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116-572: Operation Sandblast was the code name for the first submerged circumnavigation of the world, executed by the United States Navy nuclear-powered radar picket submarine USS  Triton  (SSRN-586) in 1960 under the command of Captain Edward L. Beach Jr. The circumnavigation took place between February 24 and April 25, 1960, covering 26,723 nautical miles (49,491 km; 30,752 mi) over 60 days and 21 hours. The route began and ended at

232-445: A Daily News -sponsored round-the-world flight. The first aerial circumnavigation of the planet was flown in 1924 by aviators of the U.S. Army Air Service in a quartet of Douglas World Cruiser biplanes. The first non-stop aerial circumnavigation of the planet was flown in 1949 by Lucky Lady II , a United States Air Force Boeing B-50 Superfortress . Since the development of commercial aviation, there are regular routes that circle

348-492: A marketing buzz for the project). Still others (such as Microsoft ) discuss code names publicly, and routinely use project code names on beta releases and such, but remove them from final product(s). In the case of Windows 95, the code name "CHICAGO" was left embedded in the INF File structure and remained required through Windows Me. At the other end of the spectrum, Apple includes the project code names for Mac OS X as part of

464-552: A novel Run Silent, Run Deep , which was made into a 1958 movie of the same name. In his last interview prior to his death in 2002, Captain Beach recalled Triton and the background to her historical mission: As I was reporting to the Triton , I remember saying, "This ship is an unusual one. We've got to do something special with it. What could it be?" We talked about it a little bit, and nobody had any ideas. Finally, I got an idea. We'll do

580-453: A "B", cargo aircraft with a "C". Training aircraft and reconnaissance aircraft were grouped under the word "miscellaneous", and received "M". The same convention applies to missiles, with air-launched ground attack missiles beginning with the letter "K" and surface-to-surface missiles (ranging from intercontinental ballistic missiles to antitank rockets) with the letter "S", air-to-air missiles "A", and surface-to-air missiles "G". Throughout

696-527: A British Naval intelligence officer, discloses in Beyond Top Secret Ultra that during World War II , Nazi Germany habitually used ad hoc code names as nicknames which often openly revealed or strongly hinted at their content or function. Some German code names: Conversely, Operation Wacht am Rhein (Watch on the Rhine ) was deliberately named to suggest the opposite of its purpose –

812-480: A battery of psychological studies with volunteers from the crew. Geophysicist Michael Smalet, civil engineer Gordon E. Wilkes, and oceanographer Nicholas R. Mabry coordinated the various scientific and technical aspects of Operation Sandblast for the U.S. Navy's Hydrographic Office . Eldon C. Good monitored the Ship Inertial Navigation System (SINS) prototype, newly installed onboard Triton by

928-729: A defensive "watch" as opposed to a massive blitzkrieg operation, just as was Operation Weserübung ( Weser -exercise), which signified the plans to invade Norway and Denmark in April 1940. Britain and the United States developed the security policy of assigning code names intended to give no such clues to the uninitiated. For example, the British counter measures against the V-2 was called Operation Crossbow . The atomic bomb project centered in New Mexico

1044-592: A designed speed, surfaced and submerged, of 28 kn (32 mph; 52 km/h). On September 27, 1959, Triton achieved "well in excess of" 30 kn (35 mph; 56 km/h) during her initial sea trials. As originally designed, Triton ' s total reactor output was rated at 34,000 horsepower (25 MW), but she achieved 45,000 horsepower (34 MW) during her sea trials (pictured) , and her first commanding officer believed Triton ' s plant could have reached 60,000 horsepower (45 MW) "had that been necessary." Triton ' s first commanding officer

1160-417: A global circumnavigation would be a route which covers roughly a great circle , and in particular one which passes through at least one pair of points antipodal to each other. In practice, people use different definitions of world circumnavigation to accommodate practical constraints, depending on the method of travel. Since the planet is quasispheroidal , a trip from one Pole to the other, and back again on

1276-579: A good-will cruise to South American ports since January as the flagship for Rear Admiral Edward C. Stephan, Commander Naval Forces South Atlantic (Task Force 138). Macon had been in Argentine waters in conjunction with US President Eisenhower's visit to Argentina from February 26–29, 1960. In the early hours of March 5, Triton rendezvoused with Macon off Montevideo , Uruguay, after a diversion of over 2,000 nautical miles (3,700 km; 2,300 mi). Triton broached, exposing only her sail while preserving

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1392-455: A great circle would be quite impractical, particularly in a non-stop race where use of the Panama and Suez Canals would be impossible. Yacht racing therefore defines a world circumnavigation to be a passage of at least 21,600 nautical miles (40,000 km) in length which crosses the equator , crosses every meridian and finishes in the same port as it starts. The second map on the right shows

1508-550: A missile was able to be photographed with a hand-held camera, instead of a reconnaissance aircraft, it was given a name like " Flanker " or " Scud " – always an English word, as international pilots worldwide are required to learn English. The Soviet manufacturer or designation – which may be mistakenly inferred by NATO – has nothing to do with it. Jet-powered aircraft received two-syllable names like Foxbat , while propeller aircraft were designated with short names like Bull . Fighter names began with an "F", bombers with

1624-685: A prototype of the BRA-3 towed communications buoy system housed in a large fairing located on the after end of the main deck. Work on Triton at Electric Boat was delayed as priority was given to completing the Navy's first two fleet ballistic missile (FBM) submarines, George Washington and Patrick Henry . On January 20, 1960, Triton got underway to conduct an accelerated series of at-sea testing. Triton returned on February 1 as preparations continued for her forthcoming shakedown cruise , scheduled for departure on February 16, 1960, which involved operating with

1740-418: A radiation leak. It was subsequently determined the radium dials on three wristwatches were the cause for the alarm, and once removed, no radiation was detected for the balance of the voyage. On February 23, Triton detected a previously uncharted seamount with her fathometer . Beach maintained that the greatest challenge facing the crew was a seemingly mundane activity, garbage disposal and cleaning: "It

1856-496: A repressed atmosphere. A regular pall has descended upon us. I know that all hands are aware of the decision and recognize the need for it. Perhaps they are relieved that they did not have to make it. But it is apparent that this unexpected illness, something that could neither have been foreseen nor prevented, may ruin our submergence record. Fortunately, the heavy cruiser Macon , with Captain Reuben T. Whitaker in command, had been on

1972-450: A serious leak with a main condenser circulating water pump, and a reactor warning alarm tripped because of a defective electrical connection. Both incidents were handled successfully and did not affect the ship's performance. On February 18 Triton conducted her first general daily drill and on February 19 released her first twice-daily hydrographic bottles, used to study ocean current patterns. Also on February 19, shipboard sensors detected

2088-556: A stunt. We'll go around the world from North Pole to South Pole. That was my brainstorm. If you take a look at a map of the world, you'll see that's not a very easy way to go. So we didn't do that. But I do remember thinking of it. And I made a speech to the crew, advising them of my thinking—that we were going to put this ship on the map. Well, that died out. Suddenly ... a phone call came, asking me if I could be in Washington tomorrow. Following her commissioning on November 10, 1959, Triton

2204-402: A submerged peak using active sonar and the gravity meter that confirmed the feasibility of this procedure. Triton spotted Easter Island on that same day, March 13, 1960, first by radar, then by periscope. The northeastern coast of the island was photographed for two and a half hours before the statue that Thor Heyerdahl had erected was spotted. The entire crew was invited to observe through

2320-412: A unit of their Navy, pridefully and respectfully dedicates this voyage to the people of the United States. Triton departed New London on February 16, 1960 for what was announced as her shakedown cruise (pictured) . Triton set course to the south-east (134 degrees true). At dawn on February 17, Triton performed her first morning star-sighting using the built-in sextant in her No. 1 periscope during

2436-550: Is approximately the length of the Tropic of Cancer ). The course must include set control points at latitudes outside the Arctic and Antarctic circles. In ballooning, which is at the mercy of the winds, the requirements are even more relaxed. The course must cross all meridians, and must include a set of checkpoints which are all outside of two circles, chosen by the pilot, having radii of 3,335.85 kilometres (2,072.80 mi) and enclosing

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2552-449: Is magnified for square-rig vessels due to the square rig's dramatic lack of upwind ability when compared to a more modern Bermuda rig . For around the world sailing records , there is a rule saying that the length must be at least 21,600 nautical miles calculated along the shortest possible track from the starting port and back that does not cross land and does not go below 63°S. It is allowed to have one single waypoint to lengthen

2668-447: Is to never have to report to anyone that their son "was killed in an operation called 'Bunnyhug' or 'Ballyhoo'." Presently, British forces tend to use one-word names, presumably in keeping with their post-World War II policy of reserving single words for operations and two-word names for exercises. British operation code names are usually randomly generated by a computer and rarely reveal its components or any political implications unlike

2784-585: The Allies referring to nations, cities, geographical features, military units, military operations, diplomatic meetings, places, and individual persons were agreed upon, adapting pre-war naming procedures in use by the governments concerned. In the British case names were administered and controlled by the Inter Services Security Board (ISSB) staffed by the War Office . This procedure was coordinated with

2900-471: The Atlantic , Pacific , and Indian oceans. Since the rise of commercial aviation in the late 20th century, circumnavigating Earth is straightforward, usually taking days instead of years. Today, the challenge of circumnavigating Earth has shifted towards human and technological endurance, speed, and less conventional methods . The word circumnavigation is a noun formed from the verb circumnavigate , from

3016-563: The Bering Strait on the ice, and around 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) of roadless swamped or freezing cold areas in Alaska and eastern Russia. No one has so far travelled all of this route by foot. David Kunst was the first person that Guinness verified to have walked around the world between 20 June 1970 and 5 October 1974, by "[walking] 23,250 km (14,450 miles) through four continents". Code name During World War I , names common to

3132-481: The Caribbean Sea to undergo additional testing required by BuShips . The crew and civilian personnel were also instructed to file their federal income taxes early and take care of all other personal finances that might arise through mid-May. Lt. Commander Will M. Adams, Triton ' s executive officer, and Lt. Commander Robert W. Bulmer, her operations officer, along with Chief Quartermaster Marshall, prepared

3248-763: The Magellanic Premium from the American Philosophical Society , the United States' oldest and most prestigious scientific award in "recognition of his navigation of the U.S. submarine Triton around the globe." There is no doubt that sooner or later the USSR will put some nuclear submarine to sea. It would be a shame if we permit them to announce this to the world by virtue of some dramatic feat which we could have done ourselves. This could be Sputnik all over again, but without any excuses... "Project Magellan" is, in my estimation, head and shoulders above any of

3364-545: The Sperry Gyroscopic Company . Frank E. McConnell was the Electric Boat guaranty representative assigned to Triton ' s shakedown cruise. On February 15, 1960, Triton went to sea to do a final check of all shipboard equipment. Except for a malfunctioning wave-motion sensor, Triton was deemed ready for her shakedown cruise. The sea may yet hold the key to the salvation of man and his civilization. That

3480-614: The St. Peter and Paul Rocks in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean near the Equator. During the voyage, Triton crossed the equator four times while maintaining an average speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). Triton 's overall navigational track during Operation Sandblast generally followed that of the Spanish expedition that achieved the first circumnavigation of the world , started under

3596-481: The Vostok 2 was the first human to fully circumnavigate Earth in spaceflight and made 17.5 orbits on August 6, 1961. According to adjudicating bodies Guinness World Records and Explorersweb, Jason Lewis completed the first human-powered circumnavigation of the globe on 6 October 2007. This was part of a thirteen-year journey entitled Expedition 360 . In 2012, Turkish-born American adventurer Erden Eruç completed

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3712-479: The command ship Northampton , flagship of the U.S. Second Fleet , in northern European waters. On February 1, Captain Beach received a message from Rear Admiral Lawrence R. Daspit , Commander Submarines Atlantic Fleet ( COMSUBLANT ) , instructing Beach to attend a top secret meeting at The Pentagon on February 4. On February 4, 1960, Captain Edward L. Beach and Commodore Thomas H. Henry of Subron 10 arrived at

3828-472: The fleet submarine Trigger  (SS-237) in the Pacific War . Triton would not see land for the next 2,500 nautical miles (4,600 km; 2,900 mi). On March 8, Triton detected a seamount , registering a minimum depth of 350 fathoms (640 m; 2,100 ft), with a total height of 7,000 feet (2,100 m) above the ocean floor. On the same day, Triton conducted a successful drill simulating

3944-466: The jet streams , which circulate in the northern and southern hemispheres without crossing the equator. There is therefore no requirement to cross the equator, or to pass through two antipodal points, in the course of setting a round-the-world aviation record. For powered aviation, the course of a round-the-world record must start and finish at the same point and cross all meridians; the course must be at least 36,770 kilometres (19,850 nmi) long (which

4060-459: The mid watch , Triton came to periscope depth to take a nightly fix using the built-in sextant in her celestial periscope, ventilate and replenish her shipboard atmosphere using the snorkel , and dispose of any shipboard garbage. Since Triton did not have a generator to extract oxygen from sea water, these nightly snorkeling activities were crucial to maintaining a suitable atmosphere. Later that same day, February 17, 1960, Triton experienced

4176-437: The press pool for the voyage with the U.S. Navy Office of Information . Additionally, Roberts and First Class Photographer's Mate (PH1) William R. Hadley, USN, detached from Naval Air Force U.S. Atlantic Fleet , coordinated the photo-reconnaissance aspects of Operation Sandblast. The other civilian personnel included Benjamin B. Weybrew, a psychologist at U.S Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory , who would carry out

4292-669: The 117 survivors of the similarly failed Villalobos Expedition in the next decade; similarly ruined and starved, they were imprisoned by the Portuguese and transported back to Lisbon in 1546. In 1577, Elizabeth I sent Francis Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas. Drake set out from Plymouth, England in November 1577, aboard Pelican , which he renamed Golden Hind mid-voyage. In September 1578,

4408-558: The Allies throughout the Pacific theater of war. This type of naming scheme differs from the other use of code names in that it does not have to be kept secret, but is a means of identification where the official nomenclature is unknown or uncertain. The policy of recognition reporting names was continued into the Cold War for Soviet, other Warsaw Pact , and Communist Chinese aircraft. Although this

4524-748: The American code name for the attack on the subtropical island of Okinawa in World War II was Operation Iceberg . The Soviet Union's project to base missiles in Cuba was named Operation Anadyr after their closest bomber base to the US (just across the Bering Strait from Nome, Alaska). The names of colors are generally avoided in American practice to avoid confusion with meteorological reporting practices. Britain, in contrast, made deliberately non-meaningful use of them, through

4640-565: The American names (e.g., the 2003 invasion of Iraq was called "Operation Telic" compared to Americans' "Operation Iraqi Freedom", obviously chosen for propaganda rather than secrecy). Americans prefer two-word names, whereas the Canadians and Australians use either. The French military currently prefer names drawn from nature (such as colors or the names of animals), for instance Opération Daguet ("brocket deer") or Opération Baliste ("Triggerfish"). The CIA uses alphabetical prefixes to designate

4756-682: The Atlantic Ocean, and—after several stops—rounded the southern tip of South America , where the expedition named the Strait of Magellan . It then continued across the Pacific, discovering a number of islands on its way (including Guam ), before arriving in the Philippines . The voyage was initially led by the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan but he was killed on Mactan in the Philippines in 1521. The remaining sailors decided to circumnavigate

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4872-557: The Magellan–Elcano expedition, quicker and safer. The nautical global and fastest circumnavigation record is currently held by a wind-powered vessel, the trimaran IDEC 3 . The record was established by six sailors: Francis Joyon , Alex Pella , Clément Surtel, Gwénolé Gahinet, Sébastien Audigane and Bernard Stamm. On 26 January, 2017, this crew finished circumnavigating the globe in 40 days, 23 hours, 30 minutes and 30 seconds. The absolute speed sailing record around

4988-602: The Navy came up with the code name of Sandblast because it was judged that taking his ship around the world submerged would "take a lot of sand" on the crew's part to be successful. Also, Sand served as Beach's personal code name during the mission. As the captain noted: "Most beaches are full of sand, I was informed." Beach and Henry arrived back in New London at 5:45 a.m. on February 5. Later that morning, after breakfast, Beach briefed his officers, who Beach had insisted needed to know, about their new shakedown orders and

5104-501: The Pacific aboard the Endeavour from 1769 to 1779. He was among the first to complete west–east circumnavigation in high latitudes. For the wealthy, long voyages around the world, such as was done by Ulysses S. Grant , became possible in the 19th century, and the two World Wars moved vast numbers of troops around the planet. However, it was the rise of commercial aviation in the late 20th century that made circumnavigation, when compared to

5220-567: The Pentagon in civilian attire to attend a top-secret, high-level meeting led by Vice Admiral Wallace M. Beakley, Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Fleet Operations and Readiness. Also attending were Rear Admiral Lawson P. Ramage , Director of the Undersea Warfare Division, OPNAV; Captain Henry G. Munson , Director of the U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office , and staff representatives from

5336-627: The Second World War, the British allocation practice favored one-word code names ( Jubilee , Frankton ). That of the Americans favored longer compound words, although the name Overlord was personally chosen by Winston Churchill himself. Many examples of both types can be cited, as can exceptions. Winston Churchill was particular about the quality of code names. He insisted that code words, especially for dangerous operations, would be not overly grand nor petty nor common. One emotional goal he mentions

5452-648: The Spaniard Juan Sebastián Elcano . The next to circumnavigate the globe were the survivors of the Castilian/Spanish expedition of García Jofre de Loaísa between 1525 and 1536. None of the seven original ships of the Loaísa expedition nor its first four leaders—Loaísa, Elcano , Salazar , and Íñiguez —survived to complete the voyage. The last of the original ships, the Santa María de la Victoria ,

5568-506: The United States code names are commonly set entirely in upper case. This is not done in other countries, though for the UK in British documents the code name is in upper case while operation is shortened to OP e.g., "Op. TELIC". This presents an opportunity for a bit of public-relations ( Operation Just Cause ), or for controversy over the naming choice (Operation Infinite Justice, renamed Operation Enduring Freedom ). Computers are now used to aid in

5684-427: The United States when it entered the war . Random lists of names were issued to users in alphabetical blocks of ten words and were selected as required. Words became available for re-use after six months and unused allocations could be reassigned at discretion and according to need. Judicious selection from the available allocation could result in clever meanings and result in an aptronym or backronym , although policy

5800-645: The advent of world cruises in 1922, by Cunard's Laconia , thousands of people have completed circumnavigations of the globe at a more leisurely pace. Typically, these voyages begin in New York City or Southampton , and proceed westward. Routes vary, either travelling through the Caribbean and then into the Pacific Ocean via the Panama Canal , or around Cape Horn . From there ships usually make their way to Hawaii,

5916-456: The boat's pressure hull , it could not be repaired except in drydock. Without an operational fathometer, Triton could be vulnerable to grounding or collision with uncharted submerged formations. (It was later determined that the cabling to Triton ' s fathometer head, located in the bulbous forefoot of her bow, had not been properly insulated, and the constant buffeting from Triton ' s high speed caused these cables to rupture, rendering

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6032-511: The bottom of the ship. However, if the GDU was temporarily out of commission due to repairs, as it was on February 22, the aft torpedo tubes were used, a less than optimum solution. On February 24, Triton made her first landfall, reaching St. Peter and Paul Rocks (pictured) after traveling 3,250 nautical miles (6,020 km; 3,740 mi). The Rocks served as the home plate for Triton ' s submerged circumnavigation. Photographic reconnaissance

6148-509: The calculated track. The equator must be crossed. The solo wind powered circumnavigation record of 42 days, 16 hours, 40 minutes and 35 seconds was established by François Gabart on the maxi-multihull sailing yacht MACIF and completed on 7 December 2017. The voyage followed the North Atlantic Ocean, Equator, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Equator, North Atlantic Ocean route in an easterly direction. Since

6264-510: The capability of U.S. Navy nuclear-powered submarines to carry out long-range submerged operations independent of external support and undetected by hostile forces, presaging the initial deployment of the Navy's Polaris ballistic missile submarines later in 1960. Finally, Operation Sandblast gathered extensive oceanographic, hydrographic, gravimetric, geophysical, and psychological data during Triton 's circumnavigation. Official celebrations were cancelled for Operation Sandblast following

6380-584: The code name " Frogfoot ". However, some names were appropriate, such as "Condor" for the Antonov An-124 , or, most famously, "Fulcrum" for the Mikoyan MiG-29 , which had a "pivotal" role in Soviet air-strategy. Code names were adopted by the following process. Aerial or space reconnaissance would note a new aircraft at a Warsaw Pact airbase. The intelligence units would then assign it a code name consisting of

6496-462: The command of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan and completed by Spanish explorer Juan Sebastián Elcano from 1519 to 1522. The initial impetus for Operation Sandblast was to increase American technological and scientific prestige before the May 1960 Paris Summit between President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev . It also provided a high-profile public demonstration of

6612-400: The crew an opportunity to view Cape Horn through the ship's periscope, requiring five reverses of Triton ' s course to keep the cape in sight. On March 7, Triton entered the Pacific Ocean and passed into the operational control of Rear Admiral Roy S. Benson , Commander Submarine Force U.S. Pacific Fleet ( COMSUBPAC ), who had been Captain Beach's commanding officer while he served on

6728-619: The diplomatic furor arising from the 1960 U-2 incident in which a U-2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union in early May. However, Triton did receive the Presidential Unit Citation with a special clasp in the form of a golden replica of the globe in recognition of the successful completion of its mission, and Captain Beach received the Legion of Merit for his role as Triton ' s commanding officer. In 1961, Beach received

6844-486: The east coast of South America, a trio of crises threatened to end Operation Sandblast prematurely. The first was when Chief Radarman (RDC) John R. Poole began suffering from a series of kidney stones . The second was when the ship's fathometer went out of commission, with its loss meaning Triton could no longer echo-sound the sea floor, increasing the danger of grounding or collision as the ship traveled through poorly charted waters. Captain Beach observed: Fortunately at

6960-400: The emergency shutdown of both her reactors and loss of all power. Two days later, the starboard propshaft seal sprung a major leak in the after engine room. A makeshift locking clamp was jury-rigged to contain the leak. On March 12, the trouble-plagued fathometer ceased operation when its transducer header flooded, grounding out the entire system. Since the transducer head was located outside

7076-531: The equator a second time, returning to the Northern Hemisphere . Another submerged peak was successfully detected on March 20. Later that day, Triton made her closest approach to Pearl Harbor , and the crew celebrated with a luau . Triton crossed the International Date Line on March 23, losing March 24 from her calendar. The next day, sonar indicated another previously uncharted rise from

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7192-481: The equator or hit the minimum of two antipodal points as stipulated by the rules of Guinness World Records and AdventureStats by Explorersweb. People have both bicycled and run around the world, but the oceans have had to be covered by air or sea travel, making the distance shorter than the Guinness guidelines. To go from North America to Asia on foot is theoretically possible but very difficult. It involves crossing

7308-427: The fathometer inoperable.) An alternative to the fathometer was devised, using the ship's active forward search sonar in conjunction with the gravity meter installed in the combat intelligence center (CIC). By using both systems in tandem, underwater masses could be detected and avoided, although this approach lacked the capability of the fathometer to echo-sound the depth of the ocean floor. On March 13, Triton detected

7424-513: The first entirely solo human-powered circumnavigation, travelling by rowboat, sea kayak , foot and bicycle from 10 July 2007 to 21 July 2012, crossing the equator twice, passing over 12 antipodal points, and logging 66,299 kilometres (41,196 mi) in 1,026 days of travel time, excluding breaks. National Geographic lists Colin Angus as being the first to complete a human-powered global circumnavigation in 2006. However, his journey did not cross

7540-559: The first of March were concerned, it seemed that troubles were not confined to pairs. On that day we were to have them in threes." Later that day, Lt. Milton R. Rubb and his electronics technician team returned the fathometer to operational status, and the Chief Engineer Donald D. Fears, Reactor Officer Lt. Cmdr. Robert P. McDonald, and Triton ' s engineering crew repaired the malfunctioning reactor. Since Poole's symptoms were intermittent, Triton continued south, although there

7656-528: The globe in 60 days, 21 hours for Operation Sandblast . The current circumnavigation record in a powered boat of 60 days 23 hours and 49 minutes was established by a voyage of the wave-piercing trimaran Earthrace which was completed on 27 June 2008. The voyage followed the North Atlantic Ocean, Panama Canal, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Suez Canal, Mediterranean Sea route in a westerly direction. In 1922 Norman Macmillan (RAF officer) , Major W T Blake and Geoffrey Malins made an unsuccessful attempt to fly

7772-418: The globe, such as Pan American Flight One (and later United Airlines Flight One). Today planning such a trip through commercial flight connections is simple. The first lighter-than-air aircraft of any type to circumnavigate under its own power was the rigid airship LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin , which did so in 1929. Aviation records take account of the wind circulation patterns of the world; in particular

7888-493: The head of the U.S. Navy's Naval Reactors branch , sent special power-setting instructions for Triton ' s reactors, allowing them to operate with greater flexibility and a higher safety factor. A key personnel change occurred on February 2 when Triton ' s veteran chief engineering officer, Lt. Commander Leslie D. Kelly, left for duty at the Rickover's Naval Reactors branch of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission . His relief

8004-695: The highest priority within the Eisenhower administration. Captain Aurand outlined this proposed submerged around the world voyage, Project Magellan , to Admiral Arleigh Burke , the Chief of Naval Operations , in a memorandum dated January 6, 1960. Admiral Burke's classified response dated January 18, 1960 acknowledged the technical feasibility of Project Magellan while further noting that the "Magellan route" could be transited in "56 days at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph) and 75 days at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph)," with

8120-589: The islands of the South Pacific, Australia, New Zealand, then northward to Hong Kong, South East Asia, and India. At that point, again, routes may vary: one way is through the Suez Canal and into the Mediterranean; the other is around Cape of Good Hope and then up the west coast of Africa. These cruises end in the port where they began. In 1960, the American nuclear-powered submarine USS Triton circumnavigated

8236-412: The islands, Poole's condition worsened so much that—taking a calculated risk—Captain Beach reversed course, ordered flank speed , and sent a radio message to headquarters describing the situation. From the ship's log on that date, Beach noted: In the control and living spaces, the ship had quieted down, too. Orders were given in low voices; the men speak to each other, carrying out their normal duties, in

8352-481: The latter option costing an additional US$ 3.34 million in nuclear fuel consumed. Aurand forwarded his Project Magellan proposal and Burke's assessment to Press Secretary James C. Hagerty in a memorandum dated January 26, 1960. Project Magellan was subsequently approved by President Dwight D. Eisenhower , and USS Triton was specifically recommended by Aurand to undertake Project Magellan. The U.S. Navy nuclear-powered radar picket submarine Triton ( pictured )

8468-404: The light touch. Once informed of our objective, their enthusiasm infected everything they did, and here and there might easily have caused stress-related dysfunction. Extended separation from home and family with no means of communications was not a problem – submariners are used to that – but bearing down too much on the job might be. My concern was about our performance in an emergency, being at

8584-436: The mission objectives for Operation Sandblast. The officers and crew of Triton had just 12 days to complete preparations for their much more ambitious, but top secret, shakedown cruise. With the exception of Chief Quartermaster (QMC) William J. Marshall, the enlisted personnel did not initially know the true nature of their upcoming mission. A cover story was devised that, following the shakedown cruise, Triton would proceed to

8700-408: The nightly ventilation of the shipboard atmosphere. The inboard induction valve was closed after the removal of a rusted flashlight that had prevented its closure. Captain Beach announced the true nature of their shakedown cruise (pictured) : Men, I know you’ve all been waiting to learn what this cruise is about, and why we’re still headed southeast. Now, at last, I can tell you that we are going on

8816-420: The observing platform and unbroken continuity around the world were important. Additionally, for reasons of the national interest it had been decided that the voyage should be made entirely submerged undetected by our own or other forces and completed as soon as possible. TRITON, because of her size, speed and extra dependability of her two-reactor plant, had been chosen for the mission. According to Captain Beach,

8932-582: The ocean floor, logged with a depth of 350 fathoms (640 m; 2,100 ft). Circumnavigation Circumnavigation is the complete navigation around an entire island , continent , or astronomical body (e.g. a planet or moon ). This article focuses on the circumnavigation of Earth . The first circumnavigation of the Earth was the Magellan Expedition , which sailed from Sanlucar de Barrameda, Spain in 1519 and returned in 1522, after crossing

9048-441: The official abbreviation of the base, then a letter, for example, "Ram-A", signifying an aircraft sighted at Ramenskoye Airport . Missiles were given designations like "TT-5", for the fifth rocket seen at Tyura-Tam . When more information resulted in knowing a bit about what a missile was used for, it would be given a designation like "SS-6", for the sixth surface-to-surface missile design reported. Finally, when either an aircraft or

9164-637: The other side, would technically be a circumnavigation. There are practical difficulties (namely, the Arctic ice pack and the Antarctic ice sheet ) in such a voyage, although it was successfully undertaken in the early 1980s by Ranulph Fiennes . The first circumnavigation was that of the ship Victoria between 1519 and 1522, now known as the Magellan–Elcano expedition . It was a Castilian ( Spanish ) voyage of discovery. The voyage started in Seville , crossed

9280-503: The part of the agency supporting an operation. In many cases with the United States, the first word of the name has to do with the intent of the program. Programs with "have" as the first word, such as Have Blue for the stealth fighter development, are developmental programs, not meant to produce a production aircraft. Programs that start with Senior, such as Senior Trend for the F-117, are for aircraft in testing meant to enter production. In

9396-450: The past participle of the Latin verb circumnavigare , from circum "around" + navigare "to sail". A person walking completely around either pole will cross all meridians , but this is not generally considered a "circumnavigation". The path of a true (global) circumnavigation forms a continuous loop on the surface of Earth separating two regions of comparable area. A basic definition of

9512-430: The periscope before Triton departed for her next visual landfall of Guam , some 6,734 nautical miles (12,471 km; 7,749 mi) distant. On March 17, a malfunctioning air compressor was repaired. This required the complete re-wiring of the compressor's armature, a task ordinarily done aboard a submarine tender or in a shipyard. Captain Beach was impressed by "this spirit and outlook [that] permeated our crew." He

9628-509: The poles (though not necessarily centred on them). For example, Steve Fossett 's global circumnavigation by balloon was entirely contained within the southern hemisphere. The first person to fly in space, Yuri Gagarin , also became the first person to complete an orbital spaceflight in the Vostok 1 spaceship within 2 hours on April 12 1961. The flight started at 63° E, 45 N and ended at 45° E 51° N; thus Gagarin did not circumnavigate Earth completely. Gherman Titov in

9744-563: The precise, mile-by-mile track of their upcoming voyage in the secure chart room, located at COMSUBLANT headquarters. Lt. Commander Robert D. Fisher, Triton ' s supply officer, coordinated loading of stores sufficient for a 120-day voyage (pictured) . Eventually, some 77,613 lb (35,205 kg) of food were loaded on board, including 16,487 lb (7,478 kg) of frozen food, 6,631 lb (3,008 kg) of canned meat, 1,300 lb (590 kg) of coffee, and 1,285 lb (583 kg) of potatoes. Vice Admiral Hyman G. Rickover ,

9860-522: The present time we are in an area where the water is deeper than normal for the Atlantic and for a number of hours there is [no] worry about unexpectedly scraping the top of any unsuspected submerged peak. But we will want that fathometer badly as we approach Cape Horn. Perhaps most critically, the third problem involved the readings on one of the reactors indicating a serious malfunction which required its shutdown. As Captain Beach noted, "So far as Triton and

9976-467: The remainder as a feat of submarine navigation and a demonstration of the global range of nuclear submarines. The possibility of a submerged circumnavigation of the world by a U.S. Navy nuclear-powered submarine was initially discussed between Captain Evan P. Aurand , President Eisenhower's naval aide, and Commander William R. Anderson , commanding officer of the first nuclear submarine, Nautilus , before it

10092-528: The rendezvous, Triton dove and turned back southwards. She subsequently passed west of the Falklands, and rounded Cape Horn (pictured) through Estrecho de le Maire ( Drake Passage ) on March 7. Captain Beach described his first impressions of this legendary lands-end of the Western Hemisphere as "bold and forbidding, like the sway-backed profile of some prehistoric sea monster." Captain Beach allowed all

10208-492: The route of the Vendée Globe round-the-world race in red; overlaid in yellow are the points antipodal to all points on the route. It can be seen that the route does not pass through any pairs of antipodal points. Since the winds in the higher southern latitudes predominantly blow west-to-east it can be seen that there are an easier route (west-to-east) and a harder route (east-to-west) when circumnavigating by sail; this difficulty

10324-404: The route. It can be seen that the route roughly approximates a great circle , and passes through two pairs of antipodal points. This is a route followed by many cruising sailors, going in the western direction; the use of the trade winds makes it a relatively easy sail, although it passes through a number of zones of calms or light winds. In yacht racing , a round-the-world route approximating

10440-426: The same time unable to predict what emergencies might be in store for us. It was important, I thought, to hold back on the pressure until a really tough problem came up. This happened several times, as I knew it would, and I was glad I had something in reserve. For the shakedown cruise, Beach adopted a specific weekly shipboard routine. Mondays and Tuesdays involved regular activities, with drills, lectures, school of

10556-452: The selection. And further, there is a distinction between the secret names during former wars and the published names of recent ones. A project code name is a code name (usually a single word, short phrase or acronym) which is given to a project being developed by industry , academia , government, and other concerns. Project code names are typically used for several reasons: Different organizations have different policies regarding

10672-686: The ship passed south of Tierra del Fuego, the southern tip of South America, through the area now known as the Drake Passage . In June 1579, Drake landed somewhere north of Spain's northernmost claim in Alta California , presumably Drakes Bay . Drake completed the second complete circumnavigation of the world in a single vessel on September 1580, becoming the first commander to survive the entire circumnavigation. Thomas Cavendish completed his circumnavigation between 1586 and 1588 in record time—in two years and 49 days, nine months faster than Drake. It

10788-460: The ship, and class programs from the noon to 1600 watch. Wednesdays had the crew on reduced activities that is traditionally known as Rope Yarn Sunday. Thursdays saw a schedule of regular drills, and Fridays involved upkeep and general maintenance activities known as Field Day. Saturdays had regular activities with afternoon drills, and Sundays had reduced activities with normal watches and religious observances. Also, beginning on February 17 during

10904-419: The submarine type commands for the Atlantic and Pacific fleets. It was announced Triton ' s upcoming shakedown cruise was to be a submerged world circumnavigation, code-named Operation Sandblast, which would generally follow the track of the first circumnavigation in 1519–1522 started by Ferdinand Magellan and completed by Juan Sebastián Elcano . Triton would depart as scheduled on February 16, and

11020-489: The submarine would arrive back home no later than May 10, 1960. The mission objectives for Operation Sandblast were summarized below: For purposes of geophysical and oceanographic research and to determine habitability, endurance and psychological stress – all extremely important to the Polaris program – it had been decided that a rapid round-the-world trip, touching the areas of interest, should be conducted. Maximum stability of

11136-586: The submarine's hull's submerged status. A boat-handling party led by Lieutenant George A. Sawyer, the ship's gunnery officer, transferred Poole to the waiting whaleboat , which then returned to Macon . Poole was the only crew member who did not complete the voyage. Chief Radarman Poole was subsequently examined by both the doctors aboard Macon and at a hospital in Montevideo, but his third attack of kidney stones, which prompted his transfer off Triton , proved to be his last–and he did not require kidney surgery. After

11252-563: The system of rainbow codes . Although German and Italian aircraft were not given code names by their Allied opponents, in 1942, Captain Frank T. McCoy, an intelligence officer of the USAAF , invented a system for the identification of Japanese military aircraft. Initially using short, " hillbilly " boys' names such as " Pete ", " Jake ", and " Rufe ", the system was later extended to include girls' names and names of trees and birds, and became widely used by

11368-438: The use and publication of project code names. Some companies take great pains to never discuss or disclose project code names outside of the company (other than with outside entities who have a need to know, and typically are bound with a non-disclosure agreement ). Other companies never use them in official or formal communications, but widely disseminate project code names through informal channels (often in an attempt to create

11484-399: The voyage which all submariners have dreamed of ever since they possessed the means of doing so. We have the ship and we have the crew. We’re going around the world, nonstop. And we’re going to do it entirely submerged. Regarding the upcoming voyage, Beach adopted a decidedly non-traditional command style: Early on, I realized that what this particular crew needed from me was not pressure but

11600-457: The world followed the North Atlantic Ocean, Equator, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Equator, North Atlantic Ocean route in an easterly direction. The map on the right shows, in red, a typical, non-competitive, route for a sailing circumnavigation of the world by the trade winds and the Suez and Panama canals; overlaid in yellow are the points antipodal to all points on

11716-461: The world instead of making the return voyage—no passage east across the Pacific would be successful for four decades —and continued the voyage across the Indian Ocean, round the southern cape of Africa , north along Africa's Atlantic coasts, and back to Spain in 1522. Of the 270 crew members who set out from Seville, only 18 were still with the expedition at the end including its surviving captain,

11832-468: The world may better understand this, the Navy directed a submerged retrace of Ferdinand Magellan's historic circumnavigation. The honor of doing it fell to the Triton , but it has been a national accomplishment; for the sinews and the power which make up our ship, the genius which designed her, the thousands and hundreds of thousands who labored, each at his own metier, in all parts of the country, to build her safe, strong, self-reliant, are America. Triton ,

11948-629: Was Captain Edward L. Beach, Jr. ( pictured ), a highly decorated submarine officer who had participated in the Battle of Midway and 12 combat patrols during World War II , earning 10 decorations for gallantry, including the Navy Cross . After the war, Beach served as the naval aide to the President of the United States from 1953 to 1957, and he also was the best-selling author of the non-fiction book Submarine! and

12064-400: Was 84 days of strenuous work just keeping the ship clean. It was amazing how much dirt we created, so I had a field day every weekend. The crew started objecting until they saw how much trash we kept getting rid of. Then they couldn't object." To remove trash without surfacing, Triton had a garbage disposal unit (GDU), a small inverted torpedo tube that ejected a weighted bag of refuse through

12180-698: Was a detour to the Golfo Nuevo region when the ship investigated an unknown sonar contact. Contemporary news accounts reported the Argentine Navy had been encountering numerous unknown submarine contacts in the Golfo Nuevo during early 1960, but Triton ' s contact turned out to be a school of fish. On March 3, Triton located the Falkland Islands on her radar and prepared to conduct photoreconnaissance of Stanley Harbor . Before they could visually sight

12296-482: Was also "astonished" by two different makeshift fathometer sound transmitters created by the electronics and engineering crewmen. One was based on a general announcing speaker, the other used a stainless steel cooking pot from the galley, with stainless steel rods and copper wiring. Beach noted in the ship's log: "I could only marvel at the ingenuity of the American sailor." On March 19, Triton detected another submerged peak, using its sonar and gravity meter, and crossed

12412-504: Was also the first deliberately planned voyage of the globe. Jeanne Baret is recognized as the first woman to have completed a voyage of circumnavigation of the globe, which she did via maritime transport . A key part of her journey was as a member of Louis Antoine de Bougainville 's expedition on the ships La Boudeuse and Étoile in 1766–1769. Captain James Cook became the first navigator to record three circumnavigations through

12528-514: Was assigned to Submarine Squadron 10 (Subron 10), the U.S. Navy's first all-nuclear force, based at the U.S. Submarine Base in New London , Connecticut , under the command of Commodore Thomas H. Henry. Triton subsequently completed torpedo trials at Naval Station Newport and conducted other special tests at the Norfolk Navy Base before returning to Electric Boat on December 7, 1959 to install special communications equipment, including

12644-676: Was called the Manhattan Project , derived from the Manhattan Engineer District which managed the program. The code name for the American A-12 / SR-71 spy plane project, producing the fastest, highest-flying aircraft in the world, was Oxcart . The American group that planned that country's first ICBM was called the Teapot Committee . Although the word could stand for a menace to shipping (in this case, that of Japan),

12760-554: Was carried out by Lt. Richard M. Harris, the CIC/ECM officer, and Chief Cryptologic Technician (CTC) William R. Hadley, who served as the ship's secondary photo-recon team for the voyage. Triton turned south and crossed the equator for the first time later that day, passing into the Southern Hemisphere , with ship's personnel participating in the crossing the line ceremony (pictured) . On March 1, 1960, as Triton passed along

12876-503: Was decided to attempt a submerged voyage under the North Pole. Captain Aurand is credited with recommending that a successful submerged circumnavigation, timed to conclude just prior to the upcoming May 1960 Four Power Paris Summit between U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, would provide a much needed boost to American prestige, and consequently this voyage, code-named Operation Sandblast, reflected

12992-480: Was his former assistant engineering officer, Lt. Commander Donald G. Fears. Also, a number of supercargo personnel joined Triton for her shakedown cruise, with none aware of the top-secret nature of Operation Sandblast. Joseph Baylor Roberts was a well-known photographer from the National Geographic Magazine , and as a Commander in the U.S. Naval Reserve, he was recalled to active duty to serve as

13108-643: Was started by the Air Standards Co-ordinating Committee (ASCC) formed by the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, it was extended throughout NATO as the NATO reporting name for aircraft, rockets and missiles. These names were considered by the Soviets as being like a nickname given to one's unit by the opponents in a battle. The Soviets did not like the Sukhoi Su-25 getting

13224-502: Was sunk in 1526 in the East Indies (now Indonesia ) by the Portuguese. Unable to press forward or retreat, Hernando de la Torre erected a fort on Tidore , received reinforcements under Alvaro de Saavedra that were similarly defeated, and finally surrendered to the Portuguese. In this way, a handful of survivors became the second group of circumnavigators when they were transported under guard to Lisbon in 1536. A third group came from

13340-402: Was the largest, most powerful, and most expensive submarine ever built at the time of her commissioning, costing $ 109,000,000 excluding the cost of her nuclear fuel and reactors. A unique submarine, she also had the distinction of being the only non-Soviet submarine to be powered by two nuclear reactors. Triton ' s high speed was derived from her twin-reactor nuclear propulsion plant, with

13456-444: Was to select words that had no obviously deducible connection with what they were supposed to be concealing. Those for the major conference meetings had a partial naming sequence referring to devices or instruments which had a number as part of their meaning, e.g., the third meeting was "TRIDENT". Joseph Stalin , whose last name means "man of steel", was given the name "GLYPTIC", meaning "an image carved out of stone". Ewen Montagu ,

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