Kardecist spiritism , also known as Spiritism or Kardecism is a reincarnationist and spiritualist doctrine established in France in the mid-19th century by writer and educator Hippolyte Léon Denizard Rivail (a.k.a. Allan Kardec ). Kardec considered his doctrine to derive from a Christian perspective. He described a cycle by which a spirit supposedly returns to material existence after the death of the old body in which it dwelled, as well as the evolution it undergoes during this process. Kardecism emerged as a new religious movement in tandem with spiritualism, the notions and practices associated with spiritual communication disseminated throughout North America and Europe since the 1850s.
187-449: Umbanda ( Portuguese pronunciation: [ũˈbɐ̃dɐ] ) is a religion that emerged in Brazil during the 1920s. Deriving largely from Spiritism , it also combines elements from Afro-Brazilian traditions like Candomblé as well as Roman Catholicism . There is no central authority in control of Umbanda, which is organized around autonomous places of worship termed centros or terreiros ,
374-404: A Berakah is said also at evil tidings. Hence, although the experience of God is like none other, the occasions for experiencing Him, for having a consciousness of Him, are manifold, even if we consider only those that call for Berakot. Whereas Jewish philosophers often debate whether God is immanent or transcendent , and whether people have free will or their lives are determined, halakha
561-431: A perispirit , a transparent membrane around the body that mediates between the body and soul. They believe that disturbances is either body and soul can impact the perispirit . From Spiritism, Umbanda takes the ideas of reincarnation and karmic evolution; the terms reincarnacâo and karma were largely introduced to Brazilian Portuguese via the ideas of Spiritism's French founder, Allan Kardec . Umbandistas believe that
748-452: A pseudoscience , disregarding the alleged paranormal phenomena that underpin spiritism, such as mediumship, reincarnation, obsession , table-turning , séances , automatic writing , spiritualist art , and typology . Critics of pseudoscience even define parapsychology as a "perversion", as parapsychologists claim that science cannot be the only privileged field that is exempt from the explanations they defend. Animal magnetism (mesmerism)
935-597: A centralized authority that would dictate an exact religious dogma. Because of this, many different variations on the basic beliefs are considered within the scope of Judaism. Even so, all Jewish religious movements are, to a greater or lesser extent, based on the principles of the Hebrew Bible or various commentaries such as the Talmud and Midrash . Judaism also universally recognizes the Biblical Covenant between God and
1122-414: A determined number of knocks to respond yes or no, as agreed upon, to a proposed question. Despite the belief that supposed spirits or geniuses were moving the tables, Michael Faraday 's scientific experiments published in 1853 showed that the movements were caused by the ideomotor effect and dismissed paranormal explanations for the phenomenon of table-turning. The ideomotor effect also causes
1309-586: A doctrine focused on the moral improvement of humanity and believe in the existence of a single God, the possibility of useful communication with spirits through mediums, and reincarnation as a process of spiritual growth and divine justice. According to the International Spiritist Council, spiritism is present in 36 countries, with over 13 million followers, being most widespread in Brazil , where it has approximately 3.8 million followers, according to
1496-528: A fetus could commit sin before birth, but not in a previous incarnation. He also dismisses other texts generally cited in support of reincarnation. The qualification of Spiritism itself as Christian has also generated controversy. Dr. Antônio Flávio Pierucci, professor at the Department of Sociology at the University of São Paulo (USP) and scholar of Brazilian religiosity, is one of those who affirm that Spiritism
1683-511: A general universalist stance that encourages tolerance towards other traditions, Umbandistas are commonly permitted to also pursue other religions, with some also practising Roman Catholicism, Judaism , or Santo Daime . Reflecting its Spiritist origins, Umbanda has been labelled a Western esoteric tradition. It has also been called an Afro-Brazilian religion, although the scholar of religion Steven Engler cautioned that Africanised ritual elements are not present in all Umbandist groups and that
1870-456: A healthy and pure body, for this reason avoiding smoking, over-eating, or drinking alcohol, especially on the night of an Umbandista session. Some Umbandista mediums operate out of their home, rather than running a centre. Umbanda teaches that everyone has a spirit that survives bodily death. Umbandistas sometimes refer to living people as espíritos enćarnados (incarnate spirits). Like Spiritists, Umbandistas typically believe that each person has
2057-419: A kind of seance, he was intrigued that the tables seemed to move despite lacking muscles and that the tables seemed to provide answers without having a brain, the spiritualist claims being "It is not the table that thinks! It is us, the souls of the men who have lived on Earth." Kardec also focused his attention on a variety of other paranormal claims such as "incorporation" and mediumship. Kardecist doctrine
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#17328514771252244-404: A maternal figure associated with water, but in her case the waters of the lake and swamp. Omolu is the orixá of sickness and healing. Xangô is linked to thunder and lightning, as well as to stone working and quarrying. Ogúm is the orixá of war, metalworking, agriculture, and transportation. Oxúm is associated with fertility and with flowing water, especially streams and waterfalls. Iansã
2431-459: A means of experiencing God". Reflecting on the contribution of the Amoraim and Tanaim to contemporary Judaism, Professor Jacob Neusner observed: The rabbi's logical and rational inquiry is not mere logic-chopping. It is a most serious and substantive effort to locate in trivialities the fundamental principles of the revealed will of God to guide and sanctify the most specific and concrete actions in
2618-569: A means to learn the contents of God's revelation, but an end in itself. According to the Talmud: These are the things for which a person enjoys the dividends in this world while the principal remains for the person to enjoy in the world to come; they are: honoring parents, loving deeds of kindness, and making peace between one person and another. But the study of the Torah is equal to them all. (Talmud Shabbat 127a). In Judaism, "the study of Torah can be
2805-463: A medium deems themselves possessed by one of the pretos velhos , they will often smoke a pipe. The names of these pretos velhos often reflect Catholic forenames followed by an African national affiliation, as with Maria Congo or Maria d'Aruanda. They will sometimes be addressed collectively as the povo de Bahia (people from Bahia ) or as members of a particular nation, such as the povo da Congo (people from Congo). These spirits are commemorated on
2992-415: A medium. In smaller centros , there may be between 10 and 60 members of the corpo mediúnico , while at larger centros there can be several hundred. These larger centros may therefore have further subdivisions within the corpo mediúnico as well as multiple sub- chefes . Mediums are often expected to abstain from alcohol or sex prior to a ceremony. The congregation of lay Umbandists who attend services at
3179-526: A mere convention, but on more solid foundations: the very laws of Nature. At the International Spiritist Congress held in Paris in 1925, there was a proposal to remove the religious aspect from Spiritism, but the important French Spiritist philosopher Léon Denis opposed it with tenacity, even in his already weak physical condition of health. According to Denis, Spiritism was not the "religion of
3366-445: A notable promotion of psychiatry and homeopathy . Dr. Adolfo Bezerra de Menezes, a spiritist and physician, wrote the classic book A Loucura sob Novo Prisma (Insanity from a New Perspective), seeking to relate the issue of mental disorders to Spiritism and promote the application of more effective treatment methods in the field of mental health. Currently, psychiatrist and parapsychologist Alexander Moreira-Almeida, coordinator of
3553-518: A parallel oral tradition, illustrating the assumption that the reader is already familiar with the details from other, i.e., oral, sources. Halakha , the rabbinic Jewish way of life, then, is based on a combined reading of the Torah, and the oral tradition—the Mishnah, the halakhic Midrash, the Talmud and its commentaries. The halakha has developed slowly, through a precedent-based system. The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers,
3740-514: A permanent king, and Samuel appointed Saul the king. When the people pressured Saul into going against a command conveyed to him by Samuel, God told Samuel to appoint David in his stead. Rabbinic tradition holds that the details and interpretation of the Law, called the Oral Torah or "Oral Law," were originally unwritten traditions based on the Law given to Moses at Sinai. However, as the persecutions of
3927-413: A philosophy, it encompasses all the moral consequences that emanate from these same relations." Some still contest the religious aspect of Spiritism; however, in the book published by its codifier, titled O Espiritismo na sua mais simples expressão (Spiritism in its simplest expression), he clearly asserts: "From a religious point of view, Spiritism is based on the fundamental truths of all religions: God,
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#17328514771254114-550: A positive commandment is to be fulfilled: The ordinary, familiar, everyday things and occurrences we have, constitute occasions for the experience of God. Such things as one's daily sustenance, the very day itself, are felt as manifestations of God's loving-kindness, calling for the Berakhot . Kedushah , holiness, which is nothing else than the imitation of God, is concerned with daily conduct, with being gracious and merciful, with keeping oneself from defilement by idolatry, adultery, and
4301-605: A problem, healing, or receiving a blessing. In Umbanda, spiritual knowledge and ethical behaviour are generally seen as being more important than ritual action. Umbandist places of worship are termed centros , or alternatively tendas (tents). Those adopting a more African-orientation are sometimes called terreiros ; this term comes from Candomblé, and so is avoided by some practitioners of White Umbanda. Each centro will typically have its own Padroeiro , or patron spirit. They are often totally autonomous, although some are members of larger Umbandist federations. A centro may occupy
4488-403: A purpose-built structure although may be based out of someone's home. Sometimes several centros will share the same structure, arranging their services at different times from each other. An insignia, the ponto riscado (sacred sign) may be on the exterior of the building to identify its function. Certain rituals may also be held outdoors, for instance beside a stream or the sea if that location
4675-681: A reward for his act of faith in one God, he was promised that Isaac , his second son, would inherit the Land of Israel (then called Canaan ). Later, the descendants of Isaac's son Jacob were enslaved in Egypt , and God commanded Moses to lead the Exodus from Egypt. The Law was given at Sinai —the Torah , or five books of Moses. These books, together with the Nevi'im and Ketuvim , are known as Torah Shebikhtav , as opposed to
4862-520: A seminal role in the formation of Western civilization through its impact as a core background element of Early Christianity . Within Judaism, there are a variety of religious movements , most of which emerged from Rabbinic Judaism , which holds that God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah. Historically, all or part of this assertion
5049-504: A standardised cosmological belief among practitioners, Umbanda has an elaborate cosmology . An important distinction is made between the material and the spiritual, with the latter considered far superior. Umbandist theology is largely Spiritist in basis, adopting the Spiritist emphasis on reincarnation and spiritual evolution, as well as the hierarchical ranking of spirits according to their "degree of evolution". Many Umbandistas believe in
5236-456: A system of reincarnation according to the law of karma . The religion's ethics emphasise charity and social fraternity. Umbandistas also seek to reverse harm that they attribute to practitioners of a related tradition, Quimbanda . Roman Catholicism was the dominant religion in early 20th-century Brazil, but sizeable minorities practiced Afro-Brazilian traditions or Spiritism, a French version of Spiritualism developed by Allan Kardec . Around
5423-429: A three-part cosmos, divided between the astral spaces, the earth, and the underworld. The more highly evolved spirits dwell in the astral realm , spirits incarnated in physical form reside temporarily on earth, while malevolent and ignorant spirits inhabit the underworld . The barrier between these worlds is not impenetrable; spirits from both the astral and underworld realms can visit the earth. Umbandistas often refer to
5610-455: A well-defined meaning. To give them another meaning, to apply them to the doctrine of Spirits, would be to multiply the already numerous causes of amphibology . (...) Whoever believes to have something within themselves beyond matter, is a spiritualist. However, it does not follow that they believe in the existence of Spirits or in their communications with the visible world. Instead of using the words spiritual, spiritualism, we employ, to indicate
5797-476: Is Maimonides ' thirteen principles of faith , developed in the 12th century. According to Maimonides, any Jew who rejects even one of these principles would be considered an apostate and a heretic. Jewish scholars have held points of view diverging in various ways from Maimonides' principles. Thus, within Reform Judaism only the first five principles are endorsed. In Maimonides' time, his list of tenets
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5984-672: Is "not a Christian religion." There are no historical Christian doctrines within Spiritism, present in its main branches, such as the Trinity , the physical resurrection of Jesus , the inspiration of the Bible , and redemption . Due to these differences, many scholars consider it a form of neo-Christianity. However, Spiritist writers argue that Spiritism is Christian because it promotes the teaching of loving one's neighbor. According to followers and sympathizers of Spiritist doctrine, mediumistic phenomena
6171-494: Is a female warrior who manifests in storms. Oxóssi is a hunter who lives in the forest. Exú is a trickster and the guardian of the crossroads, being the intermediary between the orixás and humanity. He will often be paid homage first during a ritual, to stop him being disruptive later in the rite. Each of the orixás is deemed to have their own desires and emotions. The orixás are also associated with particular colors; Oxúm with blue, for instance, and Oxóssi with green. Each
6358-481: Is a system through which any Jew acts to bring God into the world. Ethical monotheism is central in all sacred or normative texts of Judaism. However, monotheism has not always been followed in practice. The Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh ) records and repeatedly condemns the widespread worship of other gods in ancient Israel . In the Greco-Roman era, many different interpretations of monotheism existed in Judaism, including
6545-442: Is also linked to particular days of the week; Iansã with Wednesday, and Nanã with Tuesday, for example. They are also associated with a particular celestial body, such as Xangô with the planet Jupiter and Iemanjá with the moon. Each orixá is typically associated with a Roman Catholic saint. It is in this form that they are often represented on Umbandist altars, and these links are also reinforced in praise songs. Xangô, for instance,
6732-516: Is also present in spiritist teachings, with constant references to mesmeric concepts such as magnetic fluids. According to this hypothesis, some people could perform healings through "fluids". However, the animal magnetism hypothesis is considered pseudoscientific, as scientists have known since the second half of the 18th century that the alleged healings were purely psychosomatic, achieved through hypnosis , without any involvement of "fluids" or animal magnetism. According to Joseph McCabe , citing
6919-587: Is also the source of the Hebrew term for Judaism, יַהֲדוּת Yahaḏuṯ . The term Ἰουδαϊσμός first appears in the Koine Greek book of 2 Maccabees in the 2nd century BCE (i.e. 2 Maccabees 2:21, 8:1 and 14:38) . In the context of the age and period it meant "seeking or forming part of a cultural entity". It resembled its antonym hellenismos , a word signifying people's submission to Hellenistic cultural norms. The conflict between iudaismos and hellenismos lay behind
7106-537: Is an esoteric tradition in Judaism in Kabbalah , Rabbinic scholar Max Kadushin has characterized normative Judaism as "normal mysticism", because it involves everyday personal experiences of God through ways or modes that are common to all Jews. This is played out through the observance of the halakha , or Jewish law, and given verbal expression in the Birkat Ha-Mizvot , the short blessings that are spoken every time
7293-489: Is based on five basic works, known as the Spiritist Codification , published between 1857 and 1868. The codification consists of The Spirits' Book , The Mediums' Book , The Gospel According to Spiritism , Heaven and Hell , and The Genesis . Additionally, there are the so-called complementary works, such as What is Spiritism? , Spiritist Review , and Posthumous Works . Its followers consider spiritism
7480-661: Is called the Jerusalem Talmud . It was compiled sometime during the 4th century in Palestine. According to critical scholars , the Torah consists of inconsistent texts edited together in a way that calls attention to divergent accounts. Several of these scholars, such as Professor Martin Rose and John Bright , suggest that during the First Temple period the people of Israel believed that each nation had its own god, but that their god
7667-423: Is deemed particularly appropriate to the rite. The main ritual space is called the barracão . Often this will face east, a direction deemed most conducive to astral forces. Sacred objects will often be buried beneath the floor, and these are termed axés . This main room will typically have paintings of the spirits on the walls, a space for practitioners to dance, and an altar. The altar will often have figurines of
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7854-461: Is due to the triple aspect of Spiritism, which allows it to be classified as a doctrine that aligns "science-philosophy-religion". In the preamble of the book O Que É o Espiritismo? (What is Spiritism?), Kardec states that "Spiritism is, at the same time, a science of observation and a philosophical doctrine. As a practical science, it consists of the relations established between us and the Spirits; as
8041-463: Is heavily associated with and most often thought of as Orthodox Judaism . 13 Principles of Faith: — Maimonides In the strict sense, in Judaism, unlike Christianity and Islam, there are no fixed universally binding articles of faith, due to their incorporation into the liturgy. Scholars throughout Jewish history have proposed numerous formulations of Judaism's core tenets, all of which have met with criticism. The most popular formulation
8228-683: Is often identified with Saint Geronimo , Nanã with Saint Anne , and Omolu with Saint Roch and Saint Lazarus . Many Umbandistas identify Exú with the Devil of Christian theology, and Oxalá with Jesus Christ . There is often regional variation in these associations; in Rio de Janeiro, Iemanjá is typically linked to Our Lady of Glory , while in Salvador she is associated with Our Lady of the Conception . There are nevertheless differences of opinion among Umbandistas as to
8415-702: Is premundane and has no peer or associate; (3) the whole universe is created; (4) God called Moses and the other Prophets of the Biblical canon; (5) the Law of Moses alone is true; (6) to know the language of the Bible is a religious duty; (7) the Temple at Jerusalem is the palace of the world's Ruler; (8) belief in Resurrection contemporaneous with the advent of the Messiah; (9) final judgment; (10) retribution. In modern times, Judaism lacks
8602-495: Is profound, as evidenced by its presence in many spiritist books and the existence of the International Spiritist Medical Association, which brings together medical-spiritist associations from various countries. Spiritism constitutes a vast international movement of charity and healthcare institutions, as evidenced mainly by the existence of such associations, numerous hospitals and spiritist centers, and
8789-599: Is referred to as responsa (Hebrew Sheelot U-Teshuvot ). Over time, as practices develop, codes of halakha are written that are based on the responsa; the most important code, the Shulchan Aruch , largely determines Orthodox religious practice today. Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology. Major Jewish philosophers include Philo of Alexandria , Solomon ibn Gabirol , Saadia Gaon , Judah Halevi , Maimonides , and Gersonides . Major changes occurred in response to
8976-436: Is regarded as a key motor for spiritual evolution. Practitioners for instance may give gifts and food to poor children to mark the festival of the crianças . Umbandistas also place value on humility. Umbandistas often believe that things happen for a reason, rather than being mere coincidence, and are part of a person's path in life. Brown suggested that Umbanda was "an essentially conservative religion", for it does not challenge
9163-578: Is regarded as the first Jewish diaspora . Later, many of them returned to their homeland after the subsequent conquest of Babylon by the Persian Achaemenid Empire seventy years later, an event known as the Return to Zion . A Second Temple was constructed and old religious practices were resumed. During the early years of the Second Temple, the highest religious authority was a council known as
9350-418: Is that halakha should be viewed as a set of general guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Historically, special courts enforced halakha ; today, these courts still exist but the practice of Judaism is mostly voluntary. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, but in the sacred texts and
9537-417: Is the orixá da frente ("the front orixá "), an orixá deemed to be that individual's spiritual parent. These entities are a person's protectors and patrons. They are also deemed to influence that individual's personality traits. Umbandistas believe that these entities are deserving of respect and that treating them well will improve a person's life. In Umbanda, it is usual for a medium to personally determine
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#17328514771259724-492: Is then divided into seven legions; these divide into seven sub-legions; these into seven falanges (phalanges); and these into seven sub- falanges . Umbandistas often liken this cosmological structure to the organization of an army, and it may reflect the prominent role that various military figures have played in Umbanda's history. The spirits inhabiting these groups are usually arranged on the basis of regional or racial origin. At
9911-497: Is typically led by an individual called the chefe ("chief"), a term borrowed from Spiritism, or alternatively the mãe-de-santo ("mother-of-saint") or pai-de-santo ("father-of-saint"), terms from Candomblé. In some groups, leaders may be called a babalaô , a term that may be borrowed from the Yoruba word babalawo , a diviner in the Ifá system. A chefe is usually a medium who receives
10098-543: Is universal and has always existed, including abundant accounts in the Bible. Among others, Spiritists cite biblical mediumistic examples, such as Moses' prohibition of "consulting the dead", which would be evidence of the Jewish belief in this possibility, since something unrealizable is not prohibited; the consultation of Saul , the first king of the ancient Kingdom of Israel, with the Witch of Endor , in 1 Samuel 28, who sees and hears
10285-482: Is very close to being an idiot. Let us be reverent before the possible, whose limits no one knows; let us be attentive and serious in the presence of the superhuman, from which we come and to which we are heading. Founded on April 18, 1857, with the publication of The Spirits' Book , Spiritism was structured based on alleged dialogues established with disembodied spirits that, by manifesting through mediums, expounded on scientific, religious, and philosophical topics from
10472-636: The Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy ), 2 Macc. ii. 21: "Those that behaved themselves manfully to their honour for Iudaisme." At its core, the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh is an account of the Israelites ' relationship with God from their earliest history until the building of the Second Temple ( c. 535 BCE ). Abraham is hailed as the first Hebrew and the father of the Jewish people. As
10659-705: The Enlightenment (late 18th to early 19th century) leading to the post-Enlightenment Jewish philosophers. Modern Jewish philosophy consists of both Orthodox and non-Orthodox oriented philosophy. Notable among Orthodox Jewish philosophers are Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler , Joseph B. Soloveitchik , and Yitzchok Hutner . Well-known non-Orthodox Jewish philosophers include Martin Buber , Franz Rosenzweig , Mordecai Kaplan , Abraham Joshua Heschel , Will Herberg , and Emmanuel Lévinas . 13 Principles of Hermeneutics: — R. Ishmael Orthodox and many other Jews do not believe that
10846-759: The Great Jewish Revolt (66–73 CE), the Romans sacked Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple. Later, Roman emperor Hadrian built a pagan idol on the Temple Mount and prohibited circumcision; these acts of ethnocide provoked the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–136 CE), after which the Romans banned the study of the Torah and the celebration of Jewish holidays, and forcibly removed virtually all Jews from Judea. In 200 CE, however, Jews were granted Roman citizenship and Judaism
11033-508: The Ibeji twins, spirits venerated in parts of West Africa. In Umbanda, the exús are spirits yet to complete the process of karmic evolution. They are unevolved spirits of darkness which, by working for good, can gradually become spirits of light. Interpretations of these exús nevertheless differ among Umbandistas, with more African-oriented practitioners often taking a more positive attitude towards them. Exús are associated with Friday, and with
11220-454: The Israelites , their ancestors. The religion is considered one of the earliest monotheistic religions in the world. Jewish religious doctrine encompasses a wide body of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. Among Judaism's core texts is the Torah , the first five books of the Hebrew Bible , a collection of ancient Hebrew scriptures. The Tanakh, known in English as
11407-710: The Kohanim and Leviyim (members of the tribe of Levi ), some only to farmers within the Land of Israel. Many laws were only applicable when the Temple in Jerusalem existed, and only 369 of these commandments are still applicable today. While there have been Jewish groups whose beliefs were based on the written text of the Torah alone (e.g., the Sadducees , and the Karaites ), most Jews believe in
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#173285147712511594-680: The Maccabean Revolt and hence the invention of the term iudaismos . Shaye J. D. Cohen writes in his book The Beginnings of Jewishness : We are tempted, of course, to translate [ Ioudaïsmós ] as "Judaism," but this translation is too narrow, because in this first occurrence of the term, Ioudaïsmós has not yet been reduced to the designation of a religion. It means rather "the aggregate of all those characteristics that makes Judaeans Judaean (or Jews Jewish)." Among these characteristics, to be sure, are practices and beliefs that we would today call "religious," but these practices and beliefs are not
11781-713: The Oxford English Dictionary the earliest citation in English where the term was used to mean "the profession or practice of the Jewish religion; the religious system or polity of the Jews" is Robert Fabyan's The newe cronycles of Englande and of Fraunce (1516). "Judaism" as a direct translation of the Latin Iudaismus first occurred in a 1611 English translation of the Biblical apocrypha (the Deuterocanonical books in
11968-672: The Patriarch Abraham as well as the additional aspects of the Covenant revealed to Moses , who is considered Judaism's greatest prophet . In the Mishnah , a core text of Rabbinic Judaism , acceptance of the Divine origins of this covenant is considered an essential aspect of Judaism and those who reject the Covenant forfeit their share in the World to Come . Establishing the core tenets of Judaism in
12155-1021: The Porto Alegre area, it is common for groups to mix Umbanda with the Afro-Brazilian religion Batuque . Outsiders sometimes refer to Umbanda as Macumba , a pejorative term for Afro-Brazilian religions. While some Umbandistas have referred to themselves as macumbeiros , often in jest due to the term's negative connotations, Umbandist literature usually uses Macumba in a more restrictive sense to designate baixa espiritismo (low spiritism), traditions that work with lesser spirits for morally questionable purposes. Umbandistas often describe these practices as Quimbanda and emphasise their opposition to them, maintaining that Umbandistas work for good while Quimbandistas work for evil. The boundaries between Umbanda and Quimbanda are nevertheless not always clear, with various spirit mediums engaging or promoting practices associated with both. The anthropologist David J. Hess called
12342-465: The Portuguese language terms uma banda , meaning "one group". Umbanda is not a unified religion, having no central institutional authority. It displays considerable variation and eclecticism, being highly adaptable, and taking various different forms. Much of this variation is regional. Several scholars deem it appropriate to talk about "Umbandas", in the plural, as much as a singular Umbanda. Reflecting
12529-471: The caboclos are together the most important spirit types in Umbanda. Umbanda departs from Spiritism over the value placed on these entities, with Umbandistas believing that Spiritists often negatively misjudge the pretos velhos and the caboclos because of their appearance. For Umbandistas, the caboclos and pretos velhos are "beings of light", entities who inhabit the lower echelons of the Seven Lines of
12716-444: The caboclos , preto velhos , and orixás , the latter often in their form as Roman Catholic saints. Flowers and glasses of water are also often present to attract good forces, the latter a direct influence from Spiritism. Seating in rows to face the main ritual area is also common. Afro-Brazilian oriented terreiros may also have multiple outdoor shrines to different orixás . Centros have both formal and informal hierarchies. Each
12903-432: The centro are called the assistência . Kardecist spiritism Kardec coined the term spiritism in 1857 and defined it as "the doctrine founded on the existence, manifestations, and teachings of spirits". Kardec claimed that spiritism combines scientific, philosophical, and religious aspects of the tangible universe and what he described as the universe beyond transcendence. After observing table-turning ,
13090-512: The exús , pombagiras are regarded as being the spirits of immoral women, such as prostitutes. Linked to marginal and dangerous places, they are associated with sexuality, blood, death, and cemeteries. They are often presented as being ribald and flirty, speaking in sexual euphemisms and double entendres. They wear red and black clothing, and only possess women and gay men, who will then often smoke or drink alcohol, using obscene language and behaving lasciviously. The term pombagira may derive from
13277-466: The exús da luz were often sinners who performed immoral acts through noble intentions. The other type of exús are the exús das trevas ( exús of the shadows), spirits who are unrepentant and who afflict and torment the living. They may act as "obsessors", finding a human victim and "leaning" ( encostado ) on them, causing the latter problems such as bad luck, compulsive behaviours, or addiction. The exús das trevas may do this due to their resentment of
13464-493: The halakha whereas its ultimate goal is to bring the holiness down to the world. Mordecai Kaplan , the founder of the Reconstructionist Judaism , abandons the idea of religion for the sake of identifying Judaism with civilization and by means of the latter term and secular translation of the core ideas, he tries to embrace as many Jewish denominations as possible. In turn, Solomon Schechter 's Conservative Judaism
13651-451: The médiums de consulta (consulting mediums) and the médiums em desenvolvimento (mediums in training). The latter are often expected to attend training sessions, the sessões de desenvolvimento , and to learn their ritual obligations to different spirits as well as the necessary ritual songs and the Umbandist cosmology. Advancement within the centro often relies on a person's development as
13838-524: The oral law . These oral traditions were transmitted by the Pharisee school of thought of ancient Judaism and were later recorded in written form and expanded upon by the rabbis. According to Rabbinical Jewish tradition, God gave both the Written Law (the Torah ) and the Oral Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai . The Oral law is the oral tradition as relayed by God to Moses and from him, transmitted and taught to
14025-404: The orixás are the pretos velhos and caboclos , spirits of enslaved Africans and of indigenous Brazilians respectively, and these are the main entities dealt with by Umbandistas. At Umbandist rituals, spirit mediums sing and dance in the hope of being possessed by these spirits, through whom the congregations receive guidance, advice, and healing. Umbanda teaches a complex cosmology involving
14212-514: The orixás primarily as frequencies of spiritual energy, vibrations, or forces. They are regarded as beings so highly evolved that they have never incarnated in physical form. Like God, they are distant from humanity, permanently residing on the astral plane. Many Umbandistas rarely expect orixás to manifest during rituals, for the orixás are preoccupied with important spiritual matters. They are also thought too powerful for many humans to handle, meaning that their manifestation could be dangerous for
14399-478: The plano astral (astral plane) as the além (beyond). Sometimes, the realm of the evolved spirits is also called Aruanda , a term that likely derives from Luanda , a port in modern Angola, but which in Umbanda has looser connotations of an area within the astral plane. The astral world is deemed to be divided into a hierarchy of seven vertical levels, the Sête Linhas de Umbanda (Seven Lines of Umbanda), although
14586-461: The rabbis and scholars who interpret them. Jews are an ethnoreligious group including those born Jewish, in addition to converts to Judaism . In 2021, the world Jewish population was estimated at 15.2 million, or roughly 0.195% of the total world population, although religious observance varies from strict to none. In 2021, about 45.6% of all Jews resided in Israel and another 42.1% resided in
14773-475: The "Section on Spirituality, Religiosity, and Psychiatry" of the World Psychiatric Association, is one of the leading figures in the scientific study of the relationship between health and spiritual experiences, especially mediumship. There is no consensus among Spiritists as to whether Spiritism is a religion or not, despite the doctrine being classified as a religion in demographic surveys. This
14960-551: The "faithful slave" common in the writings of Brazilians like Castro Alves and Artur Azevedo . This literary trope had in turn been influenced by the popularity of Portuguese translations of the 1852 American novel Uncle Tom's Cabin . Caboclos are usually the spirits of indigenous Brazilians, especially those of the Amazon Rainforest . In Umbanda, they are regarded as hunters and warriors who are highly intelligent and brave, but also vain and arrogant. Their power comes from
15147-548: The 1920s, various groups may have been combining Spiritist and Afro-Brazilian practices, forming the basis of Umbanda. The most important group was that established by Zélio Fernandino de Moraes and those around him in Niterói , Rio de Janeiro . He had been involved in Spiritism but disapproved of the negative attitude that many Spiritists held towards contact with pretos velhos and caboclos . Reflecting Umbanda's growth, in 1939 de Moraes formed an Umbandist federation and in 1941 held
15334-573: The Bantu word bombogira , the name of a male orixá in Candomblé's Bantu tradition . In Brazilian Portuguese, the term pomba is a euphemism for the vulva. When rituals focus on the exús and pombagiras , some Umbandistas will say that it constitutes Quimbanda. Central to Umbanda are the spirit mediums, individuals responsible for contacting the good spirits. According to Brown, these mediums represent "a sort of intermediate category of semi-specialists" within
15521-518: The Church Fathers and the lack of references to reincarnation during that Council. Agnostic scholar Bart D. Ehrman claims that evidence that early Christians believed in reincarnation is scant. Christian theologian Norman Geisler claims that there is no evidence of reincarnation in the Bible. According to him, the famous text in John 9:2–3 reflects the rabbinic belief in prenatal sins, according to which
15708-575: The Conservative movement. The following is a basic, structured list of the central works of Jewish practice and thought: The basis of halakha and tradition is the Torah (also known as the Pentateuch or the Five Books of Moses). According to rabbinic tradition, there are 613 commandments in the Torah. Some of these laws are directed only to men or to women, some only to the ancient priestly groups,
15895-536: The God of the Spiritists, is not a cruel and vengeful tyrant who punishes a moment of folly with eternal torments, but a good and merciful father who watches over his wayward children with constant solicitude, seeking to draw them to himself through a series of tests designed to cleanse them of all impurities. The first manifestations of table-turning observed by Kardec involved tables lifting and knocking, using one of their legs,
16082-539: The Great Assembly, led by Ezra the Scribe . Among other accomplishments of the Great Assembly, the last books of the Bible were written at this time and the canon sealed . Hellenistic Judaism spread to Ptolemaic Egypt from the 3rd century BCE, and its creation sparked widespread controversy in Jewish communities, starting "conflicts within Jewish communities about accommodating the cultures of occupying powers." During
16269-628: The Hebrew Bible, has the same contents as the Old Testament in Christianity . In addition to the original written scripture, the supplemental Oral Torah is represented by later texts, such as the Midrash and the Talmud . The Hebrew-language word torah can mean "teaching", "law", or "instruction", although "Torah" can also be used as a general term that refers to any Jewish text that expands or elaborates on
16456-517: The Jews increased and the details were in danger of being forgotten, these oral laws were recorded by Judah ha-Nasi in the Mishnah , redacted c. 200 CE . The Talmud was a compilation of the Mishnah and Gemara , rabbinic commentaries redacted over the next three centuries. The Gemara originated in two major centers of Jewish scholarship, Palestine and Babylonia ( Lower Mesopotamia ). Correspondingly, two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of Talmud were created. The older compilation
16643-630: The Opening Address of the Annual Commemorative Session of the Day of the Dead (Society of Paris, November 1, 1868), where he states: If that is the case, you may ask, is Spiritism a religion? Well, yes, undoubtedly, gentlemen! In the philosophical sense, Spiritism is a religion, and we take pride in it because it is the doctrine that establishes the bonds of fraternity and communion of thoughts, not on
16830-545: The Oral Torah, which refers to the Mishnah and the Talmud . Eventually, God led them to the land of Israel where the tabernacle was planted in the city of Shiloh for over 300 years to rally the nation against attacking enemies. As time passed, the nation's spiritual level declined to the point that God allowed the Philistines to capture the tabernacle. The people of Israel then told Samuel that they needed to be governed by
17017-428: The Seven Lines. A medium's relationship with their exú or pombagira is considered close, and is mediated through the giving of gifts. Reciprocity is expected when engaging with the spirits, with those seeking their services often providing them with gifts. A person's misfortunes may be interpreted as a reminder that obligations to the spirits have not been met. Many Umbandistas believe that a good medium should maintain
17204-546: The Spiritist influence is more significant across Umbanda as a whole. There are also Umbandist groups that have adopted Kabbalah , or New Age practices. Umbandist groups exist on a spectrum, from those emphasising Spiritist connections to those stressing links with Candomblé and related Afro-Brazilian religions. Groups taking the former position often refer to themselves as practicing Umbanda branca ("White Umbanda"), Umbanda pura ("Pure Umbanda"), or Umbanda limpa ("Clean Umbanda"). The anthropologist Lindsay Hale referred to
17391-556: The Spiritist philosopher Herculano Pires, "Spiritist Philosophy, as Kardec said, generically belongs to what we usually call Spiritualist Philosophy because its view of the Universe is not limited to Matter but extends to Spirit, which it considers as the cause of everything we perceive in the material plane. Embracing in its cosmological interpretation Spiritist Science and resulting in Spiritist Religion, Spiritist Philosophy encompasses
17578-520: The Spirits is eminently Christian." In Posthumous Works , it is stated that Spiritism is "the only truly Christian tradition." Spiritist writers such as José Reis Chaves and Severino Celestino da Silva also claim that reincarnation was part of early Christianity until it was condemned by the Second Council of Constantinople . This controversial thesis was popularized even earlier by Leslie Weatherhead but has also been questioned based on statements from
17765-674: The United States and Canada, with most of the remainder living in Europe, and other groups spread throughout Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Australia. The term Judaism derives from Iudaismus , a Latinized form of the Ancient Greek Ioudaismos ( Koinē Greek : Ἰουδαϊσμός , from the verb ἰουδαΐζειν , "to side with or imitate the [Judeans]"). Its ultimate source was Hebrew : יהודה , romanized : Yehudah Judah ", which
17952-554: The United States, unifying the information he interpreted in order to codify this type of practice and the teachings transmitted. Let us prove to them that, thanks to the teachings of those they call demons, we understand the sublime morality of the Gospel, which is summed up in the love of God and our fellow men, and in universal charity. Let us embrace all of humanity, without distinction of worship, race, origin, and, even more so, family, wealth, and social status. Let them know that our God,
18139-449: The addition of Kardecist . The works themselves disapprove of the use of other expressions like Kardecist , stating that the codified teachings, in their essence, are not linked to the unique figure of a man, as is the case with Christianity or Buddhism , but rather to a collective of spirits whom they believe manifested themselves through various mediums at that historical moment and were expected to continue communicating, thus keeping
18326-407: The alleged communication with spirits. Thus, today the term spiritism refers to various religious and philosophical doctrines that assert the survival of spirits after the death of the body, and primarily in the possibility of communicating with them, either casually or deliberately, through evocations or spontaneously. The term Kardecism is repudiated by some followers of the doctrine who reserve
18513-437: The astral plane. In emphasising the spirits of these socially marginalised groups, Umbanda is sometimes characterised as having an egalitarian nature. Although they are only the emissaries of the orixás , the pretos velhos and caboclos take centre stage in Umbandist rituals. They are particularly prominent during rituals in which practitioners seek assistance with their problems, with Umbandistas approaching these entities in
18700-578: The astral realm are a large number of unidentified guias (spirit guides) and espíritos pretetores (spirit protectors). Other types of spirit found in Umbanda include the boiadeiros (cowboys), crianças (children), marinheiros (sailors), malandros (rogues), ciganos (gypsies) and sereias (mermaids). The crianças are spirits of children and are valued largely for the joy and humor that they bring. Thought to be pure and innocent, they are deemed to enjoy sweets and toys just like living children. In Umbandist rites they are thought to often appear towards
18887-500: The authority of the rabbinic tradition , and the significance of the State of Israel . Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and halakha are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, and that they should be strictly followed. Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditionalist interpretation of Judaism's requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position
19074-478: The basis of the Talmud. According to Abraham ben David , the Mishnah was compiled by Rabbi Judah haNasi after the destruction of Jerusalem, in anno mundi 3949, which corresponds to 189 CE. Over the next four centuries, the Mishnah underwent discussion and debate in both of the world's major Jewish communities (in Israel and Babylonia ). The commentaries from each of these communities were eventually compiled into
19261-471: The belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of mankind. According to the Hebrew Bible, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation. Many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God; that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate God's concern for the world. He also commanded the Jewish people to love one another; that is, Jews are to imitate God's love for people. Thus, although there
19448-454: The belief we have just referred to, the terms Spiritist and Spiritism, whose form recalls the origin and the radical sense and which, for that reason, have the advantage of being perfectly intelligible, leaving to the word spiritualism its own meaning. However, the use of the term, whose root is common to various Western nations of Latin origin or Anglo-Saxon, quickly led to its incorporation into everyday usage to designate everything related to
19635-500: The call to become a medium but that the problems faced became too much and so they relented. Developing one's innate mediumistic abilities then takes training; in Umbanda, it may take seven years or more to train, a process known as desensolver mediunidade ("to develop mediumistic abilities"). While a novice, the medium may be called a cambona or cambono . They will often be tasked with assisting established mediums during Umbandista rituals, for instance as ushers or scribes, writing down
19822-584: The canonical gospels from the perspective of Spiritist Doctrine, addressing the application of Christian moral principles and religious matters such as the practice of worship, prayer, and charity with special attention. The work Heaven and Hell , or Divine Justice According to Spiritism , was published in 1865 and consists of two parts: in the first part, Kardec critically examines philosophical contradictions and inconsistencies with scientific knowledge, which he believes can be overcome through Spiritist paradigm of reasoned faith. Topics covered include: causes of
20009-469: The case of " table-turning ". The supposed case of the Fox sisters in the United States stood out in the late 1840s. The true Spiritist is not the one who believes in the manifestations, but the one who benefits from the teachings given by the Spirits. Belief is of no use if it does not make one take a step forward on the path of progress and make one better towards their neighbor. Regarding his background, Kardec
20196-524: The claims of Arthur Conan Doyle about scientists confirming the alleged spiritual phenomena for 30 years, the mediums deceived the researchers. He considers that these deceptions led to the arrogant language of spiritualist literature. An article published in the British skeptical magazine The Skeptic also criticizes Spiritism for its association with ufology , parapsychology, animal magnetism, and other pseudosciences. Kardec taught that "the teaching of
20383-403: The colors red and black. They are also linked to the obtaining of power, money, and sex. The term exú derives from the name of a Yoruba orisha spirit regarded as a trickster. Exús fall into two main categories. The exús da luz ( exús of the light) or exús batizados (baptised exús ) have repented for their sins and seek redemption and karmic advancement by serving the orixás . In life,
20570-491: The country and to other parts of the Americas. Formed in the state of Rio de Janeiro during the 1920s, Umbanda combines elements of Spiritism ( Espiritismo ) with ideas from Afro-Brazilian religions like Candomblé . Additional influences come from Roman Catholicism , as well as Asian religions like Hinduism and Buddhism . The religion's practitioners are called Umbandistas , while the term Umbanda itself may derive from
20757-460: The country's Romantic literature from the mid-19th century. The term caboclo may derive from the Tupi language term kari'boka ("deriving from the white"). Although associated primarily with indigenous spirits, the term caboclo is also sometimes used for the spirits of cowboys or frontiersmen, or—in parts of northeast Brazil—Turkish kings. Below the caboclos and pretos velhos in the Seven Lines of
20944-484: The creation of the doctrine, aiding its understanding. The scientific investigation of the facts and causes of alleged mediumistic phenomena is the subject of intense study, mainly within the pseudoscience of parapsychology. Scientific investigations on mediumship and other "spiritual phenomena" advocated by Spiritism have taken place/take place even within the academic setting, but although many scientists, including renowned ones, have claimed to have provided evidence for
21131-594: The creation of the universe, the formation of worlds, the emergence of the spirit, and the nature of so-called miracles, according to the Spiritist paradigm of understanding reality. The book Sic Cogito wrote by B.P. Hașdeu and published in 1892 is one of the most important books about spiritism. The book What Is Spiritism? , published in 1859, serves as an introductory and didactic work on Spiritism. The periodical Revue Spirite (in Portuguese, Spiritist Review ), dedicated exclusively to Spiritism-related topics,
21318-605: The data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics , and over 30 million sympathizers, according to the Brazilian Spiritist Federation . Spiritists are also known for influencing and promoting a movement of social assistance and philanthropy. The doctrine has had a strong influence on various other religious currents, such as Santería , Umbanda , and the New Age movements . The term spiritisme
21505-450: The death of this leader; alternatively, their leadership role will often be passed to a family member or, more rarely, to a non-related senior initiate. The chefe may refer to those under them as meus filhos do centros (my children of the centre), reflecting that they constitute a ritual godparent to them. Under the chefe will be the corpo mediúnico (ritual corps), the group of mediums active at that centro . These in turn divide into
21692-551: The disembodied spirit of Samuel , the last of the judges of Israel and the first of the prophets recorded in the history of his people; and the communication of Jesus with Moses and Elijah on Mount Tabor in the Transfiguration of Jesus ( 9 ). Ancient philosophy also provides examples: in Plato's Dialogues , he speaks about the daimon or genius that accompanied Socrates . Many Spiritists adopt March 31, 1848 (the beginning of
21879-509: The doctrinal body in a constant evolutionary process. However, another portion of followers considers the use of the term Kardecism appropriate. These expressions emerged from the need of some to distinguish spiritism (as originally defined by Kardec) from Afro-Brazilian religions such as Umbanda . The latter, discriminated against and persecuted at various times in Brazilian history, began to identify themselves as spiritists (at one point with
22066-461: The end of proceedings, after tiring adult issues have been dealt with. Those mediums possessed by the crianças often giggle, sing nursery rhymes , and perform in a child-like fashion. Umbandistas often hold an annual birthday party for these spirits on the Roman Catholic feast day of the child martyr saints Cosmas and Damian . It is possible that the crianças derive in part from beliefs about
22253-530: The entire doctrine." The Spiritist doctrine, in general, is based on the following points (principles): Additionally, secondary characteristics can be mentioned: Spiritism does not have an official symbol and prioritizes a denotative language. However, the vine branch depicted in The Spirits' Book – the only engraving used by Kardec in the Spiritist Codification – is considered by the doctrine as
22440-456: The establishment of the authority of rabbis who acted as teachers and leaders of individual communities. Unlike other ancient Near Eastern gods, the Hebrew God is portrayed as unitary and solitary; consequently, the Hebrew God's principal relationships are not with other gods, but with the world, and more specifically, with the people he created. Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism :
22627-899: The existence of such phenomena in their research through the scientific method , the existence of spirits is neither established nor proven. Mediumship has been studied by scientists and scholars for more than a century. Many scientists and intellectuals have dedicated themselves to investigations of mediumship and its implications for the mind–body relationship , including: Kardec, Alfred Russel Wallace , B.P. Hașdeu , Alexandre Aksakof, Cesare Lombroso , Camille Flammarion , Carl Jung , Charles Richet , Gabriel Delanne , Frederic Myers , Hans Eysenck, Henri Bergson , Ian Stevenson , J. J. Thomson , J. B. Rhine , James H. Hyslop, Johann K. F. Zöllner , Lord Rayleigh , Marie Curie , Oliver Lodge , Pierre Curie , Pierre Janet , Théodore Flournoy , William Crookes , William James , and William McDougall. The relationship between Spiritism itself and medicine
22814-591: The fear of death, why Spiritists do not fear death, heaven, the Christian hell imitated from the pagan one, limbo, purgatory, doctrine of eternal punishments, penal code of the afterlife, angels, the origin of the belief in demons. The second part contains dozens of dialogues that purportedly took place between Kardec and various spirits, in which they recount their impressions from the afterlife. The book The Genesis According to Spiritism , published in 1868, addresses various philosophical and scientific questions, such as
23001-415: The feast of the old slaves, held on May 13, marking the day in 1888 when slavery was abolished in Brazil . Wayside shrines dedicated to the pretos velhos can be found in various places in Brazil, although in parts of Amazonia, Umbandist groups have often ignored the pretos velhos or subsumed them as a type of caboclo . Brown suggested that the portrayal of the pretos velhos reflected the stereotype of
23188-471: The first Umbandist congress. Umbanda gained increased social recognition and respectability amid the military dictatorship of 1964 to 1985 , despite growing opposition from both the Roman Catholic Church and Pentecostal groups. Since the 1970s, Umbanda has seen some decline due to the resurgent popularity of Candomblé. In Brazil, hundreds of thousands of people formally identify as Umbandistas, but
23375-454: The followers of which are called Umbandistas . A monotheistic religion, Umbanda believes in a single God who is distant from humanity. Beneath this entity are powerful non-human spirits called orixás . In the more Spiritist-oriented wing of the religion, White Umbanda, these are viewed as divine energies or forces of nature; in more Africanised forms they are seen as West African deities and are offered animal sacrifices . The emissaries of
23562-481: The forces of nature, including the sun and moon, waterfalls, and the forest. Their individual names often reflect these links to nature, for instance Caboclo Mata Virgem (Caboclo Virgin Forest) or Caboclo Coral (Caboclo Coral Snake). They are often described as living in the forest, or alternatively in a paradisiacal city in the forest called Jurema. These spirits often have snakes as their companions, something alluded to in
23749-518: The future" but rather the "future of religions". Judaism Judaism ( Hebrew : יַהֲדוּת , romanized : Yahăḏūṯ ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic ethnic religion that comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Jewish people . Religious Jews regard Judaism as their means of observing the Mosaic covenant , which was established between God and
23936-643: The higher their level on the astral plane, and then the better the status of their next incarnation. Umbandistas believe that disincarnate spirits can also build up karmic credit. Practitioners sometimes believe that the events of previous incarnations can influence a person, for instance generating certain irrational fears. Some Umbandistas think that the same spirits can meet repeatedly over successive incarnations. Umbandist morality places key emphasis on caridade ( charity ), something also evident in Spiritism, and which for both religions may derive ultimately from Roman Catholicism. As in Spiritism, for Umbandistas charity
24123-414: The highest ranking spirits, and they will often lead group prayers and deliver sermons during services. Their leadership is often rooted in their individual charisma , and most have full-time jobs other than their role at the centro . Brown noted that, although women predominate as Umbandist mediums, most chefes were men. The second-in-command is the mãe pequena ("little mother"). A centro may close on
24310-402: The hope of receiving advice and protection. In practice, Umbanda strongly emphasises practitioner's personal relationships with these spirit beings, with ritual homage given to them in exchange for cures and advice. This relationship bears similarities with that between devotees and the saints in popular Catholicism. The pretos velhos ("old blacks") are usually, although not always, regarded as
24497-451: The identity of a person's spirit patrons. This is different from Candomblé, where the identity is more often ascertained through forms of divination ; divination in general plays much less of a role in Umbanda than in Candomblé. Knowing the identity of these orixás is deemed to offer a person insights about themselves. Although very different in tone from one another, the pretos velhos and
24684-457: The imperfections of others, and forgiveness of offenses. The Spiritist doctrine aims to establish a dialogue between science, philosophy, and religion, with the goal of obtaining an original form that is both more comprehensive and profound, in order to better understand reality. Kardec synthesizes the concept with the famous phrase: "Unshakable faith is only the one that can confront reason face to face in all epochs of humanity." According to
24871-407: The influence of Theosophy . Brown suggested that these explanations were adopted by Umbandistas eager to dismiss the possibility of their religion having Sub-Saharan African origin. In contrast, various practitioners of Africanised forms of Umbanda have maintained that the religion originally came from Africa. Umbanda is monotheistic . It believes in a single God who is the creator and controller of
25058-427: The interpretations that gave rise to Christianity. Moreover, some have argued that Judaism is a non-creedal religion that does not require one to believe in God. For some, observance of halakha is more important than belief in God per se . The debate about whether one can speak of authentic or normative Judaism is not only a debate among religious Jews but also among historians. In continental Europe , Judaism
25245-466: The island of Jersey (1851–1855), participated in numerous table-turning sessions with his friend Auguste Vacquerie and came to believe that he had made contact with deceased spirits, including his daughter Léopoldine (who had died by drowning) and great writers such as Shakespeare , Dante , Racine , and Molière . Faced with experiences with table-turning, Hugo converted to spiritualism, and in 1867 called for science to pay attention to and take seriously
25432-463: The late 1960s and 1970s, Brown found that around two-thirds of Umbandist mediums were female and a third were male. She noted that while a few were under the age of 18, this was generally discouraged. Most Umbandist mediums take on this role as a result of an initial personal crisis, often physical illness or emotional distress, that they come to believe is being caused by spirits as a means of alerting them. Often, they report that they initially resisted
25619-485: The late 1960s and 1970s, Brown noted that a few centros had "an openly gay orientation" with a largely gay clientele, and in the 21st century some Umbandist priests have conducted same-sex marriages . The orixá Oxumaré, as an entity that spends six months being male and six months being female, is sometimes cited as a patron of gay and bisexual people. Umbandist practices often revolve around clients who approach practitioners seeking assistance, for instance in diagnosing
25806-409: The latter as a means of cleansing and curing them. The caboclos do not derive from any prolonged contact that Umbanda's founders had with indigenous peoples, but instead reflect the popular Indianismo of Brazilian culture. Their portrayal often draws on the stereotype of Brazil's indigenous peoples being " noble savages ", and reflect the heroic depiction of indigenous Brazilians that developed in
25993-472: The living, or because they have been commanded to do so by a feiticeiro (sorcerer) practicing Quimbanda. These negative exús are sometimes also called Exú pagão ( pagan exú ), reflecting the influence of Christian thought. In Umbanda, the exús are often referred to with Christian-derived names like the Devil, Satan, or Lucifer, and are portrayed as being red with horns and tridents, reflecting Christian iconographical influence. The female counterparts of
26180-617: The mediumistic events at the residence of the Fox sisters in Hydesville, US) as the initial milestone of modern mediumistic manifestations, allegedly more ostensive and frequent than ever before, which led many researchers to delve into such phenomena. During the 19th century, there was a great wave of manifestations of mediumship in the United States and Europe. These manifestations consisted mainly of strange noises, knocks on furniture, and objects that moved or floated without any apparent cause, as in
26367-441: The messages from the spirits. Novice mediums may find their early possession experiences uncontrollable, but over time they learn to control it. To mark completion of this training, the medium may be given a necklace, the guia ("guide"); henceforth, they are a medium con guia ("medium with a guide"). Each of a medium's spirits will often have their own unique character. Expert mediums are thought to work with spirits from each of
26554-497: The modern era is even more difficult, given the number and diversity of the contemporary Jewish denominations . Even if to restrict the problem to the most influential intellectual trends of the nineteenth and twentieth century, the matter remains complicated. Thus, for instance, Joseph Soloveitchik's (associated with the Modern Orthodox movement ) answer to modernity is constituted upon the identification of Judaism with following
26741-445: The more Africanist wing as "Afro-Brazilian Umbanda", while fellow anthropologist Diana Brown called it "Africanized Umbanda". Most Umbandist groups exist at points between these two poles. In practice, Afro-Brazilian religions often mix, rather than existing in pure forms, and thus scholars see them as existing on a continuum rather than being firmly distinct from each other. Brown noted that the boundary separating Umbanda from Candomblé
26928-430: The movements observed in the so-called ouija board and the "cup game", in which participants involuntarily move markers over letters and numbers and also attribute the movements to supposed spirits or geniuses . Analyzing these phenomena, Kardec concluded that there was nothing convincing about this method for skeptics because they could believe it to be an effect of electricity, whose properties were little known to
27115-430: The nature of the relationship between orixás and saints. Many Umbandistas regard the orixás and saints as manifestations of the same spiritual force rather than being exactly the same figure; some practitioners believe that these saints were once humans who were physical manifestations of the orixás . Umbanda often teaches that each person has a coroa (crown) of protective spirit entities. The most important of these
27302-484: The next few centuries. Later, two poetic restatements of these principles (" Ani Ma'amin " and " Yigdal ") became integrated into many Jewish liturgies, leading to their eventual near-universal acceptance. The oldest non-Rabbinic instance of articles of faith were formulated, under Islamic influence, by the 12th century Karaite figure Judah ben Elijah Hadassi : (1) God is the Creator of all created beings; (2) He
27489-421: The number who attend Umbandist ceremonies, sometimes on an occasional basis, is in the millions. In its heyday of the 1960s and 1970s, Umbanda was estimated to have between 10 and 20 million followers in Brazil. Reflecting a universalist attitude, practitioners are typically permitted to also follow other religious traditions. Umbanda is found primarily in urban areas of southern Brazil although has spread throughout
27676-438: The original Five Books of Moses . Representing the core of the Jewish spiritual and religious tradition, the Torah is a term and a set of teachings that are explicitly self-positioned as encompassing at least seventy, and potentially infinite, facets and interpretations. Judaism's texts, traditions, and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity and Islam . Hebraism , like Hellenism , played
27863-399: The perfect metaphorical image of the relationship between the spirit and the human body, due to this passage: You shall place at the head of the book the vine branch that we have drawn for you, for it is the emblem of the work of the Creator. All the material principles that can best represent the body and the spirit are contained in it. The body is the vine branch, the spirit is the liquor,
28050-410: The perspective of Christian morality, that is, with the principle of love for one's neighbor, bringing to light new perspectives on various subjects of great philosophical and theological relevance. Thus, one of the basic precepts of Spiritism was established, which is the importance of charity, (Motto: Outside of charity, there is no salvation ), understood as benevolence towards all, indulgence towards
28237-400: The phenomena of table-turning: The table that turns or speaks has been greatly ridiculed. Let us speak plainly. This mockery is unjustifiable. To replace examination with contempt is convenient but unscientific. We believe that the elementary duty of Science is to verify all phenomena because if Science ignores them, it has no right to laugh at them. A wise person who laughs at what is possible
28424-486: The possibility of a muscular hypothesis (such as the ideomotor effect) being the cause of all the alleged movements and messages of the table-turning or other mechanical productions. The mysterious being who responded in this way, when questioned about its nature, declared that it was a spirit or genius , gave its name, and provided various information about itself. Eventually, the phenomenon decreased in popularity and became anecdotal. Victor Hugo , during his exile on
28611-575: The predominance of women as spirit mediums, the scholar Patricia Lerch suggested that Umbanda offered Brazilian women a level of prestige and influence otherwise not offered by the low-paying jobs available to them. Engler noted that Umbanda, like Candomblé, offers "scope for the performance of alternative sexualities in a society governed by very conservative heterosexual gender roles." Afro-Brazilian religions are often stereotyped as attracting gay men, and to avoid this stereotype some male Umbandistas refuse to be possessed by female spirits. Based on research in
28798-437: The religion. Umbandistas believe that the skill of mediumship, or mediunidade , is innate to certain individuals, those capable of vidéncia (seeing) spirit or sensing the spirits' presence through intuition. Umbandist mediums are typically called filhas and filhos de santo (daughters and sons of the saint). Several scholars who have studied the religion have noted that women predominate as spirit mediums. From her research in
28985-451: The revealed Torah consists solely of its written contents, but of its interpretations as well. The study of Torah (in its widest sense, to include both poetry, narrative, and law, and both the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud) is in Judaism itself a sacred act of central importance. For the sages of the Mishnah and Talmud, and for their successors today, the study of Torah was therefore not merely
29172-399: The ritual's participants. Instead, the orixás send their emissaries, the caboclos and pretos velhos , to appear in their place. Nine orixás are commonly found in Umbanda, fewer than the 16 more usually present in Candomblé. The son of Olorun, Oxalá is associated with the sky and regarded as the creator of humanity. Iemanjá is a maternal figure associated with the sea. Nanã is also
29359-431: The sages ( rabbinic leaders) of each subsequent generation. For centuries, the Torah appeared only as a written text transmitted in parallel with the oral tradition. Fearing that the oral teachings might be forgotten, Rabbi Judah haNasi undertook the mission of consolidating the various opinions into one body of law which became known as the Mishnah . The Mishnah consists of 63 tractates codifying halakha , which are
29546-438: The same way that Candomblé's practitioners do. There is nevertheless variation according to group; African-oriented Umbandistas place particular emphasis on the orixás , while they remain far less important in the rituals of White Umbandist groups. For Umbandistas, the orixás are God's intermediaries, and represent elemental forces of nature as well as humanity's primary economic activities. White Umbandist groups often perceive
29733-443: The science of that time. Methods were then used to obtain more elaborate responses through the letters of the alphabet: the table knocking a certain number of times would correspond to the sequential number of each letter, thus forming words and sentences in response to the proposed questions. Kardec concluded that the precision of the answers and their correlation with the questions could not be attributed to chance. He also questioned
29920-419: The shedding of blood. The Birkat Ha-Mitzwot evokes the consciousness of holiness at a rabbinic rite, but the objects employed in the majority of these rites are non-holy and of general character, while the several holy objects are non-theurgic. And not only do ordinary things and occurrences bring with them the experience of God. Everything that happens to a man evokes that experience, evil as well as good, for
30107-416: The socio-economic status quo, and encourages "individual rather than collective responsibility and action". Brown argued that Umbanda inherited the Roman Catholic view that the world was a battleground between good and evil. Umbandistas often embody all the things that they oppose in the term Quimbanda . In the Umbandist view, Quimbanda is associated with evil, immorality, and pollution, and particularly with
30294-624: The sole content of the term. Thus Ioudaïsmós should be translated not as "Judaism" but as Judaeanness. Daniel R. Schwartz, however, argues that "Judaism", especially in the context of the Book of Maccabees, refers to the religion, as opposed to the culture and politics of the Judean state. He believes it reflected the ideological divide between the Pharisees and Sadducees and, implicitly, anti-Hasmonean and pro-Hasmonean factions in Judean society. According to
30481-521: The songs sung about them, and which may derive from certain Afro-Brazilian traditions from northeast Brazil. The caboclos are deemed to have been people who roamed free, and thus can be contrasted with the pretos velhos , who in life were held in bondage. When mediums believe themselves possessed by caboclos , they often adopt stern expressions and make loud, piercing cries, also smoking and drinking alcohol. When these caboclo -possessed individuals perform healing on clients, they often blow cigar smoke over
30668-475: The soul or the spirit linked to matter is the grape. Man refines the spirit through work, and you know that it is only through the work of the body that the Spirit acquires knowledge. Below are some of the main works published by Allan Kardec: The work The Spirits' Book was published in 1857 and contains the fundamental principles of Spiritist Doctrine. The Mediums' Book , or Guide for Mediums and Invokers ,
30855-405: The soul, immortality, rewards and punishments in the afterlife, but it is independent of any particular cult. Its goal is to prove to those who deny or doubt that the soul exists, that it survives the body, and that it experiences, after death, the consequences of the good and evil deeds committed during corporeal life: the goal of all religions." Kardec also clarifies that Spiritism is a religion in
31042-412: The specific identity of each line varies among Umbandistas. This seven-fold division may derive from Theosophy. Each of the Seven Lines is governed by an orixá , a highly evolved spirit who will also have an identity as a Roman Catholic saint . The underworld is also divided into Seven Lines, each of which is led by an exú spirit. Each Line is also internally divided into seven sub-lines; each of these
31229-423: The spirit survives bodily death and goes on successive reincarnations, seeking ever higher levels of spiritual evolution. Everyone is subject to karma, and a person can spiritually evolve through their incarnations. Reincarnation is a central idea for many Umbandistas. Practitioners believe that by serving the spirits and assisting the living they can build up their karmic credit. The higher a person's karmic credit,
31416-443: The spirits of deceased African slaves. They are usually conceived as being elderly, and thus referred to with respectful terms like vovô ("grandfather") and vovó ("grandmother"). The pretos velhos are deemed to be kind, patient, and wise. Despite the suffering they endured in life, they are thought to preach forgiveness and love. They are regarded as healers and counsellors, spirits to whom Umbandistas can bring their problems. When
31603-402: The support of the Brazilian Spiritist Federation ), in an effort to legitimize and consolidate the religious movement, due to the existing proximity between certain concepts and practices of it and Kardec's spiritism. Alexander Moreira de Almeida still attempts this legitimation, even calling Kardec's approach "revolutionary." However, the current scientific consensus considers parapsychology
31790-506: The top of Umbanda's hierarchy of spirits are the orixás , entities often regarded as deities. The term orixá derives from the Yoruba language of West Africa, as do the names of the various orixás themselves, which in Brazil are also employed in the Nagô or Ketu tradition of Candomblé . Although the names of the orixás are drawn from Candomblé, Umbandistas do not typically interpret these beings in
31977-562: The two Talmuds, the Jerusalem Talmud ( Talmud Yerushalmi ) and the Babylonian Talmud ( Talmud Bavli ). These have been further expounded by commentaries of various Torah scholars during the ages. In the text of the Torah, many words are left undefined, and many procedures are mentioned without explanation or instructions. Such phenomena are sometimes offered to validate the viewpoint that the Written Law has always been transmitted with
32164-456: The two religions "siblings". Various Umbandistas have claimed that theirs is not a new religion but an ancient tradition brought to Brazil from elsewhere. Some practitioners have claimed that it derives from ancient Egypt, India, or China, or from the Aztecs or Incas . Others have maintained that Umbanda's origins are either extraterrestrial or from Atlantis . These sort of origin stories reflect
32351-416: The universe, an entity that presides over the astral world but who is distant from humanity. He is sometimes called Olorun , a name of Yoruba origin. Beneath God is a pantheon of spirits that reflect syncretic origins, assembled into what Brown called "a complex, impersonal bureaucracy", and it is these entities thought to intervene in humanity's daily lives. Although it has no authoritative source ensuring
32538-570: The use of exús . Given that Umbanda places focus on combating the harmful influences of exús , a common saying among Umbandistas is that "if it weren't for Quimbanda, Umbanda would have no reason to exist". Brown noted that Quimbanda represented "a crucial negative mirror image against which to define Umbanda," suggesting that it could also serve as an "ideological vehicle for expressing prejudices" towards African-derived and lower class religions. In Brazil, there are also individuals who call themselves Quimbandeiros and openly practice Quimbanda. Noting
32725-567: The word spiritism solely for the doctrine as codified by Kardec, affirming that there are no different branches within spiritism , and they refer to believers of various currents as spiritualists . These followers believe that spiritism, as a doctrinal body, is singular, making the use of the term Kardecist spiritism redundant. Thus, those who adhere to the teachings codified by Kardec in the basic works (with varying degrees of tolerance for concepts that are not strictly doctrinal, such as apometry ) simply identify themselves as spiritists , without
32912-499: Was a disciple of Pestalozzi and a member of various academic societies. His main intention as a Spiritist was to provide some support to human spirituality at a time when science was advancing rapidly and religions were losing more and more followers. Kardec believed he had found a new way of thinking about reality that would bring together, in a balanced way, the rising science and the declining religion. He analyzed accounts of numerous mediumistic occurrences spread throughout Europe and
33099-579: Was centered on a pantheon of gods much like in Greek mythology . According to the Hebrew Bible , a United Monarchy was established under Saul and continued under King David and Solomon with its capital in Jerusalem . After Solomon's reign, the nation split into two kingdoms, the Kingdom of Israel (in the north) and the Kingdom of Judah (in the south). The Kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it
33286-602: Was challenged by various groups such as the Sadducees and Hellenistic Judaism during the Second Temple period ; the Karaites during the early and later medieval period; and among segments of the modern non-Orthodox denominations. Some modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be considered secular or nontheistic . Today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism ( Haredi and Modern Orthodox ), Conservative Judaism , and Reform Judaism . Major sources of difference between these groups are their approaches to halakha (Jewish law),
33473-686: Was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire ; many people were taken captive from the capital Samaria to Media and the Khabur River valley. The Kingdom of Judah continued as an independent state until it was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE. The Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and the First Temple , which was at the center of ancient Jewish worship. The Judeans were exiled to Babylon , in what
33660-518: Was created by the French educator Hippolyte Léon Denizard Rivail (known as Allan Kardec) to specifically name the body of ideas systematized by him in The Spirits' Book (1857). To designate new things, new terms are needed. This is required by the clarity of language in order to avoid the confusion inherent in the variety of meanings of the same words. The words spiritual, spiritualist, spiritualism have
33847-595: Was criticized by Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo . Albo and the Raavad argued that Maimonides' principles contained too many items that, while true, were not fundamentals of the faith Along these lines, the ancient historian Josephus emphasized practices and observances rather than religious beliefs, associating apostasy with a failure to observe halakha and maintaining that the requirements for conversion to Judaism included circumcision and adherence to traditional customs. Maimonides' principles were largely ignored over
34034-521: Was founded by Kardec and directed by him until his death in 1869. It has had the participation of several prominent figures in the doctrine and is currently published quarterly. The work Posthumous Works , published posthumously in January 1890 by the directors of the Parisian Society of Spiritist Studies, is a compilation of unpublished writings by Kardec, with annotations about the behind-the-scenes of
34221-451: Was identical with the tradition understood as the interpretation of Torah, in itself being the history of the constant updates and adjustment of the Law performed by means of the creative interpretation. Finally, David Philipson draws the outlines of the Reform movement in Judaism by opposing it to the strict and traditional rabbinical approach and thus comes to the conclusions similar to that of
34408-416: Was largely "a matter of individual opinion". She added that there was "no general consensus" as to what exactly Umbanda is and what it is not. In Rio de Janeiro, a tradition called Omolocô was established as an intermediate religion between Candomblé and Umbanda. Groups combining elements of Umbanda and Candomblé are sometimes termed "Umbandomblé", although this is rarely embraced by practitioners themselves. In
34595-449: Was published in 1861 and discusses the experimental and investigative nature of Spiritism, seen as a theoretical and methodological tool to understand a "new order of phenomena" that had never been considered by scientific knowledge: the so-called spiritist or mediumistic phenomena, which were believed to be caused by the intervention of spirits in physical reality. The book The Gospel According to Spiritism , published in 1864, evaluates
34782-410: Was recognized as a religio licita ("legitimate religion") until the rise of Gnosticism and Early Christianity in the fourth century. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews, Jewish worship stopped being centrally organized around the Temple, prayer took the place of sacrifice, and worship was rebuilt around the community (represented by a minimum of ten adult men) and
34969-613: Was superior to other gods. Some suggest that strict monotheism developed during the Babylonian Exile, perhaps in reaction to Zoroastrian dualism. In this view, it was only by the Hellenistic period that most Jews came to believe that their god was the only god and that the notion of a bounded Jewish nation identical with the Jewish religion formed. John Day argues that the origins of biblical Yahweh , El , Asherah , and Ba'al , may be rooted in earlier Canaanite religion , which
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