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67-499: The castle was first mentioned in 1364 in medieval documents as the name of a land district. Built from the cut stone , it was an important stronghold of Croatian troops during the Wars of Ottoman expansion in the 15th century. At the time of the Battle of Krbava, it was owned by Croatian Kurjaković noble family, a.k.a. dukes of Krbava (Corbavia). Before the battle itself, Karlo Kurjaković,

134-420: A laboratory or factory . Mining in a wider sense comprises extraction of any resource (e.g. petroleum , natural gas , salt or even water ) from the earth. Mining of rock and metals has been done since prehistoric times. Modern mining processes involve prospecting for mineral deposits, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and finally reclamation of

201-425: A crane reduces labor, accelerates construction, and allows the masons to precisely and quickly position the blocks. MP stone is defined by four design attributes. MP stone construction has advantages over conventional masonry and concrete construction. Fernand Pouillon pioneered the use of massive precut stone in modern architecture. During the post-war period, his innovative approach to stone construction led to

268-518: A distinguished Croatian nobleman, who possessed a large part of Lika , including Udbina, suddenly died, leaving his wife Dorotea Kurjaković née Frankopan and his little son, Ivan (* 1485; † 1531), future ban (Viceroy) of Croatia (who ruled 1521–1524 and 1527–1531) and the last male member of the Kurjaković family, in the castle. Both of them observed the course of the battle in the field below, without interfering. The castle wasn't involved in

335-427: A fence than a serious obstacle to artillery. At the bottom, the castle was more open, which may have been due to an inaccessible slope and the impossibility of attacking from that side. During the excavations, larger quantities of ceramics , iron and glass objects and, burnt wooden beams as well as two stone cannonballs were found. All that shows a continuity of life and the importance of Udbina, especially in

402-572: A fine finish on the stone. A drove chisel is used for smoothing off roughly finished stones. Mixing mortar is normally done today with mortar mixers which usually use a rotating drum or rotating paddles to mix the mortar. The masonry trowel is used for the application of the mortar between and around the stones as they are set into place. Filling in the gaps (joints) with mortar is referred to as pointing. Pointing in smaller joints can be accomplished using tuck pointers , pointing trowels , and margin trowels , among other tools. A mason's hammer has

469-402: A fourth class of rocks alongside igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Rock varies greatly in strength, from quartzites having a tensile strength in excess of 300 MPa to sedimentary rock so soft it can be crumbled with bare fingers (that is, it is friable ). (For comparison, structural steel has a tensile strength of around 350 MPa. ) Relatively soft, easily worked sedimentary rock

536-417: A good way to learn about stonemasonry also. Those wishing to become stonemasons should have little problem working at heights, possess reasonable hand-eye coordination, be moderately physically fit, and have basic mathematical ability. Most of these things can be developed while learning. The modern stonemason undergoes comprehensive training, both in the classroom and in the working environment. Hands-on skill

603-433: A huge impact on the cultural and technological development of the human race. Rock has been used by humans and other hominids for at least 2.5 million years . Lithic technology marks some of the oldest and continuously used technologies. The mining of rock for its metal content has been one of the most important factors of human advancement, and has progressed at different rates in different places, in part because of

670-541: A long thin head and is called a Punch Hammer. It would be used with a chisel or splitter for a variety of purposes A walling hammer (catchy hammer) can be used in place of a hammer and chisel or pincher to produce rubble or pinnings or snecks. Stonemasons use a lewis together with a crane or block and tackle to hoist building stones into place. Today power tools such as compressed-air chisels, abrasive spinners, and angle grinders are much used: these save time and money, but are hazardous and require just as much skill as

737-571: A masonry engineer at a quarry in Fontvieille, to adapt high-precision saws from the timber industry to quarrying and stone sawing. The key technique of massive precut (MP) stone is to cut stone ashlars to precise dimensions that match the architect's plan such that the stones can be dropped into place by crane for rapid construction. The blocks may be numbered so that the masons can follow the plan procedurally. The use of massive blocks reduces costs by minimizing sawing and fixer-masonry costs. The use of

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804-572: A simple ‘quality assurance’ system. The Renaissance saw stonemasonry return to the prominence and sophistication of the Classical age . The rise of the humanist philosophy gave people the ambition to create marvelous works of art. The centre stage for the Renaissance would prove to be Italy, where Italian city-states such as Florence erected great structures, including the Florence Cathedral ,

871-530: A single piece, but drill limitations and other considerations mean it is typically an assembly of multiple components with mortar between pieces. PT stone has been used in both vertical columns (posts), and in horizontal beams (lintels). It has also been used in more unusual engineering applications: arch stabilization, flexible foot bridges, and cantilevered sculptures. Tensioned stone has a close affiliation with massive precut stone as two central techniques of modern stonemasonry . "Post-tensioned stone increases

938-562: A source area and then transported to the place of deposition by water , wind , ice , mass movement or glaciers (agents of denudation ). About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consists of 6% limestone and 12% sandstone and arkoses . Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils . Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or strata , and may be referred to as stratified rocks. Sediment and

1005-713: A texture are referred to as foliated ; the remainders are termed non-foliated. The name of the rock is then determined based on the types of minerals present. Schists are foliated rocks that are primarily composed of lamellar minerals such as micas . A gneiss has visible bands of differing lightness , with a common example being the granite gneiss. Other varieties of foliated rock include slates , phyllites , and mylonite . Familiar examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks include marble , soapstone , and serpentine . This branch contains quartzite —a metamorphosed form of sandstone —and hornfels . Though most understanding of rocks comes from those of Earth, rocks make up many of

1072-572: A wide variety of tools to handle and shape stone blocks ( ashlar ) and slabs into finished articles. The basic tools for shaping the stone are a mallet , chisels , and a metal straight edge . With these one can make a flat surface – the basis of all stonemasonry. Chisels come in a variety of sizes and shapes, dependent upon the function for which they are being used and have many different names depending on locality. There are different chisels for different materials and sizes of material being worked, for removing large amounts of material and for putting

1139-521: Is a modern method of building with load-bearing stone. Precut stone is a DFMA construction method that uses large machine-cut stone blocks with precisely defined dimensions to rapidly assemble buildings in which stone is used as a major or the primary load-bearing material. Massive precut stone construction was originally developed by Fernand Pouillon in postwar period who referred to the method as "pierre de taille" or "pré-taille" stone. It became possible through innovations by Pouillon and Paul Marcerou,

1206-401: Is complemented by an intimate knowledge of each stone type, its application, and best uses, and how to work and fix each stone in place. The mason may be skilled and competent to carry out one or all of the various branches of stonemasonry. In some areas, the trend is towards specialization, in other areas towards adaptability. Today's stonemasons undergo training that is quite comprehensive and

1273-751: Is done both in the work environment and in the classroom. It isn't enough to have hands-on skills only. One must also have knowledge of the types of stones as well as its best uses and how to work it as well as how to fix it in place. Stonemasons use all types of natural stone: igneous , metamorphic and sedimentary ; while some also use artificial stone as well. Many of the world's most famous buildings have been built of sedimentary stone, from Durham Cathedral to St Peter's in Rome . There are two main types of sedimentary stone used in masonry work, limestones and sandstones . Examples of limestones include Bath and Portland stone . Yorkstone and Sydney sandstone are

1340-458: Is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava . This magma may be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet 's mantle or crust . Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition. Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories: Magmas tend to become richer in silica as they rise towards

1407-490: Is next in importance. About 65% of the Earth's crust by volume consists of igneous rocks. Of these, 66% are basalt and gabbro , 16% are granite, and 17% granodiorite and diorite . Only 0.6% are syenite and 0.3% are ultramafic . The oceanic crust is 99% basalt, which is an igneous rock of mafic composition. Granite and similar rocks, known as granitoids , dominate the continental crust . Sedimentary rocks are formed at

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1474-551: Is one of the earliest trades in civilization 's history. During the time of the Neolithic Revolution and domestication of non-human animals, people learned how to use fire to create quicklime , plasters , and mortars. They used these to fashion homes for themselves with mud, straw or stone, and masonry was born. The Ancients heavily relied on the stonemason to build the most impressive and long-lasting monuments to their civilizations. The Egyptians built their pyramids ,

1541-453: Is the study of Earth and its components, including the study of rock formations. Petrology is the study of the character and origin of rocks. Mineralogy is the study of the mineral components that create rocks. The study of rocks and their components has contributed to the geological understanding of Earth's history, the archaeological understanding of human history, and the development of engineering and technology in human society. While

1608-650: The Fountain of Neptune , and the Laurentian Library , which was planned and built by Michelangelo Buonarroti , a famous sculptor of the Renaissance. When Europeans settled the Americas, they brought the stonemasonry techniques of their respective homelands with them. Settlers used what materials were available, and in some areas, stone was the material of choice. In the first waves, building mimicked that of Europe, to eventually be replaced by unique architecture later on. In

1675-891: The Great Wall of China , the Mesoamerican pyramids , Chartres Cathedral , and the Stari Most . While stone was important traditionally, it fell out of use in the modern era, in favor of brick and steel-reinforced concrete. This is despite the advantages of stone over concrete. Those advantages include: Modern stonemasonry is in the process of reinventing itself for automation, modern load-bearing stone construction, innovative reinforcement techniques , and integration with other sustainable materials, like engineered wood . Stone has been used in construction for thousands of years, in many contexts. Listed below are six types of classical stonemasonry techniques, some of which still see widespread use. In

1742-537: The Renaissance , the stonemason's guild admitted members who were not stonemasons, and eventually evolved into the Society of Freemasonry ; fraternal groups which observe the traditional culture of stonemasons but are not typically involved in modern construction projects. A medieval stonemason would often carve a personal symbol onto their block to differentiate their work from that of other stonemasons. This also provided

1809-417: The asthenosphere . The study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including petrology and mineralogy . It may be limited to rocks found on Earth, or it may include planetary geology that studies the rocks of other celestial objects. Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks , sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks . Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in

1876-435: The guild , gave rise to three classes of stonemasons: apprentices , journeymen , and master masons . Apprentices were indentured to their masters as the price for their training, journeymen were qualified craftsmen who were paid by the day, and master masons were considered freemen who could travel as they wished to work on the projects of the patrons and could operate as self-employed craftsmen and train apprentices. During

1943-417: The history of geology includes many theories of rocks and their origins that have persisted throughout human history, the study of rocks was developed as a formal science during the 19th century. Plutonism was developed as a theory during this time, and the discovery of radioactive decay in 1896 allowed for the radiocarbon dating of rocks. Understanding of plate tectonics developed in the second half of

2010-420: The 20th century, stonemasonry saw its most radical changes in the way the work is accomplished. Prior to the first half of the century, most heavy work was executed by draft animals or human muscle power. With the arrival of the internal combustion engine , many of these hard aspects of the trade have been made simpler and easier. Cranes and forklifts have made moving and laying heavy stones relatively easy for

2077-399: The 20th century. Rocks are composed primarily of grains of minerals, which are crystalline solids formed from atoms chemically bonded into an orderly structure. Some rocks also contain mineraloids , which are rigid, mineral-like substances, such as volcanic glass , that lack crystalline structure. The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are determined by the manner in which it

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2144-442: The Earth's crust, or lava cools on the ground surface or the seabed. Sedimentary rocks are formed by diagenesis and lithification of sediments , which in turn are formed by the weathering , transport, and deposition of existing rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures that they are transformed without significant melting. Humanity has made use of rocks since

2211-467: The Earth's surface, a process called magma differentiation . This occurs both because minerals low in silica crystallize out of the magma as it begins to cool ( Bowen's reaction series ) and because the magma assimilates some of the crustal rock through which it ascends ( country rock ), and crustal rock tends to be high in silica. Silica content is thus the most important chemical criterion for classifying igneous rock. The content of alkali metal oxides

2278-503: The Earth's surface: temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C and pressures greater than 1500 bars. This occurs, for example, when continental plates collide. Metamorphic rocks compose 27.4% of the crust by volume. The three major classes of metamorphic rock are based upon the formation mechanism. An intrusion of magma that heats the surrounding rock causes contact metamorphism—a temperature-dominated transformation. Pressure metamorphism occurs when sediments are buried deep under

2345-565: The battle at all, since the winning Ottoman akinjis left further for Bosnia , taking captives and loot along. Despite the Croatian defeat in 1493, it was only in 1527 that the castle fell into Ottoman hands and became their stronghold in the region. They expanded and enhanced the fortifications, making them harder to capture. However, Ottomans were routed from Udbina during the Great Turkish War in 1689, after Habsburg-Croatian army besieged

2412-570: The castle (following the lack of water in it, which led Turks to surrender). The Ottoman forces then withdrew back to Bosnia in 1689 and the whole area, including the Udbina Castle, became part of the Croatian Military Frontier . In the aftermath of Peace of Sistova , the castle lost its military significance as borders were moved further east. From that point on, it was used as a source of construction material for local people. During

2479-617: The civilizations of Central America had their step pyramids , the Persians their palaces, the Greeks their temples, and the Romans their public works and wonders (See Roman Architecture ). People of the Indus Valley Civilization , such as at Dholavira made entire cities characterized by stone architecture. Among the famous ancient stonemasons is Sophroniscus , the father of Socrates , who

2546-523: The constituent particles, and particle size . These physical properties are the result of the processes that formed the rocks. Over the course of time, rocks can be transformed from one type into another, as described by a geological model called the rock cycle . This transformation produces three general classes of rock: igneous , sedimentary and metamorphic . Those three classes are subdivided into many groups. There are, however, no hard-and-fast boundaries between allied rocks. By increase or decrease in

2613-421: The course of 19th century it was left for a slow and continuing ruination. Archaeological research has shown that there were several phases in the construction or reconstruction of the castle. In the middle of it there was a bergfried or donjon , a round and tall defensive tower. There is not much left of the walls of the bergfried , built of roughly carved stone . Recent excavations have shown that it

2680-439: The creation of buildings , structures, and sculpture using stone as the primary material. Stonemasonry is the craft of shaping and arranging stones, often together with mortar and even the ancient lime mortar , to wall or cover formed structures. The basic tools, methods and skills of the banker mason have existed as a trade for thousands of years. It is one of the oldest activities and professions in human history. Many of

2747-411: The development of numerous noteworthy projects, with a particular focus on housing. Throughout his long career, Pouillon played a crucial role in the development and popularization of massive precut stone construction techniques. His pioneering work laid the foundation for subsequent architects to build upon and innovate, leading to the resurgence and expansion of this construction method in the 2020s, with

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2814-491: The earliest humans. This early period, called the Stone Age , saw the development of many stone tools. Stone was then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early infrastructure . Mining developed to extract rocks from the Earth and obtain the minerals within them, including metals . Modern technology has allowed the development of new human-made rocks and rock-like substances, such as concrete . Geology

2881-606: The earth's surface by the accumulation and cementation of fragments of earlier rocks, minerals, and organisms or as chemical precipitates and organic growths in water ( sedimentation ). This process causes clastic sediments (pieces of rock) or organic particles ( detritus ) to settle and accumulate or for minerals to chemically precipitate ( evaporite ) from a solution . The particulate matter then undergoes compaction and cementation at moderate temperatures and pressures ( diagenesis ). Before being deposited, sediments are formed by weathering of earlier rocks by erosion in

2948-427: The earth, from an ore body, vein or seam . The term also includes the removal of soil. Materials recovered by mining include base metals , precious metals , iron , uranium , coal , diamonds , limestone , oil shale , rock salt , potash , construction aggregate and dimension stone . Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or created artificially in

3015-437: The experience of the tradesmen, and college work where apprentices are given an overall experience of the building, hewing and theory work involved in masonry. In some areas, colleges offer courses which teach not only the manual skills but also related fields such as drafting and blueprint reading or construction conservation. Electronic Stonemasonry training resources enhance traditional delivery techniques. Hands-on workshops are

3082-845: The failure load of stone in bending, but also the stiffness of a structure by reducing joint cracking. This method of construction is widely used for concrete structures, but the advantages of using similar techniques with stone are only just being realised". Stone has great compressive strength, so is ideal in compressive structures like stone arches . However, it has relatively weak flexural strength (compared to steel or wood), so in isolation cannot be safely used in wide spans under tension. For concrete, this problem has been long solved: in addition to conventional tensile reinforcement, engineers developed prestressed concrete methods starting around 1888. Such tension-reinforced concrete applications combine compressive strength with pre-stressed tensile compression for combined strength much greater than either of

3149-402: The ground; pressure is dominant, and temperature plays a smaller role. This is termed burial metamorphism, and it can result in rocks such as jade . Where both heat and pressure play a role, the mechanism is termed regional metamorphism. This is typically found in mountain-building regions. Depending on the structure, metamorphic rocks are divided into two general categories. Those that possess

3216-544: The hand tools that they augment. But many of the basic tools of stonemasonry have remained virtually the same throughout vast amounts of time, even thousands of years, for instance when comparing chisels that can be bought today with chisels found at the pyramids of Giza the common sizes and shapes are virtually unchanged. Traditionally medieval stonemasons served a seven-year apprenticeship . A similar system still operates today. A modern apprenticeship lasts three years. This combines on-site learning through personal experience,

3283-408: The individual components, and have been in wide use for decades. As for concrete, post-tensioning maintains stone in compression, thereby increasing its strength. Post-tensioning is achieved steel tendons either threaded through ducts within the stone elements or along their surface. Once the stone components are in place, the tendons are tensioned using hydraulic jacks, and the force is transferred to

3350-491: The kind of metals available from the rock of a region. Anthropic rock is synthetic or restructured rock formed by human activity. Concrete is recognized as a human-made rock constituted of natural and processed rock and having been developed since Ancient Rome . Rock can also be modified with other substances to develop new forms, such as epoxy granite . Artificial stone has also been developed, such as Coade stone . Geologist James R. Underwood has proposed anthropic rock as

3417-431: The land to prepare it for other uses once mining ceases. Mining processes may create negative impacts on the environment both during the mining operations and for years after mining has ceased. These potential impacts have led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to manage negative effects of mining operations. Stone tools have been used for millions of years by humans and earlier hominids . The Stone Age

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3484-564: The long-lasting, ancient shelters , temples , monuments , artifacts , fortifications , roads , bridges , and entire cities were built of stone. Famous works of stonemasonry include Göbekli Tepe , the Egyptian pyramids , the Taj Mahal , Cusco 's Incan Wall, Taqwesan , Easter Island 's statues , Angkor Wat , Borobudur , Tihuanaco , Tenochtitlan , Persepolis , the Parthenon , Stonehenge ,

3551-568: The military-strategic sense, which lasted during the Ottoman rule, as well as later, during the Croatian Military Frontier period. Illustration of Udbina castle from Matteo Pagano's map from around year 1530. Ruins of the bergfried of the castle Remains of outer walls View to the Krbava field Castle layout from year 1740 Stonemasonry Stonemasonry or stonecraft is

3618-498: The modern era, stone has been largely relegated as a cosmetic element of buildings, often used as decorative cladding on steel-reinforced concrete . This is despite its wide historical use in large compressive structures: 50-m bridges and colosseums in Roman times, ~65-m tall cathedrals since the middle ages , and 12-story apartment buildings built in the 1690s. Massive precut stone is also known as "prefabricated", or "pre-sized" stone

3685-448: The most commonly used sandstone. Categories: Rock (geology) In geology , rock (or stone ) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition , and the way in which it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust , and most of its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in

3752-418: The original rock was formed. This process is called metamorphism , meaning to "change in form". The result is a profound change in physical properties and chemistry of the stone. The original rock, known as the protolith , transforms into other mineral types or other forms of the same minerals, by recrystallization . The temperatures and pressures required for this process are always higher than those found at

3819-425: The particles of clastic sedimentary rocks can be further classified by grain size . The smallest sediments are clay , followed by silt , sand , and gravel . Some systems include cobbles and boulders as measurements. Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock type—sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock—to different temperature and pressure conditions than those in which

3886-462: The proportions of their minerals, they pass through gradations from one to the other; the distinctive structures of one kind of rock may thus be traced, gradually merging into those of another. Hence the definitions adopted in rock names simply correspond to selected points in a continuously graduated series. Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word igneus, meaning of fire, from ignis meaning fire)

3953-410: The rise of interest in low-carbon durable construction. Post-tensioned stone is a high-performance composite construction material: stone held in compression with tension elements. The tension elements can be connected to the outside of the stone, but more typically uses tendons threaded internally through a duct formed from aligned drilled holes. Post-tensioned stone ("PT stone") could consist of

4020-523: The stone through anchorages located at the ends of the tendons. The tensioning process imparts a compressive force to the stone, which improves its capacity to resist tensile stresses that could otherwise cause cracking or failure. Stone is 'natural precast concrete' so only needs to be cut (and strength tested) and post-tensioned prior to use in construction. Compared to concrete and steel, post-tensioned stone production has dramatically lower energy costs, with concomitant lower carbon emissions. Stonemasonry

4087-439: The stonemasons. Motor powered mortar mixers have saved much in time and energy as well. Compressed-air powered tools have made working of stone less time-intensive. Petrol and electric-powered abrasive saws can cut through stone much faster and with more precision than chiseling alone. Cemented carbide -tipped chisels can stand up to much more abuse than the steel and iron chisels made by blacksmiths of old. Stonemasons use

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4154-610: The universe's celestial bodies. In the Solar System , Mars , Venus , and Mercury are composed of rock, as are many natural satellites , asteroids , and meteoroids . Meteorites that fall to Earth provide evidence of extraterrestrial rocks and their composition. They are typically heavier than rocks on Earth. Asteroid rocks can also be brought to Earth through space missions, such as the Hayabusa mission. Lunar rocks and Martian rocks have also been studied. The use of rock has had

4221-408: Was a period of widespread stone tool usage. Early Stone Age tools were simple implements, such as hammerstones and sharp flakes. Middle Stone Age tools featured sharpened points to be used as projectile points , awls, or scrapers . Late Stone Age tools were developed with craftsmanship and distinct cultural identities. Stone tools were largely superseded by copper and bronze tools following

4288-491: Was a rather spacious tower, having inner diameter close to about 7 metres , wall thickness ranging from 2–2,4 m and total diameter reaching approximately over 11 metres. The ground plan of the castle shows that in the middle of the castle, around the tower, the three thick walls were built, which seem to correspond to the bastionic way of building to resist the fiery weapons, certainly in combination with earthen embankments . The remaining walls were thin and obviously more

4355-666: Was a stone-cutter. Castle building was an entire industry for the medieval stonemasons. When the Western Roman Empire fell, building in dressed stone decreased in much of Western Europe , and there was a resulting increase in timber-based construction. Stonework experienced a resurgence in the 9th and 10th centuries in Europe, and by the 12th-century religious fervour resulted in the construction of thousands of impressive churches and cathedrals in stone across Western Europe. Medieval stonemasons' skills were in high demand, and members of

4422-456: Was formed. Most rocks contain silicate minerals , compounds that include silica tetrahedra in their crystal lattice , and account for about one-third of all known mineral species and about 95% of the earth's crust . The proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their names and properties. Rocks are classified according to characteristics such as mineral and chemical composition, permeability , texture of

4489-711: Was quarried for construction as early as 4000 BCE in Egypt, and stone was used to build fortifications in Inner Mongolia as early as 2800 BCE. The soft rock, tuff , is common in Italy, and the Romans used it for many buildings and bridges. Limestone was widely used in construction in the Middle Ages in Europe and remained popular into the 20th century. Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from

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