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114-480: Robert Twyford first started to build automobiles, while still living in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1897, he invented a machine which he claimed to have superior performance over any other and planned on exhibiting it to the public soon after. The machine used connecting rods , like locomotives, and had the same design as a Park Trap , which gave it the appearance of a light, horse-drawn carriage. It had two seats, with

228-453: A bevel gear and the front axle with a three-part bevel gear, which acts as a primitive form of universal joint . The driving-gear did not use differential gears. The power-steering involved the use of a solid shaft, which lacked steering knuckles . A worm-gear connected the shaft to the front axle. A steering lever allowed two bevel gears on the cross-shaft to turn the automobile. The front-axle has an arm, which prevented oversteering, and

342-454: A low-carbon economy , forestry operations will be focused on low-impact practices and regrowth. Forest managers will make sure that they do not disturb soil-based carbon reserves too much. Specialized tree farms will be the main source of material for many products. Quick maturing tree varieties will be grown on short rotations to maximize output. Brazil has a long tradition in the harvesting of several types of trees with specific uses. Since

456-473: A 10 hp (7.5 kW; 10 PS) Stanhope , and a 10 hp (7.5 kW; 10 PS) roadster . All the cars used two-cylinder two cycle engines . According to the local press, the Twyford automobile had four-wheel drive, which allowed it to climb steep grades, and travel through mud, snow and unpaved roads. If a car with only two-wheel drive gets stuck in a hole, it only has one wheel to pull it out, while

570-485: A 7% prevalence of hearing loss. Worker noise exposures in the forestry and logging industry have been found to be up to 102 dBA. NIOSH recommends that a worker have an 8-hour time-weighted average of noise exposure of 85 dBA. Excessive noise puts workers at an increased risk of developing hearing loss. If a worker were to develop a hearing loss as a result of occupational noise exposures, it would be classified as occupational hearing loss . Noise exposures within

684-632: A Twyford Type A touring car, the only known sale of a Twyford motor car in town. Then, in December 1905, Robert Twyford brought out a large, five-passenger car, like the car shown in Figure 9. A reporter observed Robert Twyford driving the car through town and allowing several Brookville citizens to ride in it. He reported that the car, with its four-wheel drive, would drive through mud, unpaved roads and through snow and ice. It would also run up and down steep hills. In December, 1905, rumors of false reports concerning

798-640: A car like the Twyford, also featuring four-wheel drive. But, no one actually used the former Twyford factory until the Union Auto Specialties Company , founded by James M. Humphrey Jr., moved in around 1913. In 1915–1916, the company built windshields. James Malcolm acted as president of the company, as well as general manager of the Humphrey Brick and Tile Company . The Union Auto Specialties Company succeeded and continued to operate until around 1970. The Matson Wood Products Company then bought

912-446: A car turns a corner, the outer wheels travel faster than the inner wheels. The early Twyford's wheels failed to compensate for this, which caused the axles to twist while going around corners. In 1907, they did start using limited slip differentials to correct the problem. William McCracken visited Detroit, Michigan, and found differentials from a 1923 Chevrolet, and used them in his replica. In building his replica, William McCracken made

1026-551: A chassis. The Twyford attracted a great deal of attention, because of all the differences it had in comparison to the other automobiles at the exhibit. The attendants at the exhibit especially admired the simplicity of the Twyford because the automobile operated with a single shaft. The Twyford especially attracted the interest of the medical practitioners because most of them traveled to patients’ homes over often poorly maintained roads. The machines’ four-wheel drive, power, and simplicity especially interested them. Many doctors visited

1140-454: A few compromises. Instead of using the original wheels, he used the largest wheels that he could fit with tires. He built the parts that he couldn't find, and soon began assembling the car. At the time he first started assembling the car, he only lacked the cast iron gears for the steering mechanism. William McCracken finally used dirt bike tires for his replica, after he had tried several years experimenting with several different wheels. He used

1254-676: A four-wheel drive design far superior to what Robert Twyford invented. The patent office granted them a patent in 1908. Walter A. Olen, a local attorney, helped organize and promote the company. He also recognized from the beginning that trucks had the real market for four-wheel drive vehicles, not passenger cars. But in defense of Robert Twyford, far more automobile manufacturers back then failed than succeeded. The Twyford Motor-Car Company went into bankruptcy in December 1908 with obligations of over $ 20,000. In March 1909, two brothers, Wilbert Newton and James Malcolm Humphrey Jr., (of Humphrey Brick and Tile Company and sons of James Humphrey Sr.) bought

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1368-539: A high quality standard of product. Their goal is to do this efficiently and safely, at low cost, with rapid production time and high output. Once the timber has been manipulated in the required fashion, it can be shipped out for usage. There are many different purposes for wood including plywood , veneer, pulp, paper , particleboard, pallets, craft items, toys, instrument-making, furniture production, packing cases, wine barrels, cardboard, firewood, garden mulch, fibre adhesives, packaging and pet litter. Western Australia has

1482-420: A large plant. The article mentions R. E. Twyford as the company's engineer and J. F. Trembly as the manager. Apparently, the company failed in Pittsburgh, because the newspapers and trade journals make no further mention of the company until 1904. Robert Twyford then decided to find a location for building automobiles elsewhere. Two investors, E. A. Carmalt and Strong, agreed to help provide financial backing, under

1596-436: A lever that disengaged the bevel gears when the wheels locked. This mechanism only provided a slow rate of turning, most likely making sharp turns difficult to navigate. Although the drawing has an electric motor , most likely Robert Twyford planned on using a gasoline engine , because the three speed gear design would have quickly drained the electric batteries in use at the time. The literature makes no further mention of

1710-456: A location for the factory, and buy $ 25,000 worth of stock, he would have the factory built and begin manufacturing automobiles. The decline in the lumber industry , which Brookville had relied on before then, meant that the community needed to find new sources of revenue. The Brookville Republican May 26, 1904 issue praised Robert Twyford's patent as describing a unique machine with a pronounced advantage over any other automobile manufactured at

1824-436: A mix of molecular hydrogen (H 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), molecular nitrogen (N 2 ) and water vapor (H 2 O). This gas mixture, known as " wood gas ", "poor gas" or " syngas " is obtained after the combustion of dry wood in a reductive environment (low in oxygen ) with a limited amount of atmospheric air, at temperatures of 900 °C, and can fuel an internal combustion engine . Wood

1938-458: A one piece design where the crankshaft must be pressed together through them, rather than a two piece design that can be bolted around the journal of a one piece crankshaft. Typically there is a pinhole bored through the bearing on the big end of the connecting rod so that lubricating oil squirts out onto the thrust side of the cylinder wall to lubricate the travel of the pistons and piston rings . A connecting rod can rotate at both ends, so that

2052-557: A prototype car and truck. But the company had financial difficulties and Robert Twyford no longer owned the four-wheel drive patent. The plant closed in less than a year. A creditor, F. E. George, had a court order issued, which placed the company under receivership. The stated reason for the company's failure was that it had tried to build trucks but did not build enough of them to attract any attention. Robert Twyford had his patent renewed in 1915, as shown in Figure 10, but apparently no longer tried building four-wheel drive vehicles. He spent

2166-596: A similar company that succeeded can help demonstrate why the Twyford Motor-Car Company failed, namely with the Four Wheel Drive Auto Company of Clintonville, Wisconsin . In 1905, Otto Zachow and William Besserdich invented a four-wheel drive system, encased in a drop-forged ball, utilizing a lockable center differential with a double-Y universal joint that operated at the juncture of the front wheel and axle for steering. This means they invented

2280-406: A slow process involving significant manual labor. Since sawmills were traditionally located within forests, milled timber had to be transported over long distances via rough terrain or waterways to reach its destination. Logs were later transported via train and tram lines, first by steam-powered log haulers then by steam-powered locomotives , and finally diesel and petrol-powered locomotives. Even in

2394-426: A solid billet of metal, rather than being cast or forged. Other materials include T6- 2024 aluminium alloy or T651- 7075 aluminium alloy , which are used for lightness and the ability to absorb high impact at the expense of durability. Titanium is a more expensive option which reduces the weight. Cast iron can be used for cheaper, lower performance applications such as motor scooters. During each rotation of

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2508-421: A three-armed master rim tool to fit the tires around the wheel. He first fastened the tool to the rim of the wheel, and then cranked the tool, which allowed the tight-fitting spring metal on the rim to give enough for him to slip on the tire. William McCracken also had special help from Emmery Strohm of Brookville, Pennsylvania in restoring the fenders. He learned how to roll the steel fenders and put iron beading on

2622-461: A unique substance called ‘ biochar ’, which is made from jarrah and pine and sometimes from crop and forestry residues, along with the former materials. Biochar can be used to manufacture silicone and as a soil additive. Softwoods , such as the Australian eucalyptus , are highly valued, a are used mainly for construction , paper making , and cladding . The term 'round wood' describes all

2736-443: A younger age produce smaller logs, and these can be turned into lower-value products. Factors such as location, climate conditions, species, growth rate, and silviculture can affect the size of a mature tree. The native hardwood saw-milling industry originally consisted of small family-owned mills, but has recently changed to include a small number of larger mills. Mills produce large volumes of material and aim to ensure delivery of

2850-441: Is also documentation of cranks with connecting rods in the sketch books of Taccola from Renaissance Italy and 15th century painter Pisanello . The 1712 Newcomen atmospheric engine (the first steam engine) used chain drive instead of a connecting rod, since the piston only produced force in one direction. However, most steam engines after this are double-acting , therefore the force is produced in both directions, leading to

2964-491: Is burned in the recovery boiler . Thus, these countries have high proportions of renewable energy use (25% in Finland, for instance). Considerable effort is directed towards increasing the value and usage of forest products by companies and by government projects. A forest product is any material derived from forestry for direct consumption or commercial use, such as lumber , paper , or fodder for livestock . Wood , by far

3078-825: Is in internal combustion engines or on steam engines . A connecting rod crank has been found in the Celtic Oppida at Paule in Brittany, dated to 69BC The predecessor to the connecting length is the mechanical linkage used by Roman-era watermills . An early example of this linkage has been found at the late 3rd century Hierapolis sawmill in Roman Asia (modern Turkey) and the 6th century saw mills at Ephesus in Asia Minor (modern Turkey) and at Gerasa in Roman Syria. The crank and connecting rod mechanism of these machines converted

3192-460: Is managed primarily for the production of wood and non-wood forest products. In addition, 749,000,000 ha (1.85 × 10 acres) is designated for multiple use, which often includes production. Combustion of wood is linked to the production of micro-environmental pollutants, as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO) (an invisible gas able to provoke irreversible saturation of blood's hemoglobine ), as well as nanoparticles . Charcoal

3306-590: Is relatively light in weight, because its specific weight is less than 500 kg/m , this is an advantage, when compared against 2,000–2,500 kg/m for reinforced concrete or 7,800 kg/m for steel. Wood is strong, because the efficiency of wood for structural purposes has qualities that are similar to steel. Wood is used to build bridges (as the Magere bridge in Amsterdam), as well as water and air mills, and microhydro generators for electricity. Hardwood

3420-404: Is required to transmit the compressive and tensile forces from the piston. In its most common form, in an internal combustion engine , it allows pivoting on the piston end and rotation on the shaft end. The predecessor to the connecting rod is a mechanic linkage used by water mills to convert rotating motion of the water wheel into reciprocating motion. The most common usage of connecting rods

3534-412: Is the industry concerned with forestry , logging , timber trade , and the production of primary forest products and wood products (e.g. furniture) and secondary products like wood pulp for the pulp and paper industry . Some of the largest producers are also among the biggest owners of forest . The wood industry has historically been and continues to be an important sector in many economies. In

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3648-465: Is the dark grey residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis , the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen . Charcoal can then be used as a fuel with a higher combustion temperature. Wood gas generator (gasogen): is a bulky and heavy device (but technically simple) that transforms burning wood in

3762-736: Is the harvest, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws . The harvesting procedure itself may be illegal, including using corrupt means to gain access to forests; extraction without permission, or from a protected area; the cutting down of protected species ; or the extraction of timber in excess of agreed limits. Illegal logging is a driving force for a number of environmental issues such as deforestation , soil erosion and biodiversity loss which can drive larger-scale environmental crises such as climate change and other forms of environmental degradation . Illegality may also occur during transport, such as illegal processing and export (through fraudulent declaration to customs );

3876-723: Is the main producer of wood and wooden items destined to the US, the biggest consumer of wood and its byproducts in the world. The water systems of the Great Lakes , Erie Canal , Hudson River and Saint Lawrence Seaway to the east coast and the Mississippi River to the central plains and Louisiana allows transportation of logs at very low costs. On the west coast , the basin of the Columbia River has plenty of forests with excellent timber. The agency Canada Wood Council calculates that in

3990-437: Is the most important species for tree plantations, is used for several purposes as plywood manufacture, packing boxes, paper, matches , etc. It needs good quality grounds with good drainage, but can be used to protect the cultivations if disposed in windbreak lines. More than 70% of Italian poplar cultivations are located in the pianura Padana . Constantly the extension of the cultivation is being reduced, from 650 km in

4104-491: Is the world leader in sustainable forest management practices. Only 120,000,000 hectares (1,200,000 km ; 463,320 sq mi) (28% of Canadian forests) are currently managed for timber production while an estimated 32,000,000 hectares (320,000 km ; 123,550 sq mi) are protected from harvesting by the current legislation. The Canadian timber industry has led to environmental conflict with Indigenous people protecting their land from logging. For example,

4218-619: Is today the most used wood product. The wood economy was the starting point of the civilizations worldwide, since eras preceding the Paleolithic and the Neolithic . It necessarily preceded ages of metals by many millennia, as the melting of metals was possible only through the discovery of techniques to light fire (usually obtained by the scraping of two very dry wooden rods) and the building of many simple machines and rudimentary tools, as canes, club handles, bows , arrows , lances . One of

4332-512: Is transported by sea on timber carriers, subject to the IMO TDC Code . As of 2019, the top timberland owners in the US were structured as real-estate investment trusts and include: In 2008 the largest lumber and wood producers in the US were As these companies are often publicly traded, their ultimate owners are a diversified group of investors. There are also timber-oriented real-estate investment trusts . According to sawmilldatabase,

4446-676: Is used as a material in wooden houses, and other structures with a broad range of dimensions. In traditional homes wood is preferred for ceilings, doors , floorings and windows . Wooden frames were traditionally used for home ceilings, but they risk collapse during fires. The development of energy efficient houses including the " passive house " has revamped the importance of wood in construction, because wood provides acoustic and thermal insulation , with much better results than concrete. In Japan, ancient buildings, of relatively high elevation, like pagodas , historically had shown to be able to resist earthquakes of high intensity , thanks to

4560-584: The Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation set up the Grassy Narrows road blockade for twenty years beginning in 2002 to prevent clearcutting of their land. Wood obtained from Nigeria's wood industry undergoes processing in various wood processing sectors, including furniture manufacturing, sawmill operations, plywood mills, pulp and paper facilities, and particleboard mills. Poplar : in Italy

4674-436: The avoidance of taxes and other charges, and fraudulent certification. These acts are often referred to as "wood laundering". The existence of a wood economy , or more broadly, a forest economy (in many countries a bamboo economy predominates), is a prominent matter in many developing countries as well as in many other nations with a temperate climate and especially in those with low temperatures . These are generally

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4788-402: The crankshaft can cause the cylinders to wear into an oval shape. This significantly reduces engine performance, since the circular piston rings are unable to properly seal against the oval-shaped cylinder walls. The amount of sideways force is proportional to the angle of the connecting rod, therefore longer connecting rods will reduce the amount of sideways force and engine wear. However,

4902-429: The gudgeon pin (also called 'piston pin' or 'wrist pin' in the U.S.), which allows for rotation between the connecting rod and the piston. Typically, the big end connects to the crankpin using a plain bearing to reduce friction; however some smaller engines may instead use a rolling-element bearing , in order to avoid the need for a pumped lubrication system. Connecting rods with rolling element bearings are typically

5016-426: The piston rod ). On smaller steam locomotives, the connecting rods are usually of rectangular cross-section, however marine-type rods of circular cross-section have occasionally been used. On paddle steamers , the connecting rods are called 'pitmans' (not to be mistaken for pitman arms ). A connecting rod for an internal combustion engine consists of the 'big end', 'rod' and 'small end'. The small end attaches to

5130-490: The runabout , instead of experimenting with several different styles. Most likely, the crudeness of the Twyford's four-wheel drive and experimental two-cycle engine proved riskier than the company's directors realized. After Robert Twyford left, the local press made no more mention of the company, though the February 1907 issue of Motor listed a complete line of Twyford motor cars that the company never built. A comparison with

5244-429: The third world , but this amount can only be estimated, with wide margins of uncertainty. In 1998, the worldwide production of "Roundwood" (officially counted wood not used as firewood), was about 1,500,000,000 cubic metres (2.0 × 10  cu yd), amounting to around 45% of the wood cultivated in the world. Cut logs and branches destined to become elements for building construction accounted for approximately 55% of

5358-460: The 1930s, he had worked as a sweeper for the Union Auto Specialties Company , in the building in Brookville where the Twyford Motor-Car Company had built the original Twyford. His uncle and supervisor both taught him how to make measurements, including measuring a support post. Many years later, he found a picture of the support post, and a Twyford chassis, shown in Figure 5. He used photographs of

5472-478: The 1960s, imported species of pine tree and eucalyptus have been grown mostly for the plywood and paper pulp industries . Currently high-level research is being conducted, to apply the enzymes of sugar cane fermentation to cellulose in wood, to obtain methanol , but the cost is much higher when compared with ethanol derived from corn costs. There is a close relation in the forestry economy between these countries; they have many tree genera in common, and Canada

5586-492: The 1980s to current 350 km . The yield of poplars is about 1,500 t/km of wood every year. The production from poplars is around 45–50% of the total Italian wood production. In Sweden, Finland and to an extent Norway, much of the land area is forested, and the pulp and paper industry is one of the most significant industrial sectors. Chemical pulping produces an excess of energy, since the organic matter in black liquor , mostly lignin and hemicellulose breakdown products,

5700-500: The April 1902 issue of the Cycle & Automobile Trade Journal . The automobile in the picture has a gasoline engine, and the company had simplified the drivetrain from what appears in the patent drawings. The 17th September issue of Horseless Age has the company located at 5920 Penn Avenue in Pittsburgh and having a new gasoline automobile coming out soon. It also has the company erecting

5814-402: The Twyford automobile could pull it out with three wheels. The Twyford automobile had power-steering, which allowed the driver to guide it without effort. The Twyford also did not use knuckle joints. Instead, it used a rigid steering mechanism, which prevented pressure on the steering-wheel. The automobile did not use chains, sprockets , or spur gears , which tend to get full of dirt. Instead

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5928-583: The Twyford automobile until the January 1901 issue of Cycle & Automobile Trade Journal . The article lists a variety of models, but most likely the company only manufactured the Stanhope, if even that. The name, Stanhope, refers to an archaic car body style that used a single bench seat , and a folding cloth top. The name comes from the Stanhope . The picture of the 1902 Twyford Stanhope automobile in Figure 2 appears in

6042-405: The Twyford replica on display at its permanent home in the main first floor of Parker Gallery. Connecting rod A connecting rod , also called a 'con rod', is the part of a piston engine which connects the piston to the crankshaft . Together with the crank , the connecting rod converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotation of the crankshaft. The connecting rod

6156-450: The Twyford's June 1905 demonstrations and drawings of various models offered. But in July 1906, despite showings at major auto shows and demonstrations in Brookville, the Twyford Motor-Car Company had serious financial difficulties. The company arranged to pay off its debts and start anew, and Robert Twyford had retired from the company's management. Before, Robert Twyford had held 51 percent of

6270-476: The angle between the connecting rod and the piston can change as the rod moves up and down and rotates around the crankshaft . The materials used for connecting rods widely vary, including carbon steel, iron base sintered metal, micro-alloyed steel, spheroidized graphite cast iron. In mass-produced automotive engines, the connecting rods are most usually made of steel . In high performance applications, "billet" connecting rods can be used, which are machined out of

6384-419: The automobile applied power directly to the four wheels. The design for the automobile had self-oiling gears held inside a dust-proof casing. The brakes on the Twyford locked all four wheels. The brakes worked on the transmission box, which carried the braking to the wheels. The Twyford also had a brake for the reverse lever, and the driving lever controlled a third brake. The front axle oscillated, which allowed

6498-608: The automobiles shipped to a show in Washington D. C. Robert Twyford managed to book several orders for the machine, and had to turn down one hundred orders, because of the limited production capacity of the factory, and especially a lack of capitol to supply the demand. If he had succeeded in filling the orders, the company would have made around $ 112,000. If he had attended the larger shows, like in New York City , Philadelphia , Chicago and Boston , and able to fill orders there also,

6612-569: The bearing and the surface speed. However the bearing movement also becomes reciprocating rather than continuously rotating, which is a more difficult problem for lubrication. Notable engines to use fork-and-blade rods include the Rolls-Royce Merlin V12 aircraft engine, EMD two-stroke Diesel engines, and various Harley Davidson V-twin motorcycle engines. Wood industry The wood industry or timber industry (sometimes lumber industry -- when referring mainly to sawed boards)

6726-547: The building and decided to remove the second story with a winch line, causing the entire building to collapse. After the failure of the Twyford Motor-Car Company in Brookville, Pennsylvania, Robert Twyford moved to Houston, Texas. There, he contacted two brothers, L. J. and Z. Z. Brandon. Using the Twyford patent, they founded the Commercial Motor Car Company in San Antonio and Houston, Texas in 1912. They built

6840-413: The chassis and many other parts. He also used the original patent copies, but discovered they were not much help. He said the patents just showed a buggy with four-wheel drive. It could have used any kind of engine. The two-cycle engine that the Twyford used no longer existed. So instead, he used a two-cycle engine that has 10 hp around 350 rpm. The early models of the Twyford lacked differentials. When

6954-424: The company could have made $ 562,500. In taking his car to Washington, where all the skilled men and attorneys were at the patent office, Robert Twyford knew he had the best invention. The patent attorneys agreed it was "one of the wonders of the world" and the finest invention of an automobile to date. The company now needed the board to revive the stock sale campaign to obtain more capitol and expand operations, so

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7068-612: The company could manufacture enough cars to keep up with demand. Robert Twyford then asked to have one of his old cars repaired and repainted and planned to drive it from his home to the factory. He intended to prove to any doubters the quality of the car, by driving the car himself down Main Street. A reporter from the Jeffersonian Democrat visited the factory on May 12, 1905. He found fifteen men busy at work, with several cars in various stages of construction. The factory produced all

7182-556: The company's stock. From now on, he would only hold 10 percent. The board of directors stated that the company had the purpose of manufacturing automobiles, and if the company could not perfect the Twyford automobile to their satisfaction, they would start manufacturing a different one. They intended to increase the capital and make production successful. The company only experimented with manufacturing automobiles, without going into actual production. It would have had much greater success if it had manufactured only one type of automobile, like

7296-420: The condition that he relocate to Brookville, Pennsylvania. In May 1904, Robert E. Twyford claimed, that after developing a prototype for five years, he now had an automobile that would run over rough and muddy roads and allow any member of a family to drive it safely. His patents protected the automobile's design, and he would turn them over to the newly organized company. If the people of Brookville would provide

7410-411: The construction of much more safe houses in seismic areas. One of the most enduring materials is the lumber from virginian southern live oak and white oak , specially live oak is 60% stronger than white oak and more resistant to moisture. As an example, the main component in the structure of battle ship USS  Constitution , the world's oldest commissioned naval vessel afloat (launched in 1797)

7524-446: The countries with greater forested areas so conditions allow for development of local forestry to harvest wood for local uses. The uses of wood in furniture, buildings, bridges, and as a source of energy are widely known. Additionally, wood from trees and bushes , can be used in a variety of products, such as wood pulp , cellulose in paper, celluloid in early photographic film, cellophane , and rayon (a substitute for silk). At

7638-416: The crankshaft, a connecting rod is often subject to large and repetitive forces: shear forces due to the angle between the piston and the crankpin, compression forces as the piston moves downwards, and tensile forces as the piston moves upwards. These forces are proportional to the engine speed (RPM) squared. Failure of a connecting rod, often called "throwing a rod", often forces the broken rod through

7752-402: The crankshaft. A common arrangement for the big-end bearing is for the fork rod to have a single wide bearing sleeve that spans the whole width of the rod, including the central gap. The blade rod then runs, not directly on the crankpin, but on the outside of this sleeve. This causes the two rods to oscillate back and forth (instead of rotating relative to each other), which reduces the forces on

7866-515: The demonstration involved a specially prepared runabout. Robert Twyford had the machine geared down for maximum power at the expense of high speed. The car, as prepared, only had a maximum speed of 9 mph. Robert Twyford brought two or three of his machines to the Brookville Fair in September 1905. The press declared them “the finest exhibit on the fairgrounds outside of the livestock”. He sold

7980-453: The different banks are slightly offset along the crankshaft axis (which creates a rocking couple ). Another solution is to use master-and-slave connecting rods, where the master rod also includes one or more ring pins which are connected to the big ends of slave rods on other cylinders. A drawback of master-slave rods is that the stroke lengths of all slave pistons not located 180° from the master piston will always be slightly longer than that of

8094-434: The distinction between softwood and hardwood . While softwood primarily goes into the production of wood fuel and pulp and paper, hardwood is used mainly for furniture, floors , etc.. Both types can be of use for building and (residential) construction purposes (e.g. log houses , log cabins , timber framing ). Lumber and wood products, including timber for framing , plywood , and woodworking , are created in

8208-692: The dominant product of forests , is used for many purposes, such as wood fuel (e.g. in form of firewood or charcoal ) or the finished structural materials used for the construction of buildings , or as a raw material, in the form of wood pulp , that is used in the production of paper . All other non-wood products derived from forest resources, comprising a broad variety of other forest products, are collectively described as non-timber forest products (NTFP). Non-timber forest products are viewed to have fewer negative effects on forest ecosystem when providing income sources for local community. Globally, about 1,150,000,000 ha (2.8 × 10 acres) of forest

8322-413: The drawings have a shaft going the complete length of the chassis , which has two sets of friction clutches . One friction clutch works with the lower and second gears, while the second friction clutch works with the high and reverse gears. The drawings also show a second shaft, parallel to the first shaft, which has gears meshing with the gears on the first shaft. The second shaft drives the rear axle with

8436-402: The edge of the master rod. Multi-bank engines with many cylinders, such as V12 engines , have little space available for many connecting rod journals on a limited length of crankshaft. The simplest solution, as used in most road car engines, is for each pair of cylinders to share a crank journal , but this reduces the size of the rod bearings and means that matching (i.e. opposite) cylinders in

8550-450: The end of their normal usage, wood products can be burnt to obtain thermal energy or can be used as a fertilizer . The potential environmental damage that a wood economy could occasion include a reduction of biodiversity due to monoculture forestry (the intensive cultivation of very few trees types); and CO 2 emissions. However, forests can aid in the reduction of atmospheric carbon dioxide and thus limit climate change . Paper

8664-432: The engine did not reach production. Fork-and-blade rods, also known as "split big-end rods", have been used on V-twin motorcycle engines and V12 aircraft engines. For each pair of cylinders, a "fork" rod is split in two at the big end and the "blade" rod from the opposing cylinder is thinned to fit into this gap in the fork. This arrangement removes the rocking couple that is caused when cylinder pairs are offset along

8778-457: The engine underneath the rear seat. The machine applied traction to all four wheels, had self-gearing, and allowed steering from both the front and rear axle. Robert Twyford also stated that he would soon have a new engine. He had not yet decided when he would begin manufacturing the carriage. On July 7, 1898, he applied for a patent for a “Driving Gear for Motor Carriages”, which the patent office finally granted him on April 3, 1900. Figure 1 shows

8892-413: The exhibit every day and eagerly awaited its development. The machine also attracted the interest of businessmen and technicians. J. M. Yadkin, manager of Adams Express Company , Mr. Henry A. Kamman, a pork and beef packer, and H. C. Gardner, a milk dealer, all admired the machine. They especially liked the Twyford's simplicity compared to other machines. W. A. Liggett, a building contractor, wanted to buy

9006-461: The factory for $ 12,000, including the machinery and patents. At the time, the factory contained one car that the workers at the factory had completed, and one or two partially completed cars. Mr. Humphrey sold these cars for around $ 500. In August 1909, J. E. Humphrey sold the factory to New York parties, and hoped that the new owners would have success in utilizing the factory for manufacturing. They planned on making harvesting equipment, had perfected

9120-614: The fenders. William McCracken finally finished the automobile in 1989. He first drove the car in parades, including the Western Pennsylvania Laurel Festival parade, and exhibited at auto shows. He then decided to donate the car to a museum. Although he had several offers from museums to exhibit the car, he instead planned to the donate it to the Jefferson County History Center in Brookville, Pennsylvania. The building's preservation had begun in 2001 and

9234-620: The forestry and logging industry can be reduced by enclosing engines and heavy equipment, installing mufflers and silencers, and performing routine maintenance on equipment. Noise exposures can also be reduced through the hierarchy of hazard controls where removal or replacement of noisy equipment serves as the best method of noise reduction. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) has found that fatalities of forestry and logging workers have increased from 2013 to 2016, up from 81 to 106 per year. In 2016, there were 3.6 cases of injury and illness per 100 workers within this industry. Illegal logging

9348-523: The four wheels. This eliminated drag when making a curve, which meant that automobile would not skid. The Twyford's axles consisted of solid steel, with no knuckle joints, which gave the car strength and durability. In March 1905, R. E. Twyford, along with C. A. French, attended the Buffalo Automobile Show. No automobile at the show, other than the Twyford, possessed four-wheel drive. The Twyford Company exhibited two complete automobiles, along with

9462-402: The front wheels to raise or lower when passing over unpaved roads. This prevented twisting of the machine's body and allowed the automobile to smoothly travel. The Twyford changed speed with a single lever that controlled a friction clutch. The automobile had two forward speeds and single reverse speed. It also equally applied power between the front and rear axles and distributed the power between

9576-482: The greatest area of forest in Russia. By 2001 the rainforest areas of Brazil were reduced by a fifth (respect of 1970), to around 4,000,000 km ; the ground cleared was mainly destined for cattle pasture —Brazil is the world's largest exporter of beef with almost 200,000,000 head of cattle. The booming Brazilian ethanol economy based upon sugar cane cultivation, is likewise reducing forests area. Canadian forest

9690-478: The machine, and sell his horse and buggy. George Willaofer, who had two brothers working as doctors, liked the four-wheel drive, because it would allow the machine to travel through sand, or even off-road. Charles Heidrick, superintendent of the Pittsburgh, Summerville and Clarion railroad, had an engineer look over the machine, and was very impressed with it. Another engineer admired the machines ability to drive, steer and compensate all at once. A draftsman also admired

9804-529: The machine. After this experience, the board of directors of the Twyford Company wanted to buy more machinery, hire more men, and even build a new factory. They also wanted to sell more stock. Brookville residents visited the factory, to see the new machines built there. They all enjoyed the experience, and what the workers had managed to accomplish. After the Buffalo Automobile show, R. E. Twyford had

9918-474: The master piston, which increases vibration in V engines. One of the most complicated examples of master-and-slave connecting rods is the 24-cylinder Junkers Jumo 222 experimental airplane engine developed for World War II. This engine consisted of six banks of cylinders, each with four cylinders per bank. Each "layer" of six cylinders used one master connecting rod, with the other five cylinders using slave rods. Approximately 300 test engines were built, however

10032-470: The maximum length of a connecting rod is constrained by the engine block size; the stroke length plus the connecting rod length must not result in the piston travelling past the top of the engine block. Radial engines typically use master-and-slave connecting rods, whereby one piston (the uppermost piston in the animation), has a master rod with a direct attachment to the crankshaft. The remaining pistons pin their connecting rods' attachments to rings around

10146-439: The merits of the Twyford still circulated, even though the company presented a new car "of rich, artistic design. A marvel of beauty" and that "it runs where other autos cannot go." It was thought the company ought to be able to sell enough cars to employ 600 men before the end of 1906. In January, 1906, the company issued its first and only sales pamphlet, describing the advantages of the Twyford four-wheel-drive and photographs of

10260-547: The modern era, timber is dried in kilns . When the first steam railway in Australia opened in Melbourne in 1854, timber transportation changed dramatically. Trains made the transportation of lumber quicker and more affordable, making it possible for the Australian sawmill industry to move inland. Wood is transported by a variety of methods, typically by road vehicle and log driving over shorter distances. For longer journeys, wood

10374-481: The most ancient handmade articles ever found is a polished wooden spear tip ( Clacton Spear ) 250,000 years old (third interglacial period), that was buried under sediments in England, at Clacton-on-Sea . The main source of the lumber used in the world is forests, which can be classified as virgin , semivirgin and plantations . Much timber is removed for firewood by local populations in many countries, especially in

10488-408: The museum staff had already set aside an area for the Twyford. In November 2005, volunteer workers moved the Twyford replica into the museum at the Jefferson County History Center, in Brookville, Pennsylvania. A tilt bed truck carried the replica from Richardsville to the museum. They then removed two large glass panes in front of the museum, to move the car into the building's gallery. Figure 11 shows

10602-547: The narrow sense of the terms, wood, forest, forestry and timber/lumber industry appear to point to different sectors, in the industrialized, internationalized world, there is a tendency toward huge integrated businesses that cover the complete spectrum from silviculture and forestry in private primary or secondary forests or plantations via the logging process up to wood processing and trading and transport (e.g. timber rafting , forest railways , logging roads ). Processing and products differs especially with regard to

10716-557: The new factory near the railroad, the glass plant, and the furniture factory and had begun construction. Carmalt and Strong (attorneys-at-law) donated the land for the factory. Workers had already started the process of cleaning the ground, and digging the foundations for the factory, which would have brick walls, measurements of 50 feet by 200 feet and two stories. The directors organized the company under Delaware Corporate law , and had capital stock of $ 500,000, with $ 200,000 of that offered for sale at $ 50.00 per share. By late September,

10830-595: The overall industry sector had a prevalence of hearing loss lower than the overall prevalence of noise-exposed industries (15% v. 19%), workers within forestry and logging exceeded 21%. Thirty-six percent of workers within forest nurseries and gathering of forest products, a sub-sector within forestry and logging, experienced hearing loss, the most of any AFFH sub-sector. Workers within forest nurseries and gathering of forest products are tasked with growing trees for reforestation and gathering products such as rhizomes and barks. Comparatively, non-noise-exposed workers have only

10944-417: The parts for the car, except for the wheels, tires and lamps. Robert Twyford himself supervised the chassis and engine shop, along with C. A. French. Ralph Reitz supervised the body shop, where the workmen built the wooden bodies. Figure 4 shows the workers at the factory. Figure 5 shows a picture of a Twyford runabout chassis inside the factory, most likely taken in 1905. This shows the primitive conditions that

11058-540: The patent drawings. They have the automobile powered by an electric motor. While waiting for the approval of the patent, Robert Twyford and his sponsors organized the Twyford Motor Vehicle Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in May 1898. The patent drawings show an automobile with a complicated arrangement of gears and shafts that provided a crude form of four-wheel drive and power-steering. For four-wheel drive,

11172-408: The rear-wheels to a wooden frame, using castors, which showed that he could drive the car with only the front-wheels. Then, as shown in Figure 7, with the frame removed, he towed two carriages containing five passengers up a 14.5 percent grade. The picture shows Robert Twyford at the steering wheel, with his foreman, Mr. Ralph Reitz, beside him. Figure 8 also demonstrates the Twyford's towing power. But,

11286-566: The rest of his life in Houston, Texas , and died in 1942. In 1985, William McCracken, a retired mechanic at the time living in Richardsville, Pennsylvania, began building a replica of the original Twyford, "because there weren't any". In an article in the Tri-County , August 13, 1985, William McCracken stated, "There were only five built, but the runabout is the only one I can prove was built." Back in

11400-501: The rotary motion of the waterwheel into the linear movement of the saw blades. An early documentation of the design occurred sometime between 1174 and 1206 AD in the Artuqid State (modern Turkey), when inventor Al-Jazari described a machine which incorporated the connecting rod with a crankshaft to pump water as part of a water-raising machine, though the device was more complex than typical crank and connecting rod designs. There

11514-418: The side of the crankcase and thereby renders the engine irreparable. Common causes of connecting rod failure are tensile failure from high engine speeds, the impact force when the piston hits a valve (due to a valvetrain problem), rod bearing failure (usually due to a lubrication problem), or incorrect installation of the connecting rod. The sideways force exerted on the piston through the connecting rod by

11628-420: The successive day. Paradoxically in summer oxygen created by photosynthesis in forests near to cities and urban parks, interacts with urban air pollution (from cars, etc.) and is transformed by solar beams in ozone (molecule of three oxygen atoms), that while in high atmosphere constitutes a filter against ultraviolet beams, in the low atmosphere is a pollutant, able to provoke respiratory disturbances. In

11742-683: The time, featuring power to both front and rear axles, and leading in the automobile world. The company planned to manufacture four-wheel drive automobiles, auto-trucks and motor-cars. Robert E. Twyford succeeded in organizing the Twyford Motor-Car Company in Brookville. The company had raised $ 25,000 in capital stock and named the following men as directors: R. E. Twyford, A. D. Deemer, H. C. Beach, D. L. Taylor, E. A. Carmalt, C. A. French, W. N. Humphrey, W. N. Vanleer and W. D. Shields, with A. D. Deemer acting as president, W. N. Humphrey as vice president, R. E. Twyford as general manager and D. L. Taylor as secretary and treasurer. The directors decided to locate

11856-466: The traditional building techniques, employing elastic joints , and to the excellent ability of wooden frames to elastically deform and absorb severe accelerations and compressive shocks. In 2006, Italian scientists from CNR patented a building system that they called " SOFIE ", a seven-storey wooden building, 24 meters high, built by the "Istituto per la valorizzazione del legno e delle specie arboree" (Ivalsa) of San Michele all'Adige . In 2007 it

11970-427: The use of a connecting rod. The typical arrangement uses a large sliding bearing block called a crosshead with the hinge between the piston and connecting rod placed outside the cylinder, requiring a seal around the piston rod . In a steam locomotive , the cranks are usually mounted directly on the driving wheels . The connecting rod is used between the crank pin on the wheel and the crosshead (where it connects to

12084-623: The wood industry from the trunks and branches of trees through several processes, commencing with the selection of appropriate logging sites and concluding with the milling and treatment processes of the harvested material. In order to determine which logging sites and milling sites are responsibly producing environmental, social and economic benefits, they must be certified under the Forests For All Forever (FCS) Certification that ensures these qualities. Mature trees are harvested from, both, plantations and native forests. Trees harvested at

12198-615: The wood removed from forests in log form and used for purposes other than fuel. Wood manufacturing residues, such as sawdust and chippings, are collectively known as "pulp". The United States industrial production index hit a 13-year high during the COVID-19 pandemic, according to a report from the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Originally, trees were felled from native forests using axes and hand-held cross-cut saws –

12312-411: The workers had finished the building, except for installing machinery. The construction of automobiles began in late 1904. In 1905, the Twyford Motor-Car Company announced the construction of the models for that year. These included an 18-hp 4-passenger Tonneau (priced at $ 2,700), an 8 hp (6.0 kW; 8.1 PS) delivery (priced at $ 1,000), an 8 hp (6.0 kW; 8.1 PS) runabout ,

12426-461: The workers had to use in manufacturing the automobiles. The parts to the left of the chassis include fifth-wheel gears for the front axle steering mechanism. The plant had the dimensions of 200x50 feet and two stories. It had the most modern equipment for working on both iron and wood. Robert Twyford, to demonstrate the pulling power of the cars, on July 12, 1905, drove a 9 hp runabout down Main Street in Brookville. As shown in Figure 6, he fitted

12540-581: The world top producers of sawn wood in 2007 were: Workers within the forestry and logging industry sub-sector fall within the agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting (AFFH) industry sector as characterized by the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has taken a closer look at the AFFH industry's noise exposures and prevalence of hearing loss. While

12654-469: The world's industrial wood production . 25% became wood pulp (including wood powder and broccoli) mainly destined for the production of paper and paperboard , and approximately 20% became panels in plywood and valuable wood for furniture and objects of common use (FAO 1998). The World's largest producer and consumer of officially accounted wood are the United States, although the country that possesses

12768-510: The year 2005 in Canada, the forest sector employed 930,000 workers (1 job in every 17), making around $ 108 billion of value in goods and services. For many years products derived from trees in Canadian forests had been the most important export items of the country. In 2011, exports around the world totaled some $ 64.3 billion – the single largest contributor to Canadian trade balance. Canada

12882-532: Was reduced by almost 30% to 3,101,340 km over the same period. Regarding the problem of climate change, it is known that burning forests increase CO 2 in the atmosphere, while intact virgin forest or plantations act as sinks for CO 2 , for these reasons wood economy fights greenhouse effect . The amount of CO 2 absorbed depends on the type of trees, lands and the climate of the place where trees naturally grow or are planted. Moreover, by night plants do not photosynthesize , and produce CO 2 , eliminated

12996-594: Was tested with the hardest Japanese antiseismic test for civil structures: the simulation of Kobe's earthquake (7.2 Richter scale ), with the building placed over an enormous oscillating platform belonging to the NIED-Institute, located in Tsukuba science park, near the city of Miki in Japan. This Italian project, employed very thin and flexible panels in glued laminated timber , and according to CNR researchers could lead to

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