Misplaced Pages

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140-522: The Canada–United States border is the longest international border in the world. The boundary (including boundaries in the Great Lakes , Atlantic, and Pacific coasts) is 8,891 km (5,525 mi) long. The land border has two sections: Canada 's border with the contiguous United States to its south, and with the U.S. state of Alaska to its west. The bi-national International Boundary Commission deals with matters relating to marking and maintaining

280-408: A conceptual artistic practice , however, opens up the possibility for artists to explore similar concerns of identity and national origin(s) but whose location is not specific to the U.S-Mexico border. A border can be a division, dividing groups of people and families. Borders can include but are not limited to language, culture, social and economic class, religion, and national identity. In addition to

420-604: A royal charter to create the Hudson's Bay Company , under the governorship of Prince Rupert, the king's cousin. According to the Charter, the HBC received rights to: The sole Trade and Commerce of all those Seas, Streights, Bays, Rivers, Lakes, Creeks, and Sounds, in whatsoever Latitude they shall be, that lie within the entrance of the Streights commonly called Hudson's Streights, together with all

560-543: A 110-metre (360 ft) tunnel under the border between British Columbia and Washington , intended for the use of smuggling marijuana , the first such tunnel known on this border. From 2007 to 2010, 147 people were arrested for smuggling marijuana on the property of a bed-and-breakfast in Blaine, Washington, but agents estimate that they caught only about 5% of smugglers. Because of its location, Cornwall, Ontario , experiences ongoing smuggling—mostly of tobacco and firearms from

700-505: A Canadian province or territory, or an enhanced identification/photo card issued by a Canadian province or territory. Several other documents may be used by Canadians to identify their citizenship at the border, although the use of such documents requires it to be supported with additional photo identification. American and Canadian citizens who are members of a trusted traveler program such as FAST or NEXUS, may present their FAST or NEXUS card as an alternate form of identification when crossing

840-740: A DMZ unexposed to human influence and thus developed into a natural border or wildlife preserve, such as on the Korean Demilitarized Zone , the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone , and the Green Line in Cyprus . Borders undermine economic activity and development by reducing trade activity. The presence of borders often fosters certain economic features or anomalies. Wherever two jurisdictions come into contact, special economic opportunities arise for border trade . Smuggling provides

980-611: A birth certificate and driver's license/government-issued identification card when crossing the Canada–United States border. However, in late 2006, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced the final rule of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), which pertained to new identification requirements for travelers entering the United States. This rule, which marked the first phase of

1120-543: A border may be a de facto military ceasefire line. In much of Europe, controls on persons were abolished by the 1985 Schengen Agreement and subsequent European Union legislation. Since the Treaty of Amsterdam , the competence to pass laws on crossing internal and external borders within the European Union and the associated Schengen Area states ( Iceland , Norway , Switzerland , and Liechtenstein ) lies exclusively within

1260-630: A border often requires the payment of excise tax , often collected by customs officials. Animals (and occasionally humans) moving across borders may need to go into quarantine to prevent the spread of exotic infectious diseases. Most countries prohibit carrying illegal drugs or endangered animals across their borders. Moving goods, animals, or people illegally across a border, without declaring them or seeking permission, or deliberately evading official inspection, constitutes smuggling . Controls on car liability insurance validity and other formalities may also take place. A border may have been: In addition,

1400-672: A border that followed the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. The dispute was resolved in the Oregon Treaty of 1846, which established the 49th parallel as the boundary through the Rockies. The Northwest Boundary Survey (1857–1861) laid out the land boundary. However, the water boundary was not settled for some time. After the Pig War in 1859, arbitration in 1872 established the border between

1540-513: A cease-fire line, an LoC was first created with the Simla Agreement between India and Pakistan . Similar to a cease-fire line, an LoC is typically the result of war, military stalemates and unresolved land ownership conflict. A maritime border is a division enclosing an area in the ocean where a nation has exclusive rights over the mineral and biological resources, encompassing maritime features, limits and zones. Maritime borders represent

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1680-477: A classic case; contrariwise, a border region may flourish on the provision of excise or of import – export services — legal or quasi-legal, corrupt or legitimate. Different regulations on either side of a border may encourage services to position themselves at or near that border: thus the provision of pornography , of prostitution , of alcohol , fireworks , and/or of narcotics may cluster around borders, city limits, county lines, ports and airports . In

1820-409: A combination of mediums). They may at once be artists and activists , existing in multiple social roles at once. Many border artists defy easy classifications in their artistic practice and work. [REDACTED] Media related to Borders at Wikimedia Commons Rupert%27s Land Rupert's Land ( French : Terre de Rupert ), or Prince Rupert's Land (French: Terre du Prince Rupert ),

1960-470: A decision). Fiat boundaries are typically the product of human demarcation, such as in demarcating electoral districts or postal districts. A relic border is a former boundary, which may no longer be a legal boundary at all. However, the former presence of the boundary can still be seen in the landscape. For instance, the boundary between East and West Germany is no longer an international boundary, but it can still be seen because of historical markers on

2100-654: A degree of external protection. This stable order broke down in the 1860s with the decline of the Hudson's Bay Company, smallpox epidemics and the arrival of American whisky traders on the Great Plains, and the disappearance of the bison . The rule of law was, after the transfer of Rupert's Land to Canada, enforced by the North-West Mounted Police . Peake (1989) describes people, places, and activities that were involved in 19th-century Anglican missionary activities in

2240-467: A division, a border can also conceive a borderland area that can create a cohesive community separate from the mainstream cultures and identities portrayed in the communities away from the borders, such as the Tijuana-San Diego border between Mexico and the United States. Border art can be defined as an art that is created in reference to any number of physical or imagined boundaries. This art can but

2380-418: A land or sea port-of-entry (including ferries ) has been required to present one of the above forms of identification to enter the United States. Conversely, to cross into Canada, a traveler must also carry identification, as well as a valid visa (if necessary) when crossing the border. Forms of identification include a valid passport, a Canadian Emergency Travel Document, an enhanced driver's license issued by

2520-408: A more planned and official context, Special Economic Zones (SEZs) often tend to cluster near borders or ports. Even if the goods are not perceived to be undesirable, states will still seek to document and regulate the cross-border trade in order to collect tariffs and benefit from foreign currency exchange revenues. Thus, there is the concept unofficial trade in goods otherwise legal; for example,

2660-597: A nephew of King Charles I and the first governor of HBC. In December 1821, the HBC monopoly was extended from Rupert's Land to the Pacific coast. The areas formerly belonging to Rupert's Land lie mostly within what is today Canada , and included the whole of Manitoba , most of Saskatchewan , southern Alberta , southern Nunavut , and northern parts of Ontario and Quebec . Additionally, it also extended into areas that would eventually become parts of Minnesota , North Dakota , and Montana . The southern border west of Lake of

2800-587: A particular state of mind for human activity. As such frontiers have been applied to borderlands identifying and claiming them as terra nullius , such as Marie Byrd Land in West Antarctica , the only territory in Antarctica unclaimed by any sovereign nation. In places where smuggling, migration, and infiltration are a problem, many countries fortify borders with fences and barriers , and institute formal border control procedures. These can extend inland, as in

2940-456: A process that made their crossing more tedious, believing it violated their treaty rights of free passage. When traveling from the U.S. to Cornwall Island , they must first cross a second bridge into Canada, for inspection at the new Canadian border station. Discussions between inter-governmental agencies were being pursued on the feasibility of relocating the Canadian border inspection facilities on

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3080-517: A sharp turn towards the northeast. The border then reaches the St. Lawrence River, proceeding through it until finally, at 45°00′N 74°40′W  /  45.000°N 74.667°W  / 45.000; -74.667 (between Massena, New York and Cornwall, Ontario ), the border splits from the river and continues into Quebec. The province of Quebec borders (west to east) the U.S. states of New York, Vermont , New Hampshire , and Maine , beginning where

3220-605: A water boundary. It begins at the north-westernmost point of Minnesota's Northwest Angle ( 49°23′N 95°09′W  /  49.383°N 95.150°W  / 49.383; -95.150 ). From here, it proceeds eastward through the Angle Inlet into the Lake of the Woods , turning southward at 49°19′N 94°48′W  /  49.317°N 94.800°W  / 49.317; -94.800 (near Dawson Township, Ontario ) where it continues into

3360-573: Is a general agreement of vertical airspace ending at the point of the Kármán line . The Kármán line is a peak point at the altitude of 62 mi (100 km) above the Earth's surface, setting a boundary between the atmosphere (airspace) and outer space (which is governed by space law ). The frontier is a border that is open-ended to one side, identifying an expanding borderland to one side. This type of border can be fairly abstract and has been identified as

3500-454: Is explained by an array of factors, some of which illustrate regional problems. Airspace is the atmosphere located within a country's controlled international and maritime borders. All sovereign countries hold the right to regulate and protect air space under the international law of Air sovereignty . The horizontal boundaries of airspace are similar to the policies of " high seas " in maritime law. Airspace extends 12 nautical miles from

3640-408: Is no border zone ; the U.S. Customs and Border Protection routinely sets up checkpoints as far as 100 miles (160 km) into U.S. territory. In August 2020, the United States constructed 3.8 km (2.4 mi) of short cable fencing along the border between Abbotsford, British Columbia , and Whatcom County, Washington . Before 2007, American and Canadian citizens were only required to produce

3780-479: Is not limited to social , political , physical, emotional and/or nationalist issues. Border art is not confined to one particular medium . Border art/artists often address the forced politicization of human bodies and physical land and the arbitrary, yet incredibly harmful, separations that are created by these borders and boundaries. These artists are often "border crossers" themselves. They may cross borders of traditional art-making (through performance, video, or

3920-617: The 38th Parallel (between North and South Korea), Western Sahara conflict , and Kashmir region conflicts between India and Pakistan. A border conflict can occur due to several reasons. Most commonly, territorial disputes can result in border conflicts, as it is the case with the Kashmir conflict . Borders have sometimes been significantly shaped by physical border constructions and openings. From border crossings, over border markers to border barriers these constructions fulfill many different functions. Such as also providing crossover. Even

4060-844: The Anglicans of the Britain-based Church Missionary Society . The prairie missions extended from the area of 20th-century Winnipeg to the Mackenzie River delta in the north. Notable missionaries included Revd. John West , the first Protestant missionary to come to the area in 1820, David Anderson the first Bishop of Rupert's Land, William Bompas and the Native American Anglican priests: Henry Budd , James Settee , and Robert McDonald. There were also Roman Catholic missions in Rupert's Land. One notable missionary

4200-737: The Appalachian Mountains as it turns into the border of Maine. It continues to do so until 46°25′N 70°03′W  /  46.417°N 70.050°W  / 46.417; -70.050 (near Saint-Camille-de-Lellis, Quebec on the Canadian side, and unorganized territory on the American side), where it heads north, then northeastward at 46°41′N 69°59′W  /  46.683°N 69.983°W  / 46.683; -69.983 (near Lac-Frontière, Quebec ). Finally, at 47°27′N 69°13′W  /  47.450°N 69.217°W  / 47.450; -69.217 (near Pohénégamook , Quebec),

4340-511: The Arctic Circle . Even John A. Macdonald , the then Prime Minister of Canada , saw the land as being sold to Canada: "...No explanation has been made of the arrangement by which the country (Rupert's Land) is handed over to the Queen, and that it is her Majesty who transfers the country to Canada with the same rights to settlers as existed before. All these poor people know is that Canada has bought

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4480-530: The European Union provides financial support to cross-border regions via its Interreg programme. The Council of Europe has issued the Outline Convention on Transfrontier Co-operation , providing a legal framework for cross-border co-operation even though it is in practice rarely used by Euroregions. There has been a renaissance in the study of borders starting with the end of the 1990s, partially from

4620-705: The Fairweather Glacier ), where the border heads northwestward towards the Coast Mountains . At 59°48′N 135°28′W  /  59.800°N 135.467°W  / 59.800; -135.467 (near Skagway, Alaska ), the border begins a general southeastward direction along the Coast Mountains. The border eventually reaches the Portland Canal and follows it outward to the Dixon Entrance , which takes

4760-507: The French Revolution or in Europe since the 1940s, de-emphasizes border-based economic activity and fosters free trade . Euroregions are similar official structures built around commuting across boundary. Political borders have a variety of meanings for those whom they affect. Many borders in the world have checkpoints where border control agents inspect persons and/or goods crossing

4900-624: The Gulf Islands and the San Juan Islands . The International Boundary Survey (or, the "Northern Boundary Survey" in the U.S.) began in 1872. Its mandate was to establish the border as agreed to in the Treaty of 1818. Archibald Campbell led the way for the United States, while Donald Cameron, supported by chief astronomer Samuel Anderson , headed the British team. This survey focused on the border from

5040-597: The Lake of the Woods . From the northwesternmost point of the Lake of the Woods , the boundary was agreed to go straight west until it met the Mississippi River . That line never meets the river since the river's source is farther south. The Jay Treaty of 1794 (effective 1796) created the International Boundary Commission , which was charged with surveying and mapping the boundary. It also provided for

5180-540: The Middle East . The Canada–United States border follows the 49th parallel for roughly 2,175 miles (3,500 km) from Lake of the Woods ( Ontario and Minnesota ) west to the Pacific Ocean . A generalization of the idea of geometric borders is the idea of fiat boundaries by which is meant any sort of boundary that does not track an underlying bona fide physical discontinuity ( fiat , Latin for "let it be done",

5320-693: The Monument Brook further south into the Chiputneticook Lakes , which subsequently leads the border to the St. Croix River . The border proceeds through the St. Croix to Passamaquoddy Bay , which then leads it to Grand Manan Island into the middle of the Bay of Fundy . Here, the border turns towards the south and terminates upon reaching international waters. Border Some borders—such as most states' internal administrative borders, or inter-state borders within

5460-776: The Rainy River . The border follows the River to Rainy Lake , then subsequently through various smaller lakes, including Namakan Lake, Lac la Croix , and Sea Gull Lake . The border then crosses the Height of Land Portage over the divide between the Hudson Bay drainage basin, and that of the Great Lakes. The boundary then follows the Pigeon River , which leads it out into Lake Superior. The border continues through Lake Superior and Whitefish Bay , into

5600-482: The Saint John River . The border moves through the River until 47°04′N 67°47′W  /  47.067°N 67.783°W  / 47.067; -67.783 (between Hamlin, Maine and Grand Falls, New Brunswick ), where it splits from the river. It heads southward to 45°56′N 67°47′W  /  45.933°N 67.783°W  / 45.933; -67.783 (near Amity, Maine ), from whence it follows

5740-457: The Schengen Area —are open and completely unguarded. Most external political borders are partially or fully controlled, and may be crossed legally only at designated border checkpoints ; adjacent border zones may also be controlled. For the purposes of border control , airports and seaports are also classed as borders. Most countries have some form of border control to regulate or limit

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5880-577: The St. Clair River , leading it to Lake St. Clair . The border proceeds through Lake St. Clair, reaching the Detroit River , which leads it to Lake Erie , where it begins turning northeast. From Lake Erie, the border is led into the Niagara River , which takes it into Lake Ontario . From here, the boundary heads northwestward until it reaches 43°27′N 79°12′W  /  43.450°N 79.200°W  / 43.450; -79.200 , where it makes

6020-521: The St. Mary's River then the North Channel . At 45°59′N 83°26′W  /  45.983°N 83.433°W  / 45.983; -83.433 (between Drummond Township, Michigan to the west and Cockburn Island (Ontario) to the east), the border turns southward into the False Detour Channel , from which it reaches Lake Huron . Through the Lake, the border heads southward until reaching

6160-621: The United States–Mexico border (which is one-third the length of the Canada–U.S. border), which is actively patrolled by U.S. Customs and Border Protection personnel to prevent illegal migration and drug trafficking . Parts of the International Boundary cross through mountainous terrain or heavily forested areas, but significant portions also cross remote prairie farmland and the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, in addition to

6300-493: The drainage basin of Hudson's Bay . It spanned an area of about 3,861,400 square kilometres (1,490,900 sq mi), more than a third of all modern Canada. The royal charter made the "Governor and Company ... and their Successors, the true and absolute Lords and Proprietors, of the same Territory...", and granted them the authority "...to erect and build such Castles, Fortifications, Forts, Garrisons, Colonies or Plantations, Towns or Villages, in any Parts or Places within

6440-462: The 1760s as the boundary between the provinces of Quebec and New York (including what would later become the State of Vermont ). It was surveyed and marked by John Collins and Thomas Valentine from 1771 to 1773. The St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes became the boundary further west, between the United States and what is now Ontario . Northwest of Lake Superior , the boundary followed rivers to

6580-440: The 18th–19th centuries and drew on the local population for many of its employees. This necessarily meant the hiring of many First Nations and Métis workers. Fuchs (2002) discusses the activities of these workers and the changing attitudes that the company had toward them. While George Simpson , one of the most noted company administrators, held a particularly dim view of mixed-blood workers and kept them from attaining positions in

6720-687: The 3,600 km (2,200 mi) US-Mexico border is probably "the world's longest boundary between a First World and Third World country". Historic borders such as the Great Wall of China , the Maginot Line , and Hadrian's Wall have played a great many roles and been marked in different ways. While the stone walls , the Great Wall of China and the Roman Hadrian's Wall in Britain had military functions,

6860-608: The African Borderlands Research Network and the founding of smaller border research centres at Nijmegen and Queen's University Belfast . Border art is a contemporary art practice rooted in the socio-political experience(s), such as of those on the U.S.-Mexico borderlands , or frontera . Since its conception in the mid-1980s, this artistic practice has assisted in the development of questions surrounding homeland , borders, surveillance , identity, race , ethnicity , and national origin (s). Border art as

7000-562: The Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean", to survey and delimit the boundary between Canada and the U.S. through the St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes, by modern surveying techniques, and thus accomplished several changes to the border. In 1925, the International Boundary Commission's temporary mission became permanent for maintaining the survey and mapping of the border; maintaining boundary monuments and buoys; and keeping

7140-590: The British Crown, which was authorized to accept the surrender by the Rupert's Land Act. By order-in-council dated 23 June 1870, the British government admitted the territory to Canada, under s. 146 of the Constitution Act, 1867 , effective 15 July 1870, subject to the making of treaties with the sovereign indigenous nations to provide their consent to the Imperial Crown to exercise its sovereignty pursuant to

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7280-530: The CBP on the Northern border that adversely affect enforcement actions; the U.S. Border Patrol "identified an insufficient number of agents that limited patrol missions along the northern border" while CBP Air and Marine Operations "identified an insufficient number of agents along the northern border, which limited the number and frequency of air and maritime missions." There are eight U.S. Border Patrol sectors based on

7420-531: The Canada–U.S. border was shut without any warning, and no goods or people were allowed to cross. In the wake of the impromptu border closure, procedures were jointly developed to ensure that commercial traffic could cross the border even if people were restricted from crossing. These procedures were later used for a border closure caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada and

7560-513: The Canada–U.S. border, each covering a designated "area of responsibility"; the sectors are (from west to east) based in Blaine, Washington ; Spokane, Washington ; Havre, Montana ; Grand Forks, North Dakota ; Detroit, Michigan ; Buffalo, New York ; Swanton, Vermont ; and Houlton, Maine . Following the September 11 attacks in the United States, security along the border was dramatically tightened by

7700-481: The Canadian border. Smuggling of alcoholic beverages ( "rum running" ) was widespread during the 1920s, when Prohibition was in effect nationally in the United States and parts of Canada . In more recent years, Canadian officials have brought attention to drug , cigarette , and firearm smuggling from the United States, while U.S. officials have made complaints of drug smuggling via Canada. In July 2005, law enforcement personnel arrested three men who had built

7840-405: The Canadian frontier and for an investigation of the sources from which legal history might be rewritten as the history of legal culture. Previous historians have assumed that the Hudson's Bay Company's representatives designed and implemented a local legal system dedicated instrumentally to the protection of the company's fur trade monopoly and, more generally, to strict control of settlement life in

7980-422: The Canadian government announced that fully vaccinated American citizens and permanent residents could visit Canada starting August 9. The American government reopened its land border to fully vaccinated Canadian citizens effective November 8. The 2020–21 closure was reportedly the first long-term blanket closure of the border since the War of 1812. Business advocacy groups, noting the substantial economic impact of

8120-416: The Country from the Hudson's Bay Company, and that they are handed over like a flock of sheep to us...". In 1927, the Supreme Court of Canada held that the terms of the Charter had granted ownership of all the land in the Hudson Bay drainage to the company, including all precious minerals. However, this ruling did not settle the issue of aboriginal title over the land. At the time of the royal charter and

8260-427: The European Union and NAFTA, have spurred the establishment of cross-border regions. These are initiatives driven by local or regional authorities, aimed at dealing with local border-transcending problems such as transport and environmental degradation. Many cross-border regions are also active in encouraging intercultural communication and dialogue as well as cross-border economic development strategies. In Europe ,

8400-463: The Hudson's Bay Company had no formal legal system in Rupert's Land, creating "courts" on an ad hoc basis. The Hudson's Bay Company's "laws" in the 17th and 18th centuries had been the regulations setting out the rules governing the relationships between various employees in the company's posts in Rupert's Land and to interact with Indigenous peoples. The 1670 charter granting the company control of Rupert's Land had said trials were to be conducted by

8540-433: The Hudson's Bay Company were convinced of the need to dispense formal justice throughout Rupert's Land and established a court at the Red River Colony , in the "District of Assiniboia", south of Lake Winnipeg . A Recorder and President of the Court would act as legal organizer, adviser, magistrate, and councillor and be responsible for the rationalization and formalization of Rupert's Land's judicial system. The first Recorder

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8680-420: The Indian title, of the plaintiffs to their ancient tribal territory hereinbefore described, has never been lawfully extinguished...". In 1869–1870, when the Hudson's Bay Company surrendered its charter to the British Crown, it received £300,000 in compensation. Control was originally planned to be transferred on 1 December 1869, but due to the premature action of the new lieutenant governor, William McDougall ,

8820-423: The Lake of the Woods to the summit of the Rocky Mountains. In 1903, following a dispute that arose because of the Klondike Gold Rush , a joint United Kingdom–Canada–U.S. tribunal established the boundary of southeast Alaska . On April 11, 1908, the United Kingdom and the United States agreed, under Article IV of the Treaty of 1908 "concerning the boundary between the United States and the Dominion of Canada from

8960-445: The Lands, Countries and Territories, upon the Coasts and Confines of the Seas, Streights, Bays, Lakes, Rivers, Creeks and Sounds, aforesaid, which are not now actually possessed by any of our Subjects, or by the Subjects of any other Christian Prince or State [...] and that the said Land be from henceforth reckoned and reputed as one of our Plantations or Colonies in America, called Rupert's Land . The Charter applied to all lands within

9100-406: The Limits and Bounds granted before in these Presents, unto the said Governor and Company, as they in their Discretion shall think fit and requisite...". In 1821, following the merger with the North West Company , the Hudson's Bay Company's monopoly privileges and licence were extended to trade over the North-Western Territory . The Rupert's Land Act 1868 , which was passed by the Parliament of

9240-430: The Ontario-New York border ends in the St. Lawrence River at the 45th parallel north . The Quebec-New York border heads inland towards the east, remaining on or near the parallel, becoming the border of Vermont . At 45°00′N 71°30′W  /  45.000°N 71.500°W  / 45.000; -71.500 (the tripoint of Vermont, New Hampshire , and Quebec), the border begins to follow various natural features of

9380-647: The U.S. Residents of both nations who own property adjacent to the border are forbidden to build within the 6-metre-wide (20 ft) boundary vista without permission from the International Boundary Commission. They are required to report such construction to their respective governments. All persons crossing the border are required to report to the customs agency of the country they have entered. Where necessary, fences or vehicle blockades are used. In remote areas, where staffed border crossings are not available, there are hidden sensors on roads, trails, railways, and wooded areas, which are located near crossing points. There

9520-407: The U.S. side of the border. In August 2017, the border between Quebec and New York saw an influx of up to 500 irregular crossings each day, by individuals seeking asylum in Canada. As a result, Canada increased border security and immigration staffing in the area, reiterating the fact that crossing the border irregularly did not affect one's asylum status. From the beginning of January 2017 up until

9660-493: The U.S. state of Alaska , beginning at the Beaufort Sea at 69°39′N 141°00′W  /  69.650°N 141.000°W  / 69.650; -141.000 and proceeding southwards along the 141st meridian west . At 60°18′N, the border proceeds away from the 141st meridian west in a southeastward direction, following the Saint Elias Mountains . South of the 60th parallel north , the border continues into British Columbia. British Columbia has two international borders with

9800-423: The United Kingdom , authorized the sale of Rupert's Land to Canada with the understanding that "...'Rupert's Land' shall include the whole of the Lands and Territories held or claimed to be held by the..." Hudson's Bay Company. The prevailing attitude of the time was that Rupert's Land was owned by the Hudson's Bay Company because "...From the beginning to the end, the [Hudson's Bay Company] had always claimed up to

9940-454: The United States , the governments of Canada and the United States agreed to close the border to "non-essential" travel on March 21, 2020, for an initial period of 30 days. The closure was extended 15 times. In mid-June 2021, the Canadian government announced it would ease some entry requirements for fully vaccinated Canadian citizens, permanent residents, and foreign nationals starting on July 5. The closure finally expired on July 21. In mid-July,

10080-845: The United States where the U.S. Customs and Border Protection service has jurisdiction to operate up to 100 miles from any land or sea boundary. On the other hand, some borders are merely signposted. This is common in countries within the European Schengen Area and on rural sections of the Canada–United States border . Borders may even be completely unmarked, typically in remote or forested regions; such borders are often described as "porous". Migration within territorial borders, and outside of them, represented an old and established pattern of movement in African countries, in seeking work and food, and to maintain ties with kin who had moved across

10220-607: The United States. The Treaty of 1818 saw the expansion of both British North America and the United States, with their boundary extending westward along the 49th parallel , from the Northwest Angle at Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains . While the Laurentian Divide had previously been agreed to as a border, the flatness of the terrain made it difficult to locate this line. The treaty extinguished British claims to

10360-515: The United States. The neighboring Mohawk territory of Akwesasne straddles the Ontario–Quebec–New York borders, where its First Nations sovereignty prevents Ontario Provincial Police , Sûreté du Québec , Royal Canadian Mounted Police , Canada Border Services Agency, Canadian Coast Guard , United States Border Patrol , United States Coast Guard , and New York State Police from exercising jurisdiction over exchanges taking place within

10500-566: The United States: with the state of Alaska along BC's northwest, and with the contiguous United States along the southern edge of the province, including (west to east) Washington , Idaho , and Montana . BC's Alaskan border, continuing from Yukon's, proceeds through the Saint Elias Mountains , followed by Mount Fairweather at 58°54′N 137°31′W  /  58.900°N 137.517°W  / 58.900; -137.517 (near

10640-622: The Woods to the Rocky Mountains was the drainage divide between the Mississippi and Red/Saskatchewan watersheds until the Anglo-American Convention of 1818 substituted the 49th parallel. Under the principles of the doctrine of discovery , after the English visited and "discovered" Hudson's Bay, they could claim any lands found that were not already owned or "possessed" by other European or Christian nations. England claimed ownership of

10780-399: The border at Rouses Point, New York , on Lake Champlain. After a significant portion of the construction was completed, measurements revealed that at that point, the actual 45th parallel was three-quarters of a mile (1.2 km) south of the surveyed line. The fort, which became known as " Fort Blunder ", was in Canada, which created a dilemma for the U.S. that was not resolved until a provision of

10920-551: The border clear of brush and vegetation for 6 m (20 ft). This " border vista " extends for 3 m (9.8 ft) on each side of the line. In 1909, under the Boundary Waters Treaty , the International Joint Commission was established for Canada and the U.S. to investigate and approve projects that affect the waters and waterways along the border. As a result of the 2001 September 11 attacks ,

11060-568: The border down and out into the Pacific Ocean, terminating it upon reaching international waters . BC's border along the contiguous U.S. begins southwest of Vancouver Island and northwest of the Olympic Peninsula , at the terminus of international waters in the Pacific Ocean and the northwest corner of the American state of Washington . It follows the Strait of Juan de Fuca eastward, turning northeastward to enter Haro Strait . The border follows

11200-416: The border heads toward Beau Lake , going through it and continuing into New Brunswick. The entire border of New Brunswick is shared with the U.S. state of Maine, beginning at the southern tip of Beau Lake at 47°18′N 69°03′W  /  47.300°N 69.050°W  / 47.300; -69.050 (between Rivière-Bleue , Quebec and Saint-François Parish, New Brunswick ), subsequently proceeding to

11340-531: The border with Canada in connection with the pandemic. He later abandoned the idea following vocal opposition from Canadian officials. The International Boundary is commonly said to be the world's "longest undefended border", though this is true only in the military sense, as civilian law enforcement is present. It is illegal to cross the border outside border controls, as anyone crossing the border must be checked per immigration and customs laws. The relatively low level of security measures stands in contrast to that of

11480-468: The border's bounds. A DMZ can act as a war boundary, ceasefire line, wildlife preserve , or a de facto international border. An example of a demilitarized international border is the 38th parallel between North and South Korea . Other notable DMZ zones include Antarctica and outer space (consisting of all space 100 miles away from the earth's surface), both are preserved for world research and exploration. The prohibition of control by nations can make

11620-512: The borderland's natural geography and its building requires tremendous human labour and financial investment. Geometric boundaries are formed by straight lines (such as lines of latitude or longitude), or occasionally arcs (Pennsylvania/Delaware), regardless of the physical and cultural features of the area. Such political boundaries are often found around the states that developed out of colonial holdings, such as in North America , Africa and

11760-458: The borders separating said territories. They occur when one party constructs identities or interests related to the border which are incompatible with the other party's identities and interests . Border conflicts or the potential of such are the reason why many borders feature fortifications and zoning like no man's lands , demilitarized zones , demarcation lines and buffer zones . Examples of border conflicts include skirmishes and wars, such as

11900-495: The boundary itself, the area around the border is called the frontier . In the pre-modern world, the term border was vague and could refer to either side of the boundary, thus it was necessary to specify part of it with borderline or borderland . During the medieval period the government's control frequently diminished the further people got from the capital . Therefore borderland (especially impassable terrain) attracted many outlaws , as they often found sympathizers. In

12040-546: The boundary, and the International Joint Commission deals with issues concerning boundary waters. The agencies responsible for facilitating legal passage through the international boundary are the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) and U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain and the United States. In

12180-413: The boundary. Some borders require presentation of legal paperwork like passports and visas , or other identity documents , for persons to cross borders. To stay or work within a country's borders aliens (foreign persons) may need special immigration documents or permits ; but possession of such documents does not guarantee that the person should be allowed to cross the border. Moving goods across

12320-437: The closure on both sides of the border, called for more nuanced restrictions in place of the blanket ban on non-essential travel. The Northern Border Caucus, a group in the U.S. Congress composed of members from border communities, made similar suggestions to the governments of both countries. Beyond the closure itself, US President Donald Trump also initially suggested the idea of deploying United States military personnel near

12460-401: The coast of a country and it holds responsibility for protecting its own airspace unless under NATO peacetime protection. With international agreement a country can assume the responsibility of protecting or controlling the atmosphere over International Airspaces such as the Pacific Ocean . The vertical boundaries of airspace are not officially set or regulated internationally. However, there

12600-452: The company higher than postmaster, later administrators, such as James Anderson and Donald Ross, sought avenues for the advancement of indigenous employees. Morton (1962) reviews the pressures at work on that part of Rupert's Land where Winnipeg now stands, a decade before its incorporation into Canada. It was a region completely given over to the fur trade, divided between the Hudson's Bay Company and private traders, with some incursions by

12740-529: The company's interests. But this view is not borne out by archival research. Examination of Assiniboia's juridical institutions in action reveals a history formed less through the imposition of authority from above than by obtaining support from below. Baker shows that the legal history of the Red River Colony – and, by extension, of the Canadian West in general – is based on English common law . Following

12880-691: The control of the fur trade culminating in the Battle of Seven Oaks of 1816, which led to an investigation by the House of Commons of the United Kingdom , and which in turn led to the Second Canada Jurisdiction Act of 1821, ordering the Hudson's Bay Company to establish justice of the peace courts in Rupert's Land. Instead of establishing courts, the company directed the governor and the council of Assiniboia to mediate disputes as they arose. In 1839,

13020-705: The creation of a counter-narrative to the discourse about the world becoming a borderless and deterritorialized place, which has accompanied theories about globalization . Examples of recent initiatives are the Border Regions in Transition network of scholars, the International Boundaries Research Unit at the University of Durham , the Association for Borderlands Studies based in North America ,

13160-548: The cross-border trade in livestock by pastoralists in the Horn of Africa . Ethiopia sells an estimated $ 250 to $ 300 million of livestock to Somalia , Kenya and Djibouti every year unofficially, over 100 times the official estimate. Human economic traffic across borders (apart from kidnapping ) may involve mass commuting between workplaces and residential settlements. The removal of internal barriers to commerce , as in France after

13300-424: The eleventh century. Such a border is political in the sense that it is human-demarcated, usually through a treaty . However, a landscape border is not demarcated by fences and walls but instead landscape features such as forests, mountains, and water bodies. It is different from a natural border, however, in the sense that the border landscape is not natural but human-engineered. Such a landscape usually differs from

13440-755: The end of March 2018, the RCMP intercepted 25,645 people crossing the border into Canada from an unauthorized point of entry. Public Safety Canada estimates another 2,500 came across in April 2018 for a total of just over 28,000. The length of the terrestrial boundary is 8,891 km (5,525 mi), of which 6,416 km (3,987 mi) is against the contiguous 48 states , and 2,475 km (1,538 mi) against Alaska . Eight out of thirteen provinces and territories of Canada and thirteen out of fifty U.S. states are located along this international boundary. The Canadian territory of Yukon shares its entire western border with

13580-467: The entire Canada–U.S. border in Manitoba lies along the 49th parallel north. At the province's eastern end, however, the border briefly enters the Lake of the Woods, turning north at 48°59′N 95°09′W  /  48.983°N 95.150°W  / 48.983; -95.150 where it continues into the land along the western end of Minnesota's Northwest Angle , the only part of the United States besides

13720-436: The entire length of the world's international boundaries. Natural borders are geographical features that present natural obstacles to communication and transport. Existing political borders are often a formalization of such historical, natural obstacles. Some geographical features that often constitute natural borders are: Throughout history, technological advances have reduced the costs of transport and communication across

13860-605: The entirety of the Roman borders were very porous, which encouraged Roman economic activity with neighbors. On the other hand, a border like the Maginot Line was entirely military and was meant to prevent any access in what was to be World War II to France by its neighbor, Germany; Germany ended up going around the Maginot Line through Belgium just as it had done in World War I . Border conflicts are disputes between territories that occur at

14000-641: The flag of the Mohawk people. Although U.S. Customs remained open to southbound traffic, northbound traffic was blocked on the U.S. side by both American and Canadian officials. The Canadian border at this crossing remained closed for six weeks. On July 13, 2009, the CBSA opened a temporary inspection station at the north end of the north span of the bridge in the city of Cornwall, allowing traffic to once again flow in both directions. The Mohawk people of Akwesasne have staged ongoing protests at this border. In 2014, they objected to

14140-662: The forced merger of the North West Company with the HBC in 1821, British Parliament applied the laws of Upper Canada to Rupert's Land and the Columbia District and gave enforcement power to the HBC. The Hudson's Bay Company maintained peace in Rupert's Land for the benefit of the fur trade; the Plains Indians had achieved a rough balance of power among themselves; the organization of the Métis provided internal security and

14280-532: The freedom of internal movement of its citizens, as for example in the former USSR. However, only a handful of nations have deregulated open borders with other nations, an example of this being European countries under the Schengen Agreement or the open Belarus-Russia border . Open borders used to be very common amongst all nations, however this became less common after the First World War , which led to

14420-530: The governor of Rupert's Land together with three of his councillors. There were only three cases before the 19th century with the one with the most detailed notes being the trial of one Thomas Butler in 1715 at the York Factory who was convicted of theft, slander and fornication with a native woman. In the early 19th century, the HBC had waged a violent struggle with the rival North West Company based in Montreal for

14560-607: The initiative, was implemented on January 23, 2007, specifying six forms of identification acceptable for crossing the U.S. border (depending on mode): The requirement of a passport or an enhanced form of identification to enter the United States by air went into effect in January 2007; and went into effect for those entering the U.S. by land and sea in January 2008. Although the new requirements for land and sea entry went into legal effect in January 2008, its enforcement did not begin until June 2009. Since June 2009, every traveler arriving via

14700-422: The international boundary by land or sea, or when arriving by air from only Canada or the United States. Although permanent residents of Canada and the United States are eligible for FAST or NEXUS, they are required to travel with a passport and proof of permanent residency upon arrival at the Canadian border. American permanent residents who are NEXUS members also require Electronic Travel Authorization when crossing

14840-640: The interpretation of the border treaties and mistakes in surveying required additional negotiations, which resulted in the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842. The treaty resolved the Aroostook War , a dispute over the boundary between Maine , New Brunswick , and the Province of Canada . The treaty redefined the border between New Hampshire , Vermont, and New York on the one hand, and the Province of Canada on

14980-482: The jurisdiction of the European Union, except where states have used a specific right to opt out (United Kingdom and Ireland , which maintain the Common Travel Area amongst themselves). The United States has notably increased measures taken in border control on the Canada–United States border and the United States–Mexico border during its War on Terrorism (See Shantz 2010). One American writer has said that

15120-627: The jurisdictional borders of a maritime nation and are recognized by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea . Maritime borders exist in the context of territorial waters , contiguous zones , and exclusive economic zones ; however, the terminology does not encompass lake or river boundaries, which are considered within the context of land boundaries. Some maritime borders have remained indeterminate despite efforts to clarify them. This

15260-558: The lands surrounding Hudson's Bay. After explorations in 1659, Prince Rupert took interest in the Hudson's Bay region. The 1668–1669 expedition of the Nonsuch to the Hudson's Bay area returned with £1,400 (equivalent to £284,123 in 2023) worth of furs. However, England was not ready to organize a government on those lands. Instead, a "Company of Adventurers of England" was formed to administer those lands for England, thereby taking possession. In 1670, King Charles II of England granted

15400-517: The landscape; it remains a cultural and economic demarcation in Germany . Other examples include the Demilitarized Zone between North and South Vietnam (defunct since 1975) and the border between North and South Yemen (defunct since 1990). Occasionally a relic border is reconstituted in some form, for example the border between British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland ceased to exist when

15540-551: The later Rupert's Land Act 1868, the Crown held the attitude that it already held sovereignty over the land from a people who only had a "...personal and usufructuary right, dependent upon the good will of the Sovereign...". The Calder v British Columbia (AG) case in 1973 was the first case in Canadian law that acknowledged "...a declaration that the aboriginal title, otherwise known as

15680-565: The limitations and conditions of the Rupert's Land documents and the treaties. Lastly, the Government of Canada compensated the Hudson's Bay Company £300,000 (£35,977,894 pound sterling in 2019 money, or $ 60,595,408 Canadian dollars) for the surrender of its charter on the terms set out in the order-in-council. The company retained its most successful trading posts and one-twentieth of the lands surveyed for immigration and settlement. The Hudson's Bay Company dominated trade in Rupert's Land during

15820-764: The maritime components of the boundary at the Atlantic , Pacific , and Arctic oceans. The border also runs through the middle of the Mohawk Nation at Akwesasne and even divides some buildings found in communities in New England and Quebec. The US Customs and Border Protection identifies the chief issues along the border as domestic and international terrorism; drug smuggling and smuggling of products (such as tobacco ) to evade customs duties; and illegal immigration. A June 2019 U.S. Government Accountability Office report identified specific staffing and resource shortfalls faced by

15960-699: The most fortified borders reserve specific places to allow crossing. The many forms of borders have different ways of enabling and controlling passage. Borders can have a significant impact on and function for movement. It can enable and stop movement, across as well as along borders. The permeability of borders depends on its construction, availability of crossings, regulation and types or scope of activity. The permeability can vary, borders can be barriers for humans, but also for animal migration or types of pollution . Borders facilitate or block hybrids like border overlap and cooperation beyond mere encounter and exchange. Macro-regional integration initiatives, such as

16100-806: The most regulated borders in the world include: Australia , the United States , Israel , Canada , the United Kingdom , and the United Arab Emirates . These nations have government-controlled border agencies and organizations that enforce border regulation policies on and within their borders. An open border is the deregulation and or lack of regulation on the movement of persons between nations and jurisdictions. This definition does not apply to trade or movement between privately owned land areas. Most nations have open borders for travel within their nation of travel, though more authoritarian states may limit

16240-416: The movement of people, animals, and goods into and out of the country. Under international law, each country is generally permitted to legislate the conditions that have to be met in order to cross its borders, and to prevent people from crossing its borders in violation of those laws. Buffer zones may be set up on borders between belligerent entities to lower the risk of escalation. While border refers to

16380-523: The movement of persons and trade between nations and jurisdictions . Most industrialized nations have regulations on entry and require one or more of the following procedures: visa check, passport check or customs checks. Most regulated borders have regulations on immigration, types of wildlife and plants, and illegal objects such as drugs or weapons. Overall border regulations are placed by national and local governments and can vary depending on nation and current political or economic conditions. Some of

16520-535: The natural borders. That has reduced the significance of natural borders over time. As a result, political borders that have been formalized more recently, such as those in Africa or Americas, typically conform less to natural borders than very old borders, such as those in Europe or Asia, do. A landscape border is a mixture of political and natural borders. One example is the defensive forest created by China's Song dynasty in

16660-638: The other, resolving the Indian Stream dispute and the Fort Blunder dilemma at the outlet to Lake Champlain . The part of the 45th parallel that separates Quebec from the U.S. states of Vermont and New York had first been surveyed from 1771 to 1773 after it had been declared the boundary between New York (including what later became Vermont) and Quebec. It was surveyed again after the War of 1812. The U.S. federal government began to construct fortifications just south of

16800-401: The parallel 49...", and argued that the royal charter and various acts of Parliament granted them "...all the regions under British dominion watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay...". Rupert's Land had been essentially a private continental estate covering 3.9 million km in the heart of North America that stretched from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains , and from the prairies to

16940-582: The past, many borders were not clearly defined lines; instead there were often intervening areas often claimed and fought over by both sides, sometimes called marchlands . Special cases in modern times were the Saudi Arabian–Iraqi neutral zone from 1922 to 1991 and the Saudi Arabian–Kuwaiti neutral zone from 1922 until 1970. In modern times, marchlands have been replaced by clearly defined and demarcated borders. Political borders are imposed on

17080-471: The people of Red River formed a provisional government that took control until arrangements could be negotiated by leaders of what is known as the Red River Rebellion and the newly formed government of Canada. As a result of the negotiations, Canada asserted control on 15 July 1870. The transaction was three-cornered. On 19 November 1869, the company surrendered its charter under its letters patent to

17220-406: The prairie areas of Rupert's Land, that huge portion of Canada controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company and inhabited by few Europeans. Early in the century, fur trade competition forced the company to expand into this interior region, and some officials saw advantages in allowing missionaries to accompany them. Officially they did not discriminate among denominations, but preference was often granted to

17360-578: The previously porous borders of their homelands. When the colonial frontiers were drawn, Western countries attempted to obtain a monopoly on the recruitment of labor in many African countries, which altered the practical and institutional context in which the old migration patterns had been followed, and some might argue, are still followed today. The frontiers were particularly porous for the physical movement of migrants, and people living in borderlands easily maintained transnational cultural and social networks. Regulated borders have varying degrees of control on

17500-419: The provinces of both Alberta and Saskatchewan lies along the 49th parallel north. Both provinces share borders with the state of Montana , while, farther east, Saskatchewan also shares a border with North Dakota . On the American side, the states of Montana, North Dakota , and Minnesota all lie on the straight part of the border. Along with the U.S. states of North Dakota and Minnesota (west to east), nearly

17640-409: The regulation of open borders, making them less common and no longer feasible for most industrialized nations . An example of Open orders include the Schengen Area where 29 European nations mutually abolished their border control. A demilitarized zone (DMZ) is a border separating two or more nations, groups or militaries that have agreed to prohibit the use of military activity or force within

17780-503: The removal of British forces from Detroit , as well as other frontier outposts on the U.S. side. The Jay Treaty was superseded by the Treaty of Ghent (effective 1815) concluding the War of 1812 , which included pre-war boundaries. Signed in December 1814, the Treaty of Ghent ended the War of 1812, returning the boundaries of British North America and the United States to the state they were before

17920-607: The rival North West Company based in Montreal . There was strong business and political agitation in Upper Canada for annexing the territory; in London the company's trading license was due for review; in St. Paul there was a growing interest in the area as a field for U.S. expansion. The great commercial depression of 1857 dampened most of the outside interests in the territory, which itself remained comparatively prosperous. Before 1835,

18060-524: The second article of the Treaty, the parties agreed on all boundaries of the United States, including, but not limited to, the boundary to the north along what was then British North America . The agreed-upon boundary included the line from the northwest angle of Nova Scotia to the northwesternmost head of the Connecticut River and proceeded down along the middle of the river to the 45th parallel of north latitude . The parallel had been established in

18200-605: The south of the 49th in the Red River Valley , which was part of Rupert's Land . The treaty also extinguished U.S. claims to land north of the 49th in the watershed of the Missouri River , which was part of the Louisiana Purchase . Along the 49th parallel, the border vista is theoretically straight, but in practice follows the 19th-century surveyed border markers and varies by several hundred feet in spots. Disputes over

18340-401: The state of Alaska that is north of the 49th parallel. The border reaches Ontario at 49°23′N 95°09′W  /  49.383°N 95.150°W  / 49.383; -95.150 . The province of Ontario shares its border (west to east) with the U.S. states of Minnesota, Michigan , Ohio , Pennsylvania , and New York . The largest provincial international border, most of the border is

18480-749: The strait in a northward direction, but turns sharply eastward through Boundary Pass , separating the Canadian Gulf Islands from the American San Juan Islands . Upon reaching the Strait of Georgia , the border turns due north and then towards the northwest, bisecting the strait until the 49th parallel north. After making a sharp turn eastbound, the border follows this parallel across the Tsawwassen Peninsula , separating Point Roberts, Washington , from Delta, British Columbia , and continues into Alberta. The entire Canada–U.S. border in

18620-481: The territory. In May 2009, the Mohawk people of Akwesasne occupied the area around the Canada Border Services Agency port of entry building to protest the Canadian government's decision to arm its border agents while operating on Mohawk territory. The north span of the Seaway International Bridge and the CBSA inspection facilities were closed. During this occupation, the Canadian flag was replaced with

18760-626: The treaty left the border on the meandering line as surveyed. The border along the Boundary Waters in present-day Ontario and Minnesota between Lake Superior and the Northwest Angle was also redefined. An 1844 boundary dispute during the Presidency of James K. Polk led to a call for the northern boundary of the U.S. west of the Rockies to be 54°40′N related to the southern boundary of Russia's Alaska Territory . However, Great Britain wanted

18900-485: The two colonies merged to form the independent state of Somalia in 1960, however when the former British Somaliland declared independence in 1991 it claimed the former British-Italian line as its eastern border. A line of control (LoC) refers to a militarized buffer border between two or more nations that has yet to achieve permanent border status. LoC borders are typically under military control and are not recognized as an official international border. Formally known as

19040-527: The two countries in both populated and rural areas. Both nations are also actively involved in detailed and extensive tactical and strategic intelligence sharing. In December 2010, Canada and the United States were negotiating an agreement titled "Beyond the Border: A Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Competitiveness" which would give the U.S. more influence over Canada's border security and immigration controls, and more information would be shared by Canada with

19180-409: The war. In the following decades, the United States and the United Kingdom concluded several treaties that settled the major boundary disputes between the two, enabling the border to be demilitarized . The Rush–Bagot Treaty of 1817 provided a plan for demilitarizing the two combatant sides in the War of 1812 and also laid out preliminary principles for drawing a border between British North America and

19320-422: The world through human agency. That means that although a political border may follow a river or mountain range, such a feature does not automatically define the political border, even though it may be a major physical barrier to crossing. Political borders are often classified by whether or not they follow conspicuous physical features on the earth. William Miles said that Britain and France traced close to 40% of

19460-448: Was Adam Thom , who held the post until 1854, although relieved of most of his duties by his deputy some years before. He was succeeded as President of the Court from 1862 to 1870 by John Black . Baker (1999) uses the Red River Colony, the only non-native settlement on the northwest prairies for most of the 19th century, as a site for critical exploration of the meaning of "law and order" on

19600-512: Was a territory in British North America which comprised the Hudson Bay drainage basin . The right to "sole trade and commerce" over Rupert's Land was granted to Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), based at York Factory , effectively giving that company a commercial monopoly over the area. The territory operated for 200 years from 1670 to 1870. Its namesake was Prince Rupert of the Rhine , who was

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