Fath-Ali Khan Afshar was in power from 1747 to 1748, and again from 1757 until 1762. Shortly after coming to power, he was expelled by Mehdi Khan Afshar, who was then appointed governor by Ebrahim Shah . However, Mehdi Khan Afshar was then overthrown by Azad Khan Afghan, and Fath 'Ali Khan became his deputy. In

178-468: A Hanafi Sunni , though he still retained some residual shamanism. In 1309–10, he became a Shi'ite Muslim. An Armenian scribe in 1304 noted the death of "benevolent and just" Ghazan, who was succeeded by Khar-Banda Öljeitü, "who too, exhibits good will to everyone." A colophon from 1306 reports the conversion of Mongols to Islam and "they coerce everyone into converting to their vain and false hope. They persecute, they molest, and torment," including "insulting

267-794: A continuation of Ala' al-Din Juvayni 's slightly earlier work, Tārikh-i jahangusha ('History of the World Conqueror' ) which narrates the fall of the Khwarazmian Empire and the rise of the Mongol Empire. Various other works were also commissioned. The later years of the Ilkhanate were also marked by interest in the Shahnameh , the Iranian epic by 11th-century poet Firdowsi . Not only were new copies of

356-472: A dispute between Hanafi and Shafi'i Sunnis, expressed his view that Islam should be abandoned and Mongols should return to the ways of Genghis Khan. Qāshani also stated that Öljeitü had reverted for a brief period. As Muslims, Mongols showed a marked preference for Sufism , with masters like Safi-ad-Din Ardabili often treated with respect and favour. Öljaitü 's son, the last ilkhan, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan ,

445-665: A joint attack with Baybars and forged an alliance with the Mamluks against Hulagu. The Golden Horde dispatched the young prince Nogai to invade the Ilkhanate but Hulagu forced him back in 1262. The Ilkhanid army then crossed the Terek River , capturing an empty Jochid encampment, only to be routed in a surprise attack by Nogai's forces. Many of them were drowned as the ice broke on the frozen Terek River. In 1262, Hulagu gave Greater Khorasan and Mazandaran to Abaqa and northern Azerbaijan to Yoshmut. Hulagu himself spent his time living as

534-707: A mere honorific title. The title is originally Turkic and its equivalents in Arabic were amir al-umara , and in Persian , mir-i miran . The title originated with the Seljuqs , and was used in the Sultanate of Rum initially as an alternative for the Arabic title of malik al-umara ("chief of the commanders"), designating the army's commander-in-chief. Among the Mongol Ilkhanids ,

623-563: A new census and decreed that each man in the Mongol-ruled West Asia must pay in proportion to his property. Persia was divided between four districts under Arghun. Möngke Khan granted the Kartids authority over Herat, Jam, Pushang (Fushanj), Ghor , Khaysar, Firuz-Kuh, Gharjistan, Farah, Sistan , Kabul, Tirah, and Afghanistan. Hulegu Khan , third son of Tolui, grandson of Genghis Khan, and brother of both Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan,

712-657: A nomad in southern Azerbaijan and Armenia . During his early rule, the Ilkhanate experienced mass revolts by its subjects, with the exception of the Seljukids and Artuqids in Anatolia and Mardin . It was not until Shams al-Din Juvayni was appointed as vizier after 1262 that things started calming down and a more sustainable administration was implemented. Hulagu fell ill in February 1265 after several days of banquets and hunting. He died on 8 February and his son Abaqa succeeded him in

801-506: A state religion in 1295. However, despite this conversion, the Ilkhanids remained opposed to the Mamluks, who had defeated both Mongol invaders and Crusaders . The Ilkhanids launched several invasions of Syria, but were never able to gain and keep significant ground against the Mamluks , eventually being forced to give up their plans to conquer Syria, along with their stranglehold over their vassals

890-425: A type known in previous periods, as well as brass inlaid with gold, a newer trend used for more costly court objects. Among these examples is the base of the largest preserved candlestick from Islamic-era Iran, commissioned by one of Öljeitü 's viziers in 1308–09 and measuring 32.5 centimetres (13 in) high. Objects in gold and silver were likely also important but no examples have survived. Ceramic production

979-456: A virtual viceroy of the Sultan : he had full authority over matters of war, justice and administration, except in so far as they were limited by the authority of other officials also appointed by the central government, chiefly the various fiscal secretaries under the mal defterdari , and the kadı , who could appeal directly to the imperial government. In addition, as a further check to their power,

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1068-603: Is a history of the Mongol dynasty while the second is a history of the Iranian and Islamic world, along with stories of other cultures. Ghazan also patronized Abu al-Qasim Qashani , who composed the Ta'rikh-i Uljaytu ('History of Öljeitü'), and Shihab al-Din Waṣṣaf , who wrote the Tajziyat al-amṣar wa-tazjiyat al-a'ṣar ('The Allocation of Cities and Propulsion of Epochs' ). The latter was intended as

1157-694: Is filled with a repeating pattern of rhomboids and ornate medallions with vegetal motifs and peacocks in between them, while the other stripes are filled with large epigraphic inscriptions in Arabic script. Between these are narrower bands filled with other animals. The use of this piece for a royal funerary shroud in Europe suggests that Iranian textiles were still highly prized abroad during this period. In metalwork, Ilkhanid productions were often larger and more richly-decorated than earlier Iranian works. Major centers of production included Tabriz and Shiraz . Surviving pieces are often made of brass inlaid with copper,

1246-508: Is of Turkish origin, meaning " beg of begs" (commander of commanders). Under the Safavids, it meant governor-general. The title first appears in 1543/44, when the Safavid ruler Tahmasp I ( r.  1524–1576 ) issued a decree that referred the governor of Herat as beglerbegi . The title was created to distinguish more important governors from less important ones. As a result, starting in

1335-423: The salyane system, i.e. their revenue was sent to the imperial treasury, and the officials and soldiers were paid salaries from it. The size of these new provinces varied enormously: some containing as many as twenty sanjak s, and others as few as two, including the beylerbey ' s own residence (or pasha -sanjakı ). Among themselves, the various beylerbey s had an order of precedence based on

1424-472: The Artuqid sultan of Mardin , and Kufa and Luristan . The Qara'unas Mongols ruled Khorasan as an autonomous realm and did not pay taxes. Herat 's local Kart dynasty also remained autonomous. Anatolia was the richest province of the Ilkhanate, supplying a quarter of its revenue while Iraq and Diyarbakir together supplied about 35 percent of its revenue. In 1330, the annexation of Abkhazia resulted in

1513-597: The Janissary contingents stationed in the province's cities were outside his authority, and beylerbey s were even forbidden from entering the fortresses garrisoned by the Janissaries. The beylerbey also had his own court and government council ( divan ) and could freely grant fiefs ( timar s and ziamet s) without prior approval by the Sultan, although this right was curtailed after 1530, when beylerbey authority

1602-721: The Kaaba ) to Mecca in 1319. In 1325, Chupan undertook the pilgrimage and sponsored repairs to the water supply in Mecca and the construction of a madrasa (college) and a hammam (bathhouse) in Medina. These actions challenged the primacy of the Mamluks in the Hejaz and provoked the Mamluk sultan, al-Nasir Muhammad , into repeatedly reasserting his dominance in the region by sponsoring his own works there, by purging or replacing local officials, and by undertaking

1691-605: The Mongol Empire . It was ruled by the Il-Khans or Ilkhanids ( Persian : ایلخانان , romanized :  Īlkhānān ), and known to the Mongols as Hülegü Ulus ( lit.   ' people / state of Hülegü ' ). The Ilkhanid realm was officially known as the Land of Iran or simply Iran . It was established after Hülegü , the son of Tolui and grandson of Genghis Khan , inherited

1780-662: The Sultanate of Rum and the Armenian kingdom in Cilicia . This was in large part due to civil war in the Mongol Empire and the hostility of the khanates to the north and east. The Chagatai Khanate in Moghulistan and the Golden Horde threatened the Ilkhanate in the Caucasus and Transoxiana, preventing expansion westward. Even under Hulagu's reign, the Ilkhanate was engaged in open warfare in

1869-1026: The Sultans still resided in Anatolia , and as the straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles , which connected the two parts of the Ottoman state, continued to escape full Ottoman control until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Lala Shahin died after 1388. Sometime in 1385–87 Çandarlı Kara Halil Hayreddin Pasha succeeded him in the position of commander-in-chief in Rumelia. In 1393 Sultan Bayezid I ( r.  1389–1402 ) appointed Kara Timurtash as beylerbey and viceroy in Anatolia, when Bayezid himself crossed over into Europe to campaign against Mircea I of Wallachia . This process marked

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1958-557: The West Asian and Central Asian part of the Mongol Empire after his brother Möngke Khan died in 1259. The Ilkhanate's core territory lies in what is now the countries of Iran , Azerbaijan , and Turkey . At its greatest extent, the Ilkhanate also included parts of modern Iraq , Syria , Armenia , Georgia , Afghanistan , Turkmenistan , Pakistan , part of modern Dagestan , and part of modern Tajikistan . Later Ilkhanid rulers, beginning with Ghazan in 1295, converted to Islam . In

2047-411: The beglerbegi . The beglerbegis had complete command over the soldiers and khans under their command. According to the early 18th-century Dastur al-Moluk , a beglerbegi was superior to a khan in rank, and the soltans were subordinate to the khan. The beglerbegi , who was also an emir, was also known as the emir al-omara of the province that he oversaw. There were eleven beglerbegis towards

2136-631: The hajj pilgrimage himself. The Ilkhanid period saw the creation of numerous written works devoted to history. They were typically intended for Ilkhanid administrators or even written for a particular ruler. Many of the writers in the early period were scholars who were trained under pre-Mongol dynasties but received patronage under the new regime. The most famous work of this time is the Jami' al-tawarikh ('Compendium of Histories') of Rashid al-Din , initially commissioned by Ghazan but presented to Öljeitü upon its completion in 1307. Its first surviving volume

2225-488: The jizya (minority religion tax). Ghazan gave Buddhists the starker choice of conversion or expulsion and ordered their temples to be destroyed; though he later relaxed this severity. After Nawrūz was deposed and killed in 1297, Ghazan made religious intolerance punishable and attempted to restore relations with non-Muslims. In terms of foreign relations, the Ilkhanids' conversion to Islam had little to no effect on its hostility towards other Muslim states, and conflict with

2314-602: The kuriltai for the next Great Khan. He left a small force of around 10,000 behind in Palestine that was defeated at the battle of Ain Jalut by the Mamluks of Egypt . Due to the suspicious deaths of three Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, Berke of the Golden Horde declared war on Hulagu in 1262. According to Mamluk historians, Hulagu might have massacred Berke's troops and refused to share his war booty with Berke. Berke sought

2403-500: The viziers ; both viziers and beylerbey s were titled pashas , with the viziers sporting three horse-tails and the beylerbey s two. From the 16th century on, however, viziers could be appointed as provincial beylerbey s, enjoying precedence and authority over the ordinary beylerbey s of the neighbouring provinces. Towards the end of the 17th century, the title of ' beylerbey of Rumelia' (' Rumeli beylerbeysi ) also began to be awarded as an honorific rank, alongside

2492-561: The 1330s, the Ilkhanate was ravaged by the Black Death . The last ilkhan, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan , died in 1335, after which the Ilkhanate disintegrated. The Ilkhanid rulers, although of non-Iranian origin, tried to advertise their authority by tying themselves to the Iranian past, and they recruited historians to present the Mongols as heirs to the Sasanian Empire (224–651). Native intellectuals interested in their own history interpreted

2581-434: The 1540s, governor-general ( beglerbegi ), senior-governor ( hakem-khan ), and junior-governor ( hakem-soltan ) were one of the titles that would be given to a emir governing a province or smaller administration. Other beglerbegis soon appear in records, such as the beglerbegi of Astarabad in 1548, and the beglerbegi of Kerman in 1565. According to Willem Floor : "This, and the fact that beglerbegis also were at

2670-457: The Afshars continued to play an important role in the politics of Urmia. The governors of Urmia from 1624/25 to 1879/80 were the following; Beglarbegi Beylerbey ( Ottoman Turkish : بكلربكی , romanized :  beylerbeyi , lit.   ' bey of beys', meaning the 'commander of commanders' or 'lord of lords’, sometimes rendered governor-general ) was a high rank in

2759-665: The Caucasus with the Mongols in the Russian steppes. On the other hand, the China-based Yuan dynasty was an ally of the Ikhanate and also held nominal suzerainty over the latter (the Emperor being also Great Khan) for many decades. Ghazan converted to Islam under influence of Nawrūz and made Islam the official state religion. Christian and Jewish subjects lost their equal status and had to pay

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2848-556: The Chinggisids. Tekuder was the first Muslim ruler of the Ilkhanate but he made no active attempt to proselytize or convert his realm. However he did try to replace Mongol political traditions with Islamic ones, resulting in a loss of support from the army. Arghun used his religion against him by appealing to non-Muslims for support. When Tekuder realized this, he executed several of Arghun's supporters, and captured Arghun. Tekuder's foster son, Buaq, freed Arghun and overthrew Tekuder. Arghun

2937-610: The Ilkhanate and the Yuan Dynasty headquartered in China encouraged this development. The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by the Ilkhanids, the Chinese Huangdi (Emperor) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy influence upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from

3026-490: The Ilkhanate – is the large fragment of a burial robe for Duke Rudolf IV of Austria (d. 1365), which was made from an Iranian import. The textile was originally manufactured in an Ilkhanid state workshop, most likely in Tabriz , and bears the name and titles of Abu Sa'id after 1319. It is woven in lampas and compound weaves in tan and red colours, with gold wefts . It features a motif of broad alternating bands: one set of stripes

3115-650: The Ilkhanids ruled their realm through a Central Asian-Persian ("Tajik") administration in partnership with Turco-Mongol military officers. Not all of the Persian administrators were Muslims or members of the traditional families that had served the Seljuqs and Khwarazmians (e.g, the Juvayni family ). For example, the Ilkhanate vizier from 1288 to 1291 was Sa'ad al-Dawla , a Jew, while the prominent vizier and historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani

3204-529: The Ilkhans, Iranian historians also moved from writing in Arabic to writing in their native Persian tongue. The rudiments of double-entry accounting were practiced in the Ilkhanate; merdiban was then adopted by the Ottoman Empire . These developments were independent from the accounting practices used in Europe. This accounting system was adopted primarily as the result of socio-economic necessities created by

3293-664: The Mamluks for control of Syria continued. The Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar , the only major victory by the Mongols over the Mamluk Sultanate , ended the latter's control over Syria for a few months. For the most part, Ghazan's policies continued under his brother Öljaitü despite suggestions that he might begin to favor Twelver Shi'ism after he came under the influence of the theologians al-Allama al-Hilli and al-Bahrani . Öljeitü, who had been baptised in Christianity as an infant and had flirted with Buddhism, eventually became

3382-530: The Mamluks. In 1327, Abu-Sai'd replaced Chupan with "Big" Hasan. Hasan was accused of attempting to assassinate the khan and exiled to Anatolia in 1332. The non-Mongol emirs Sharaf-ud-Din Mahmud-Shah and Ghiyas-ud-Din Muhammad were given unprecedented military authority, which irked the Mongol emirs. In the 1330s, outbreaks of the Black Death ravaged the Ilkhanate and both Abu-Sai'd and his sons were killed by 1335 by

3471-447: The Mongol conquests was the emergence of the "national state" in Iran during the Ilkhanate era. The Ilkhanate Mongols remained nomadic in their way of life until the end of the dynasty. Their nomadic routes covered central Iraq , northwest Iran , Azerbaijan , and Armenia . The Mongols administered Iraq, the Caucasus , and western and southern Iran directly with the exception of Georgia ,

3560-516: The Mongol expedition, Azerbaijan and the southern Persian dynasties in Fars and Kerman voluntarily submitted to the Mongols and agreed to pay tribute. To the west, Hamadan and the rest of Persia was secured by Chormaqan. The Mongols invaded Armenia and Georgia in 1234 or 1236, completing the conquest of the Kingdom of Georgia in 1238. They began to attack the western parts of Bagratid Armenia , which

3649-494: The Mongol military hierarchy. In Georgia, the population was temporarily divided into eight tumens . In 1244, Güyük Khan stopped raising of revenue from districts in Persia as well and offered tax exemptions to others. In accordance with a complaint by the governor Arghun Aqa , Möngke Khan prohibited ortogh -merchants (Mongol-contracted Muslim traders) and nobles from abusing relay stations and civilians in 1251. He ordered

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3738-453: The Mongol old guard with his alleged sexual relations with a boy. Gaykhatu was overthrown in 1295 and replaced with his cousin Baydu . Baydu reigned for less than a year before he was overthrown by Gaykhatu's officer, Ghazan . Hulagu's descendants ruled Persia for the next eighty years, tolerating multiple religions, including Shamanism, Buddhism, and Christianity, and ultimately adopting Islam as

3827-562: The Mongols. In 1236 Ögedei commanded Greater Khorasan to be restored and the city of Herat repopulated. The Mongol military governors mostly made camp in the Mughan plain in what is now Azerbaijan. Realizing the danger posed by the Mongols, the rulers of Mosul and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia submitted to the Great Khan. Chormaqan divided Transcaucasia into three districts based on

3916-416: The Persian mir-i miran or mirmiran , which had been used as equivalents of the beylerbey , now increasingly came to refer only to the honorary rank, which in turn was increasingly devalued. The process culminated with the vilayet reform of 1864, after which wali became the only official designation for the governor-general of a province, while the title of beylerbey survived only in

4005-554: The Persian word for lapis lazuli . These often had a deep blue or sometimes blue-ish turquoise glaze and were then overglaze -painted with red, black, white, and gold colours. These have been found at Takht-i Sulaymān and they may have replaced the pre-Mongol mina'i ceramics. The emergence of the Ilkhanate had an important historical impact in West Asia . The establishment of the unified Mongol Empire had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia. The communications between

4094-448: The Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization. The Ilkhanate also helped to pave the way for the later Safavid dynastic state, and ultimately the modern country of Iran. Hulagu's conquests had also opened Iran to Chinese influence from the east. This, combined with patronage from his successors, would develop Iran's distinctive excellence in architecture. Under

4183-454: The Zand leader 'Ali Morad Khan Zand sent an army to defeat Imam Qoli Khan Afshar. He succeeded in killing the khan and installing Amir Aslam Khan Afshar on the throne as a Zand puppet, but a few months later Mohammad Qoli Khan Afshar overthrew him with the support of the Afshar chieftains. Eventually in 1824 the governor of Urmia was extinguished as the Afshars lost control of the governorship, but

4272-488: The actual holder of the provincial post, even to officials unrelated to the provincial administration, such as the chief treasurer ( defterdar ). Beginning in the 18th century, the Arabic-origin title of wali began to be increasingly used for provincial governors-general at the expense of beylerbey , except for the two original beylerbey s of Rumelia and Anatolia; the Arabic title amir al-umara , and

4361-411: The aftermath of Nader Shah's death, the khans of Urmia were able to expand to control practically all the lands of Azerbaijan . After the fall of Azad Khan Afghan, the people of Tabriz invited Fath 'Ali Khan to become the new ruler. In 1759, Fath 'Ali Khan marched onto Karabakh Khanate , which resulted in 6 months long siege and ultimately, Panah Ali Khan , khan of Karabakh Khanate , accepting to be

4450-459: The agricultural and fiscal reforms of Ghazan Khan in 1295–1304. The title ilkhan resurfaced among the Qashqai nomads of southern Iran in the 19th century. Jan Mohammad Khan started using it in 1818/19, and this was continued by all the following Qashqai leaders. The last Qashqai ilkhan was Nasir Khan, who in 1954 was pushed into exile after his support of Mohammad Mosaddegh . When he returned during

4539-532: The birth of the first two, and by far the most important, beylerbeylik s: those of Rumelia and Anatolia , while the third beylerbeylik , that of Rûm , followed soon after. The beylerbey was in charge of a province—termed a beylerbeylik or generically vilayet , "province", while after 1591 the term eyalet was used and beylerbeylik came to mean the office of beylerbey . Territorial beylerbeylik s were subdivided into sanjak s or liwa s under sanjakbey s. With

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4628-420: The continuous growth of the Ottoman Empire in the 15th and 16th centuries, new provinces were established, and the ranks of the beylerbey s swelled to a peak of 44 by the end of the 16th century. A list of eyalet s in 1609 mentions 32 in total: 23 of them regular eyalet s where revenue was distributed among the military fief-holders, while the rest (in North Africa and the Middle East ) were under

4717-424: The cross and the church". Some of the Buddhists who survived Ghazan's assaults made an unsuccessful attempt to bring Öljeitü back into Buddhism, showing they were active in the realm for more than 50 years. The conversion of Mongols was initially a fairly superficial affair. The process of establishment of Islam did not happen suddenly. Öljeitü's historian Qāshāni records that Kutlushah , after losing patience with

4806-418: The date of conquest or formation of their provinces. The beylerbey of Rumelia , however, retained his pre-eminence, ranking first among the other provincial governors-general, and being accorded a seat in the Imperial Council ( divan ) after 1536. In addition, the post was occasionally held by the Sultan's chief minister, the Grand Vizier himself. In his province, the beylerbey operated as

4895-412: The defeat, Abaqa executed the local regent Mu'in-ad-Din Pervane and replaced him with the Mongol prince Qongqortai. In 1281, Abaqa sent Mongke Temur against the Mamluks, but he too was defeated at Homs . Abaqa's death in 1282 triggered a succession struggle between his son Arghun , supported by the Qara'unas , and his brother Tekuder, supported by the Chinggisid aristocracy. Tekuder was elected khan by

4984-433: The dependency of Fath-Ali. Panah Ali Khan 's son Ibrahim Khalil Khan was taken hostage after the siege. In 1761 Karim Khan Zand and Panah Ali Khan 's combined forces marched onto Urmia, which resulted in Fath-Ali retreating to the city of Urmia . In May 1762, Karim Khan Zand struck again by capturing the city of Maragha and later sieging the city of Urmia for 9 months, which resulted in it being captured. Fath-Ali

5073-402: The end of the reign of Shah Abbas II ( r.  1588–1629 ); five gholams ( Fars , Karabakh , Baghdad , Astarabad, Shirvan ), two valis of some sort ( Lorestan and Kurdistan ) and four Qizilbash emirs ( Khorasan , Chokhur-e Sa'd (Erivan) , Azerbaijan , Qandahar ). Herat and Kerman, which were among the first provinces to be administered by a beglerbegi , are not included in

5162-445: The era of the Crusades.) Despite their shared opposition to the Muslims , primarily the Mamluk Sultanate , no formal alliance ever was concluded. While Abu Sa'id eventually concluded a peace treaty with the Mamluks in 1322, the rivalry between the two powers continued diplomatically. Abu Sa'id, as a Muslim ruler, sought to demonstrate his legitimacy further abroad in Islamic terms, particularly through efforts to exert influence over

5251-571: The famous Persian astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi learned about the mode of the Chinese calculating tables . An observatory was built on a hill of Maragheh . Taking over from Baiju in 1255, Hulagu established Mongol rule from Transoxiana to Syria . He destroyed the Nizari Ismaili state and the Abbasid Caliphate in 1256 and 1258 respectively. In 1258, Hulagu proclaimed himself ilkhan (subordinate khan). After that he advanced as far as Gaza, briefly conquering Ayyubid Syria and Aleppo in 1260. Möngke's death forced Hulagu to return to Mongolia to attend

5340-479: The historian Rashid al-Din Hamadani , Kublai Khan granted his brother Hülegü the title ilkhan after Hülegü's defeat of Ariq Böke , another brother. The term ilkhan here means " khan of the tribe, khan of the ulus ", and this lesser khanship refers to the initial deference to Möngke Khan and his successors as Great Khans of the Mongol Empire . The title ilkhan carried by the descendants of Hulagu and, later, other Borjigin princes in Persia, does not appear in

5429-439: The honorary rank of Rumeli beylerbeysi , which continued in use alongside its Perso-Arabic equivalents. Under the Safavid dynasty of Iran , the title ( beglerbegi ) was used from ca. 1543/44 on for governors (generically styled hakim ) of the more important provinces. The title was thus used for the governors of Herat , Azerbaijan , Ganja , Karabakh , Shirvan , Fars , Iraq , and Astarabad . The Safavids also used

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5518-414: The invasion. Muhammad II's son Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu returned to Iran in c. 1224 after fleeing to India. The rival Turkic states, which were all that remained of his father's empire, quickly declared their allegiance to Jalal. He repulsed the first Mongol attempt to take Central Persia. However, Jalal ad-Din was overwhelmed and crushed by Chormaqan 's army sent by the Great Khan Ögedei in 1231. During

5607-399: The late 13th century, although it ceased producing ceramic vessels after 1284 and then produced only tiles until 1340. The designs were less accomplished than in previous periods but they started to incorporate new Chinese-inspired motifs such as lotuses and simurghs . Starting around the 1270s or 1280s, a new style of expensive ceramic started to be produced, known as lajvardina , from

5696-454: The latter, as there are artistic similarities between Mamluk and Ilkhanid manuscripts. One notable development in this period is the production of manuscripts with very large pages, up to 70 by 50 centimetres (28 in × 20 in) in size, with accordingly large scripts, particularly in muhaqqaq style. Illustrations were common and are found in works on a variety of topics such as history, nature, religion, and astronomy. Among these

5785-405: The list. This is due to not all of these administrations would continue to be governed by a beglerbegi after the 1630s. After the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639, the Safavids lost Baghdad to the Ottoman Empire . Between 1632 and 1722, a vizier oversaw the administration of Fars. Ilkhanids The Ilkhanate or Il-khanate was a Mongol khanate founded in the southwestern territories of

5874-424: The plague. Ghiyas-ud-Din put a descendant of Ariq Böke , Arpa Ke'un , on the throne, triggering a succession of short-lived khans until "Little" Hasan took Azerbaijan in 1338. In 1357, Jani Beg of the Golden Horde conquered Chupanid-held Tabriz for a year, putting an end to the Ilkhanate remnant. In contrast to the China-based Yuan dynasty, who excluded the native population from gaining control of high offices,

5963-519: The reunification of the Kingdom of Georgia. However, tribute received by the Il-Khans from Georgia sank by about three-quarters between 1336 and 1350 because of wars and famines. The courts of Western Europe made many attempts to ally with the Mongols, primarily with the Ilkhanate, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, starting from around the time of the Seventh Crusade in the mid-13th century. (Western Europeans were collectively called 'Franks' – ' 'Farang', 'Faranji' – by Muslims and Asians in

6052-430: The same time emir al-omara of their jurisdiction, contradicts the view that the term beglerbegi was simply a Turkish translation of the title emir al-omara ." Beglerbegi was only applied to governors of large administrations in the second half of the 16th-century. The title was more commonly employed in the latter part of the 17th century, even for lesser administrations. Several khans and soltans were subject to

6141-412: The smaller examples from Baghdad took four years to transcribe and eight years to decorate – and feature elaborate multi-coloured frontispieces with geometric designs similar to those seen in Ilkhanid architecture such as the Sultaniyya Mausoleum . High-quality silk textiles were also produced under the Ilkhanids. The most important surviving example – possibly the only one definitively attributable to

6230-459: The sources until after 1260. When Muhammad II of Khwarazm ordered a contingent of merchants, dispatched by the Mongols, to be killed, Genghis Khan declared war on the Anushtegin dynasty in 1219. The Mongols overran the empire , occupying the major cities and population centers between 1219 and 1221. Iran was ravaged by the Mongol detachment under Jebe and Subutai , who left the area in ruin. Transoxiana also came under Mongol control after

6319-399: The summer. Upon Abaqa 's accession, he immediately faced an invasion by Berke of the Golden Horde, which ended with Berke's death in Tiflis . In 1270, Abaqa defeated an invasion by Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq of the Chagatai Khanate . Abaqa's brother Tekuder sacked Bukhara in retaliation. In 1277, the Mamluks invaded Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Elbistan . Stung by

6408-597: The title beylerbey from the late 14th until the mid-19th century, with varying meanings and degrees of importance. The early Ottoman state continued to use the term beylerbey in the meaning of commander-in-chief, held by princes of the Ottoman dynasty : under the Ottoman Empire's founder, Osman I (ruled 1299–1326), his son Orhan held the post, and during Orhan's reign (1324–1362), his brother Alaeddin Pasha and Orhan's son Süleyman Pasha . The first step towards

6497-508: The title of wali for provinces even more important than those of the beglerbegi . Towards the end of the Safavid period, the title of beglerbegi had been eclipsed by that of wali , most notably being the wali's of the shah's their Georgian areas. Beglerbegi ( Persian : بیگلربیگی ) was a title generally held by governors of provinces of higher importance in Safavid Iran . The title

6586-450: The title was used to designate the chief amir al-ulus ("emir of the state")—also known by the Turkic title ulusbegi and the Arabic amir al-umara –while in the Golden Horde it was applied to all the holders of the rank of amir al-ulus . The Mamluks of Egypt possibly used it as an alternative title for the atabak al-asakir , the commander-in-chief of the army. The Ottomans used

6675-474: The transformation of the office into a gubernatorial title occurred when Murad I ( r.  1362–1389 ) gave the title to Lala Shahin Pasha as a reward for his capture of Adrianople (modern Edirne ) in the 1360s. In addition, Lala Shahin was given military authority over the Ottoman territories in Europe ( Rumelia ). This marked the beylerbey effectively as the viceroy of the European territories, as

6764-486: The two holy cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina . Even prior to the peace treaty's conclusion, the Ilkhan began sending large and richly-equipped pilgrimage ( hajj ) caravans from Iraq. In 1330 he went so far as to include, at great cost, an elephant in the caravan. He also arranged for his name to be read aloud in the khutba (Friday sermon) in Medina for a time in 1318 and sent the kiswa (the ceremonial cloth covering

6853-496: The unification by the Mongols as a revival of their long-lost dynastic tradition, and the concept of "Land of Iran" ( Irān-zamin ) was considered an important ideology and was further developed by the later Safavid Empire (1501–1736). Similar to the development in China under the Yuan dynasty , the revival of the concept of territorial unity, although not intended by the Mongols, became a lasting legacy of Mongol rule in Iran. According to

6942-587: The western Islamic world in the late Middle Ages and early modern period , from the Anatolian Seljuks and the Ilkhanids to Safavid Empire and the Ottoman Empire . Initially designating a commander-in-chief , it eventually came to be held by senior provincial governors. In Ottoman usage, where the rank survived the longest, it designated the governors-general of some of the largest and most important provinces, although in later centuries it became devalued into

7031-470: The work produced, but it also inspired new historical works that copied its style and format, such as those of Hamdallah Mustawfi . Among the arts patronized by the Ilkhans, the most important were the arts of the book. The major centers of manuscript production and illumination were Mosul and Baghdad in Iraq. They matched the quality of contemporary production in the Mamluk Sultanate and may have influenced

7120-461: Was a Jewish convert to Islam. The Ilkhanid rulers, who were keen to increase their autonomy, supported their Persian bureaucrats' promotion of the traditional Iranian idea of kingship. The Persian concept of monarchy over a territorial empire, or more specifically, the "Kingship of the Land of Iran" ( pādshāhi-ye Irān-zamin ), was easily sold to their Mongol masters by these bureaucrats. A lasting effect of

7209-621: Was also an increased production of copies of the Shahnameh . The most celebrated copy is the Great Mongol Shahnameh , a large manuscript probably produced for Abu Sa'id in the 14th century. Its pages include highly expressive illustrations that reflect influences from across Eurasia, including China and Europe. Some two dozen large-scale Qur'ans have survived and are among the most impressive artistically-produced Qur'ans created up to this point. They were each produced over many years – one of

7298-544: Was confirmed as ilkhan by Kublai Khan in February 1286. During Arghun's reign, he actively sought to combat Muslim influence, and fought against both the Mamluks and the Muslim Mongol emir Nawruz in Khorasan. To fund his campaigns, Arghun allowed his viziers Buqa and Sa'd-ud-dawla to centralize expenditures, but this was highly unpopular and caused his former supporters to turn against him. Both viziers were killed and Arghun

7387-736: Was enthroned in 1316. He was faced with rebellion in 1318 by the Chagatayids and Qara'unas in Khorasan, and an invasion by the Golden Horde at the same time. An Anatolian emir, Irenchin, also rebelled. Irenchin was crushed by Chupan of the Taichiud in the Battle of Zanjan-Rud on 13 July 1319. Under the influence of Chupan, the Ilkhanate made peace with the Chagatais, who helped them crush the Chagatayid revolt, and

7476-467: Was hanged in Shiraz in 1763. After Fath-'Ali Khan's death, Rustam Khan Afshar succeeded him. In 1768, he was succeeded by Reza Qoli Khan Afshar. In 1772 he was succeeded by Imam Qoli Khan Afshar. After the death of Karim Khan Zand in 1779, Imam Qoli Khan Afshar expanded Urmia once again. It is said that he received taxes from Savojbulagh , Senneh , Maragheh , Tabriz , and Khoy . However, eventually in 1783

7565-514: Was murdered in 1291. The Ilkhanate started crumbling under the reign of Arghun's brother, Gaykhatu . The majority of Mongols converted to Islam while the Mongol court remained Buddhist . Gaykhatu had to buy the support of his followers and as a result, ruined the realm's finances. His vizir Sadr-ud-Din Zanjani tried to bolster the state finances by adopting paper money from the Yuan dynasty , which remained largely unsuccessful. Gaykhatu also alienated

7654-432: Was of good quality but not as fine and as diverse as pottery from the preceding century. The type most commonly attributed to Ilkhanid Iran is the so-called "Sultanabad" ceramics. These were made of a softer white paste with a green or gray-brown slip . Bowls of this type were typically underglaze -painted with animal figures with a background of leaves. Kashan remained an important center of lustreware production until

7743-446: Was restricted to the smaller timar s only. Reflecting the office's origin in the military, the primary responsibility of the beylerbey s and their sanjakbey s was the maintenance of the sipahi cavalry, formed by holders of the military fiefs, whom they led in person on campaign. From the reign of Mehmed II ( r.  1451–1481 ) onwards, the title of beylerbey also became an honorary court rank, coming after

7832-542: Was the first khan of the Ilkhanate. Immediately after his brother Möngke's accession as Great Khan in 1251, Hulagu was appointed as administrator of North China, however in the following year, North China was assigned to Kublai and Hulagu tasked with conquering the Abbasid Caliphate . He was given a fifth of the entire Mongol army for the campaign and he took his sons Abaqa and Yoshmut along with him. Hulagu also took with him many Chinese scholars and astronomers, from whom

7921-580: Was under the Seljuks , the following year. By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia (including modern-day Azerbaijan), Armenia, Georgia (excluding Abbasid Iraq and Ismaili strongholds), as well as all of Afghanistan and Kashmir . After the battle of Köse Dağ in 1243, the Mongols under Baiju occupied Anatolia , while the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm and the Empire of Trebizond became vassals of

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