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75-464: Ultra Hand consists of several criss-cross-connected plastic elements, and operates on the "lazy tongs" pantograph principle. One end of the Ultra Hand has scissor -like handles and is operated like scissors, extending when the handles are pinched together and retracting when they are parted. On the other end of the Ultra Hand are two bowl-shaped grips with which ball -like objects can be gripped when

150-424: A polymer blend , such as high impact polystyrene . Large companies may do their own compounding prior to production, but some producers have it done by a third party. Companies that specialize in this work are known as Compounders. The compounding of thermosetting plastic is relatively straightforward; as it remains liquid until it is cured into its final form. For thermosoftening materials, which are used to make

225-464: A "black guck" which he considered useless and irrelevant to his search for synthetic dyes. Baeyer's student, Werner Kleeberg, experimented with phenol and formaldehyde in 1891, but as Baekeland noted "could not crystallize this mess, nor purify it to constant composition, nor in fact do anything with it once produced". Baekeland began to investigate the reactions of phenol and formaldehyde . He familiarized himself with previous work and approached

300-494: A big market success, but is still used to this day (e. g. as a photoresist ). Baekeland continued to explore possible combinations of phenol and formaldehyde, intrigued by the possibility that such materials could be used in molding. By controlling the pressure and temperature applied to phenol and formaldehyde, he produced his dreamed-of hard moldable plastic: Bakelite . Bakelite was made from phenol , then known as carbolic acid, and formaldehyde . The chemical name of Bakelite

375-529: A boy named Anthony "Tony" Baekeland. In 1889, Baekeland and his wife Céline took advantage of a travel scholarship to visit universities in England and the United States. They visited New York City , where he met Professor Charles F. Chandler of Columbia University and Richard Anthony, of the E. and H.T. Anthony photographic company. Professor Chandler was influential in convincing Baekeland to stay in

450-512: A conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-oriented polyacetylene , has been achieved, it does not approach that of most metals. For example, copper has a conductivity of several hundred kS/cm. Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade (break down) upon exposure to sunlight or ultra-violet radiation ; water or dampness; bacteria; enzymes; or wind abrasion. Attack by insects, such as waxworms and mealworms, can also be considered as forms of biodegradation. Aerobic degradation requires that

525-619: A finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of its parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the World Health Organization 's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized vinyl chloride , the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen. Some plastic products degrade to chemicals with estrogenic activity. The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA),

600-408: A large molecular weight, they are biochemically inert. Plastic products contain a variety of additives, however, some of which can be toxic. For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like PVC to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over

675-417: A material with inconsistent properties, which can be unappealing to industry. For example, mixing different colored plastics with different plastic colorants together can produce a discolored or brown material and for this reason plastic is usually sorted by both polymer type and color before recycling. Absence of transparency and reporting across the value chain often results in lack of knowledge concerning

750-581: A meeting of the New York section of the American Chemical Society . In 1917, Baekeland became a professor by special appointment at Columbia University . The Smithsonian has documents from the county courthouse for Westchester County in White Plains, New York, indicating that he was admitted to U. S. Citizenship on December 16, 1919. In 1922, after patent litigation favorable to Baekeland,

825-495: A mixture of private and state-owned enterprises. Roughly half of all production takes place in East Asia, with China being the largest single producer. Major international producers include: Historically, Europe and North America have dominated global plastics production. However, since 2010 Asia has emerged as a significant producer, with China accounting for 31% of total plastic resin production in 2020. Regional differences in

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900-486: A new disease caused solely by plastics, was discovered in seabirds. The birds identified as having the disease have scarred digestive tracts from ingesting plastic waste. "When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, they found, it inflames the digestive tract. Over time, the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured, affecting digestion, growth and survival." Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water, and because they have

975-692: A particular purpose. Examples include thermoplastics , thermosets , conductive polymers , biodegradable plastics , engineering plastics and elastomers . One important classification of plastics is the degree to which the chemical processes used to make them are reversible or not. Thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and thus can be molded repeatedly. Examples include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape only once: after they have solidified, they stay solid. If reheated, thermosets decompose rather than melt. In

1050-674: A pattern of more regularly spaced atoms, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), and polyether ether ketone (PEEK). However, some plastics are partially amorphous and partially crystalline in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point and one or more glass transitions (the temperature above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). These so-called semi-crystalline plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes. Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. While

1125-432: A production-quality electrolytic cell. Baekeland was hired as an independent consultant, with the responsibility of constructing and operating a pilot plant. Baekeland developed a stronger diaphragm cell for the chloralkali process , using woven asbestos cloth filled with a mixture of iron oxide , asbestos fibre, and iron hydroxide . Baekeland's improvements were important to the founding of Hooker Chemical Company and

1200-449: A spell of illness and disappearing funds made him rethink his actions and he decided to return to his old interest of producing a photographic paper that would allow enlargements to be printed by artificial light. After two years of intensive effort, he perfected the process to produce the paper, which he named "Velox"; it was the first commercially successful photographic paper. At the time, the US

1275-519: A turnover of more than 360 billion euros per year. In China in 2016 there were over 15,000 plastic manufacturing companies, generating more than US$ 366 billion in revenue. In 2017, the global plastics market was dominated by thermoplastics – polymers that can be melted and recast. Thermoplastics include polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS) and synthetic fibers, which together represent 86% of all plastics. Plastic

1350-594: A variety of shapes: films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles and boxes, among many others. Plasticity also has a technical definition in materials science outside the scope of this article; it refers to the non-reversible change in form of solid substances. Most plastics contain organic polymers. The vast majority of these polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms, with or without the attachment of oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. These chains comprise many repeating units formed from monomers . Each polymer chain consists of several thousand repeating units. The backbone

1425-921: A wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be molded , extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties, such as being lightweight, durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to their widespread use. Plastics typically are made through human industrial systems. Most modern plastics are derived from fossil fuel-based chemicals like natural gas or petroleum ; however, recent industrial methods use variants made from renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives. Between 1950 and 2017 9.2 billion metric tons of plastic are estimated to have been made; more than half of this has been produced since 2004. In 2020, 400 million tons of plastic were produced. If global trends on plastic demand continue, it

1500-645: Is a Dutch word meaning 'Land of Beacons.'" He spent much of his early life in Ghent, Belgium . He graduated with honours from the Ghent Municipal Technical School and was awarded a scholarship by the City of Ghent to study chemistry at the Ghent University , which he entered in 1880. He acquired a PhD maxima cum laude at the age of 21. After a brief appointment as Professor of Physics and Chemistry at

1575-403: Is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife, and have harmful impacts on human health or on the environment. Other additives proven to be harmful such as cadmium , chromium , lead and mercury (regulated under

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1650-518: Is an estrogen-like endocrine disruptor that may leach into food. Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans, dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase the body weight of lab animals' offspring. A more recent animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease. As of January 2010,

1725-555: Is as packaging materials, but they are used in a wide range of other sectors, including: construction (pipes, gutters, door and windows), textiles ( stretchable fabrics , fleece ), consumer goods (toys, tableware, toothbrushes), transportation (headlights, bumpers, body panels , wing mirrors ), electronics (phones, computers, televisions) and as machine parts. In optics, plastics are used to manufacture aspheric lenses. Additives are chemicals blended into plastics to change their performance or appearance, making it possible to alter

1800-488: Is burned, especially when burning is uncontrolled or takes place in low- technology incinerators, as is common in many developing countries. Incomplete combustion can cause emissions of hazardous substances such as acid gases and ash which can contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dioxins . A number of additives identified as hazardous to humans and/or the environment are regulated internationally. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

1875-496: Is estimated that annual global plastic production will reach over 1.1 billion tons by 2050. The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century has caused widespread environmental problems, due to their slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems. Most plastic produced has not been reused, or is incapable of reuse, either being captured in landfills or persisting in the environment as plastic pollution and microplastics . Plastic pollution can be found in all

1950-446: Is not sold as a pure unadulterated substance, but is instead mixed with various chemicals and other materials, which are collectively known as additives. These are added during the compounding stage and include substances such as stabilizers , plasticizers and dyes , which are intended to improve the lifespan, workability or appearance of the final item. In some cases, this can involve mixing different types of plastic together to form

2025-414: Is performed by simply remelting and reforming used plastic into new items. Additives present risks in recycled products, as they are difficult to remove. When plastic products are recycled, it is highly likely that the additives will be integrated into the new products. Waste plastic, even if it is all of the same polymer type, will contain varying types and amounts of additives. Mixing these together can give

2100-460: Is polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride. In compression molding, the resin is generally combined with fillers such as wood or asbestos , before pressing it directly into the final shape of the product. Baekeland's process patent for making insoluble products of phenol and formaldehyde was filed in July 1907, and granted on December 7, 1909. In February 1909, Baekeland officially announced his achievement at

2175-448: Is the part of the chain that is on the main path , linking together a large number of repeat units. To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups called side chains hang from this backbone; they are usually hung from the monomers before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain. The structure of these side chains influences the properties of the polymer. Plastics are usually classified by

2250-585: The Los Angeles Times reported that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is spending $ 30 million to investigate indications of BPA's link to cancer. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate , present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the volatile organic compounds present in new car smell . The EU has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009, the US government banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in plastic. Because

2325-464: The Minamata Convention on Mercury ), which have previously been used in plastic production, are banned in many jurisdictions. However they are still routinely found in some plastic packaging including food packaging. The use of the additive bisphenol A (BPA) in plastic baby bottles is banned in many parts of the world, but is not restricted in some low-income countries. In 2023, plasticosis ,

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2400-714: The Perkin Medal in 1916 and the Franklin Medal in 1940. In 1974 he was posthumously inducted into the Plastics Hall of Fame and in 1978 he was likewise inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in Akron, Ohio . At the time of Baekeland's death in 1944, the world production of Bakelite was ca. 175,000 tons, and it was used in over 15,000 different products. He held more than 100 patents, including processes for

2475-564: The Plastics Industry " for his invention of Bakelite, an inexpensive, non-flammable and versatile plastic , which marked the beginning of the modern plastics industry . Leo Baekeland was born in Ghent , Belgium, on November 14, 1863, the son of a cobbler , Charles Baekeland, and a house maid, Rosalia Merchie. His siblings were: Elodia Maria Baekeland; Melonia Leonia Baekeland; Edmundus Baekeland; Rachel Helena Baekeland and Delphina Baekeland. He told The Literary Digest : "The name

2550-462: The polymerization of their starting materials ( monomers ); which are almost always petrochemical in nature. Such facilities are normally large and are visually similar to oil refineries , with sprawling pipework running throughout. The large size of these plants allows them to exploit economies of scale . Despite this, plastic production is not particularly monopolized, with about 100 companies accounting for 90% of global production. This includes

2625-556: The 1950s. Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8.3 billion tons of plastic, of which 6.3 billion tons is waste, with only 9% getting recycled. Leo Baekeland Leo Hendrik Baekeland HonFRSE (November 14, 1863 – February 23, 1944) was a Belgian chemist. Educated in Belgium and Germany, he spent most of his career in the United States. He is best known for the inventions of Velox photographic paper in 1893, and Bakelite in 1907. He has been called "The Father of

2700-491: The EU, over 400 additives are used in high volumes. In a global market analysis, 5,500 additives were found. At a minimum, all plastic contains some polymer stabilizers which permit them to be melt-processed (molded) without suffering polymer degradation . Other additives are optional and can be added as required, with loadings varying significantly between applications. The amount of additives contained in plastics varies depending on

2775-940: The General Bakelite Co., which he had founded in 1910, along with the Condensite Co. founded by Aylesworth, and the Redmanol Chemical Products Company founded by Lawrence V. Redman , were merged into the Bakelite Corporation. The invention of Bakelite marks the beginning of the age of plastics . Bakelite was the first plastic invented that retained its shape after being heated. Radios , telephones and electrical insulators were made of Bakelite because of its excellent electrical insulation and heat-resistance. Soon, its applications spread to most branches of industry. Baekeland received many awards and honors, both during his lifetime and beyond, including

2850-558: The Government Higher Normal School in Bruges (1887–1889), he was appointed associate professor of chemistry at Ghent University in 1889. Baekeland married Céline Swarts  [ Wikidata ] (1868–1944) on August 8, 1889, and they had two children. One of their grandsons, Brooks (whose father was George Washington Baekeland) married the model Barbara Daly a.k.a. Barbara Daly Baekeland in 1942 and had one child,

2925-481: The Greek πλαστικός ( plastikos ), meaning "capable of being shaped or molded ;" in turn, it is from πλαστός ( plastos ) meaning "molded." As a noun , the word most commonly refers to the solid products of petrochemical-derived manufacturing. The noun plasticity refers specifically here to the deformability of the materials used in the manufacture of plastics. Plasticity allows molding , extrusion or compression into

3000-547: The North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA region) accounts for 21% of global plastic consumption, closely followed by China (20%) and Western Europe (18%). In North America and Europe, there is high per capita plastic consumption (94 kg and 85 kg/capita/year, respectively). In China, there is lower per capita consumption (58 kg/capita/year), but high consumption nationally because of its large population. The largest application for plastics

3075-550: The Ultra Hand is fully extended. Three colored balls were included in the Ultra Hand package, along with stands on which the balls can rest. Ultra Hand was a commercial success, selling more than one million units. It is the first of several toys developed by Yokoi that helped to save the company from financial difficulties. A WiiWare game titled Grill-Off with Ultra Hand! was released in North America on March 31, 2010 as an exclusive to Club Nintendo members. The game features

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3150-676: The Ultra Hand stretching out to grab cooked meats from barbecue grills. In single-player mode, the goal is to last as long as possible. In two-player mode, players compete for the most points in 90 seconds. The Ultrahand ability in The Legend of Zelda: Tears of the Kingdom is named after the Ultra Hand, taking the form of waves of energy that allow Link to grab, reposition, and combine objects. The Ultra Hand has appeared in various other Nintendo games, including Splatoon 3 , WarioWare Gold , and Mario Kart 8 . Plastic Plastics are

3225-499: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) revealed that out of 3,377 chemicals potentially associated with plastic packaging and 906 likely associated with it, 68 were ranked by ECHA as "highest for human health hazards" and 68 as "highest for environmental hazards". As additives change the properties of plastics they have to be considered during recycling. Presently, almost all recycling

3300-478: The United States. Baekeland had already invented a process to develop photographic plates using water instead of other chemicals, which he had patented in Belgium in 1887. Although this method was unreliable, Anthony saw potential in the young chemist and offered him a job. Baekeland worked for the Anthony company for two years, and in 1891, set up in business for himself working as a consulting chemist. However,

3375-486: The additives' function. For example, additives in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can constitute up to 80% of the total volume. Pure unadulterated plastic (barefoot resin) is never sold, even by the primary producers. Additives may be weakly bound to the polymers or react in the polymer matrix. Although additives are blended into plastic they remain chemically distinct from it, and can gradually leach back out during normal use, when in landfills, or following improper disposal in

3450-534: The birth of the plastic industry in the 1950s, global production has increased enormously, reaching 400 million tonnes a year in 2021; this is up from 381 million metric tonnes in 2015 (excluding additives). From the 1950s, rapid growth occurred in the use of plastics for packaging, in building and construction, and in other sectors. If global trends on plastic demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic production will exceed 1.1 billion tonnes annually. Plastics are produced in chemical plants by

3525-690: The chemical profile of the final products. For example, products containing brominated flame retardants have been incorporated into new plastic products. Flame retardants are a group of chemicals used in electronic and electrical equipment, textiles, furniture and construction materials which should not be present in food packaging or child care products. A recent study found brominated dioxins as unintentional contaminants in toys made from recycled plastic electronic waste that contained brominated flame retardants. Brominated dioxins have been found to exhibit toxicity similar to that of chlorinated dioxins. They can have negative developmental effects and negative effects on

3600-448: The chemical structure of most plastics renders them durable, they are resistant to many natural degradation processes. Much of this material may persist for centuries or longer, given the demonstrated persistence of structurally similar natural materials such as amber . There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since

3675-802: The chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side chains. Important groups classified in this way include the acrylics , polyesters , silicones , polyurethanes , and halogenated plastics . Plastics can be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as condensation , polyaddition , and cross-linking . They can also be classified by their physical properties, including hardness , density , tensile strength , thermal resistance , and glass transition temperature . Plastics can additionally be classified by their resistance and reactions to various substances and processes, such as exposure to organic solvents, oxidation , and ionizing radiation . Other classifications of plastics are based on qualities relevant to manufacturing or product design for

3750-452: The commodity plastics, with many having exceptional properties. Engineering plastics are more robust and are used to make products such as vehicle parts, building and construction materials, and some machine parts. In some cases they are polymer blends formed by mixing different plastics together (ABS, HIPS etc.). Engineering plastics can replace metals in vehicles, lowering their weight and improving fuel efficiency by 6–8%. Roughly 50% of

3825-571: The construction of one of the world's largest electrochemical plants, at Niagara Falls . Baekeland was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1935 and the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1936. Having been successful with Velox, Baekeland set out to find another promising area for chemical development. As he had done with Velox, he looked for a problem that offered "the best chance for

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3900-457: The developing world, the applications of plastic may differ; 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging. In the medical field, polymer implants and other medical devices are derived at least partially from plastic. Worldwide, about 50 kg of plastic is produced annually per person, with production doubling every ten years. The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite , invented in New York in 1907, by Leo Baekeland , who coined

3975-651: The effects of such leachates , the EU has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and the US has limited the use of DEHP, DPB , BBP , DINP , DIDP , and DnOP in children's toys and child-care articles through the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act . Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens (cancer-causing substances). Other chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols . While

4050-401: The environment. Additives may also degrade to form other toxic molecules. Plastic fragmentation into microplastics and nanoplastics can allow chemical additives to move in the environment far from the point of use. Once released, some additives and derivatives may persist in the environment and bioaccumulate in organisms. They can have adverse effects on human health and biota. A recent review by

4125-447: The field systematically, carefully controlling and examining the effects of temperature, pressure, and the types and proportions of materials used. The first application that appeared promising was the development of a synthetic replacement for shellac (made from the secretion of lac beetles ). Baekeland produced a soluble phenol-formaldehyde shellac called " Novolak " but concluded that its properties were inferior. It never became

4200-407: The finite limits of fossil fuel reserves and to rising levels of greenhouse gases caused primarily by the burning of those fuels, the development of bioplastics is a growing field. Global production capacity for bio-based plastics is estimated at 327,000 tonnes per year. In contrast, global production of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), the world's leading petrochemical-derived polyolefins,

4275-568: The host resin. Masterbatch granules can be mixed with cheaper bulk polymer and will release their additives during processing to give a homogeneous final product. This can be cheaper than working with a fully compounded material and is particularly common for the introduction of color. Companies that produce finished goods are known as converters (sometimes processors). The vast majority of plastics produced worldwide are thermosoftening and must be heated until molten in order to be molded. Various sorts of extrusion equipment exist which can then form

4350-604: The majority of products, it is necessary to melt the plastic in order to mix-in the additives. This involves heating it to anywhere between 150–320 °C (300–610 °F). Molten plastic is viscous and exhibits laminar flow , leading to poor mixing. Compounding is therefore done using extrusion equipment, which is able to supply the necessary heat and mixing to give a properly dispersed product. The concentrations of most additives are usually quite low, however high levels can be added to create Masterbatch products. The additives in these are concentrated but still properly dispersed in

4425-450: The nervous system and interfere with mechanisms of the endocrine system. Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to their additives, as some compounds can be persistent, bioaccumulating and potentially harmful. The now banned flame retardants OctaBDE and PentaBDE are an example of this, while the health effects of phthalates are an ongoing area of public concern. Additives can also be problematic if waste

4500-709: The plastic be exposed at the surface, whereas anaerobic degradation would be effective in landfill or composting systems. Some companies produce biodegradable additives to enhance biodegradation. Although starch powder can be added as a filler to allow some plastics to degrade more easily, such treatment does not lead to complete breakdown. Some researchers have genetically engineered bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics, such as polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB); however, these were still relatively costly as of 2021. While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, bioplastics are made substantially from renewable plant materials like cellulose and starch. Due both to

4575-571: The plastic into almost any shape. For thermosetting materials the process is slightly different, as the plastics are liquid to begin with and but must be cured to give solid products, but much of the equipment is broadly similar. The most commonly produced plastic consumer products include packaging made from LDPE (e.g. bags, containers, food packaging film), containers made from HDPE (e.g. milk bottles, shampoo bottles, ice cream tubs), and PET (e.g. bottles for water and other drinks). Together these products account for around 36% of plastics use in

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4650-464: The preferred choice for the mass production everyday objects. Their biggest single application is in packaging, with some 146 million tonnes being used this way in 2015, equivalent to 36% of global production. Due to their dominance; many of the properties and problems commonly associated with plastics, such as pollution stemming from their poor biodegradability , are ultimately attributable to commodity plastics. A huge number of plastics exist beyond

4725-413: The properties of plastics to better suit their intended applications. Additives are therefore one of the reasons why plastic is used so widely. Plastics are composed of chains of polymers. Many different chemicals are used as plastic additives. A randomly chosen plastic product generally contains around 20 additives. The identities and concentrations of additives are generally not listed on products. In

4800-441: The quickest possible results". Asked why he entered the field of synthetic resins , Baekeland answered that his intention was to make money. By the 1900s, chemists had begun to recognize that many of the natural resins and fibers were polymeric , a term introduced in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius . Adolf von Baeyer had experimented with phenols and aldehydes in 1872, particularly pyrogallol and benzaldehyde . He created

4875-599: The requirements of the Nepera sale was, in effect, a non-compete clause : Baekeland agreed not to do research in photography for at least 20 years. He would have to find a new area of research. His first step was to go to Germany in 1900, for a "refresher in electrochemistry" at the Technical Institute at Charlottenburg. Upon returning to the United States, Baekeland was involved briefly but successfully in helping Clinton Paul Townsend and Elon Huntington Hooker to develop

4950-574: The separation of copper and cadmium , and for the impregnation of wood. As Baekeland grew older he became more eccentric, entering fierce battles with his son and presumptive heir over salary and other issues. He sold the General Bakelite Company to Union Carbide in 1939 and, at his son's prompting, he retired. He became a recluse, attempting to develop an immense tropical garden on his winter estate in Coconut Grove, Florida . He died of

5025-528: The term "plastics". Dozens of different types of plastics are produced today, such as polyethylene , which is widely used in product packaging , and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), used in construction and pipes because of its strength and durability. Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger , who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry ," and Herman Mark , known as "the father of polymer physics ". The word plastic derives from

5100-762: The thermosetting process, an irreversible chemical reaction occurs. The vulcanization of rubber is an example of this process. Before heating in the presence of sulfur, natural rubber ( polyisoprene ) is a sticky, slightly runny material; after vulcanization, the product is dry and rigid. Around 70% of global production is concentrated in six major polymer types, the so-called commodity plastics . Unlike most other plastics these can often be identified by their resin identification code (RIC): Polyurethanes (PUR) and PP&A fibers are often also included as major commodity classes, although they usually lack RICs, as they are chemically quite diverse groups. These materials are inexpensive, versatile and easy to work with, making them

5175-458: The transaction. With a portion of the money he purchased "Snug Rock", a house in Yonkers, New York, where he set up his own well-equipped laboratory. There, he later said, "in comfortable financial circumstances, a free man, ready to devote myself again to my favorite studies... I enjoyed for several years that great blessing, the luxury of not being interrupted in one's favorite work." One of

5250-444: The volume of modern cars is made of plastic, but this only accounts for 12–17% of the vehicle weight. High-performance plastics are usually expensive, with their use limited to specialized applications which make use of their superior properties. Many plastics are completely amorphous (without a highly ordered molecular structure), including thermosets, polystyrene, and methyl methacrylate (PMMA). Crystalline plastics exhibit

5325-511: The volume of plastics production are driven by user demand, the price of fossil fuel feedstocks, and investments made in the petrochemical industry. For example, since 2010 over US$ 200 billion has been invested in the United States in new plastic and chemical plants, stimulated by the low cost of raw materials. In the European Union (EU), too, heavy investments have been made in the plastics industry, which employs over 1.6 million people with

5400-497: The world's major water bodies , for example, creating garbage patches in all of the world's oceans and contaminating terrestrial ecosystems. Of all the plastic discarded so far, some 14% has been incinerated and less than 10% has been recycled. In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and roughly the same in buildings in applications such as piping , plumbing or vinyl siding . Other uses include automobiles (up to 20% plastic ), furniture, and toys. In

5475-726: The world. Most of them (e.g. disposable cups, plates, cutlery, takeaway containers, carrier bags) are used for only a short period, many for less than a day. The use of plastics in building and construction, textiles, transportation and electrical equipment also accounts for a substantial share of the plastics market. Plastic items used for such purposes generally have longer life spans. They may be in use for periods ranging from around five years (e.g. textiles and electrical equipment) to more than 20 years (e.g. construction materials, industrial machinery). Plastic consumption differs among countries and communities, with some form of plastic having made its way into most people's lives. North America (i.e.

5550-638: Was estimated at over 150 million tonnes in 2015. The plastic industry includes the global production, compounding , conversion and sale of plastic products. Although the Middle East and Russia produce most of the required petrochemical raw materials, the production of plastic is concentrated in the global East and West. The plastic industry comprises a huge number of companies and can be divided into several sectors: Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made, with more than half this having been produced since 2004. Since

5625-596: Was suffering a recession and there were no investors or buyers for his proposed new product, so Baekeland became partners with Leonard Jacobi and established the Nepera Chemical Company in Nepera Park, Yonkers, New York . In 1899, Jacobi, Baekeland, and Albert Hahn, a further associate, sold Nepera to George Eastman of the Eastman Kodak Co. for $ 750,000. Baekeland earned approximately $ 215,000 net through

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