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65-527: A development of the bomber for maritime patrol is designated the Tu-142 , while a passenger airliner derivative was called the Tu-114 . The aircraft has four Kuznetsov NK-12 engines with contra-rotating propellers . It is the only propeller-powered strategic bomber still in operational use today. The Tu-95 is one of the loudest military aircraft, particularly because the tips of the propeller blades move faster than

130-668: A research and development contract was issued to Tupolev by the Russian Defence Ministry , on 23 December 2009. The modernisations are applied to only the Tu-95MS16s using the K-016 Sprut missile initialisation system, and not to the aircraft using the older K-012 Osina (the K-016 allows the use of longer-ranged Kh-55SM missiles); in other words, only the aircraft manufactured from 1986 onwards are modernised. In total, this represents

195-463: A comprehensive political component, supported by high force levels, overall professionalism, and the political stamina to stay present long-term. The disappointing outcomes, in Africa and elsewhere, have led some to criticize the way in which the decentralization policies have been implemented (MacFarlane and Weiss 1992; Berman 1998; Boulden 2003)." Most nations clearly distinguish military authorities from

260-487: A fleet of between 30 and 35 aircraft. The program is divided into two steps: the first one consists of making the aircraft compatible with Kh-101/102 cruise missiles. These are too big to fit in the internal missile bay; hence, new external hardpoints are added. A total of eight Kh-101/102s can be carried under four double missile pylons, in addition to six Kh-55/55SM/555s in the internal rotary missile launcher. Several pieces of equipment are also replaced in this first step of

325-606: A goal of encouraging regional states to police their own conflicts (such as the African Union policing African conflicts). Similarly, the UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan reminded UN Member states that they have common interests in protecting African civilians through a shared "commitments to human security, and its rationale of indivisibility of peace and security." Through a series of resolutions (1265, 1296, 1502 , 1674 , & 1738) and presidential statements

390-613: A means of opposing dictatorial rule or foreign occupation: sometimes such campaigns happen at the same time as armed conflicts or guerrilla insurrections, but they are usually distinct from them as regards both their organization and participation. Officials directly involved in the maiming of civilians are conducting offensive combat operations and do not qualify as civilians. International humanitarian law (IHL) codifies treaties and conventions, signed and enforced by participating states, which serve to protect civilians during intra and interstate conflict. Even for non-treaty participants, it

455-607: A naval exercise off the coasts of France and Spain in January 2008, alongside Tupolev Tu-22M 3 "Backfire" strategic bombers and Beriev A-50 "Mainstay" airborne early-warning aircraft. During the Russian Stability 2008 military exercise in October 2008, Tu-95MS aircraft fired live air-launched cruise missiles for the first time since 1984. The long range of the Kh-55 cruise missile means

520-472: A party to an armed conflict are entitled to certain privileges under the customary laws of war and international treaties such as the Fourth Geneva Convention . The privileges that they enjoy under international law depends on whether the conflict is an internal one (a civil war ) or an international one. In some nations, uniformed members (or emergency response force ) of law enforcement ,

585-759: A standard Tu-95's bomb bay, similar to the way the B.1 Special version of the Avro Lancaster did with the ten-tonne Grand Slam " earthquake bomb ". Along with the Tsar Bomba , the Tu-95 proved to be a versatile bomber that would deliver the RDS-4 Tatyana (a fission bomb with a yield of forty-two kilotons), RDS-6S thermonuclear bomb, the RDS-37 2.9-megaton thermonuclear bomb, and the RP-30-32 200-kiloton bomb. The early versions of

650-403: Is a person who is not a member of an armed force nor a person engaged in hostilities. It is slightly different from a non-combatant , because some non-combatants are not civilians (for example, people who are not in a military but support war effort or military operations, military chaplains , or military personnel who are serving with a neutral country ). Civilians in the territories of

715-597: Is covered by the First Convention . There is no intermediate status; nobody in enemy hands can be outside the law. We feel that this is a satisfactory solution – not only satisfying to the mind, but also, and above all, satisfactory from the humanitarian point of view." The ICRC has expressed the opinion that "If civilians directly engage in hostilities, they are considered ' unlawful' or 'unprivileged' combatants or belligerents (the treaties of humanitarian law do not expressly contain these terms). They may be prosecuted under

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780-507: Is critical in wartime situations for navies to locate enemy forces to engage or defend against. Peacetime patrols are important for interdiction of criminal activities and for ensuring legal use of waters. Maritime patrols can be conducted by surface ships and submarines , by aircraft (e.g. MPA ) and other aerial vehicles, and even by satellites . Human spotting remains an important part of detecting activity, but increasingly electronic systems are used. Civilian A civilian

845-575: Is customary for international law to still apply. Additionally, IHL adheres to the principles of distinction , proportionality , and necessity ; which apply to the protection of civilians in armed conflict. Although, despite the UN deploying military forces to protect civilians, it lacks formal policies or military manuals addressing exactly these efforts. The UN Security Council Report No 4: Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict provides further evidence of

910-459: Is known as Tu-95MSM . It includes the installation of the new Novella NV1.021 passive electronically scanned array radar instead of the current Obzor-MS, a new S021 navigation system and the Meteor-NM2 airborne defense complex. In addition, the aircraft modernized to the "MSM" variant will be equipped with upgraded Kuznetsov NK-12MPM turboprop engines, together with new AV-60T propellers, reducing

975-699: Is often assumed that civilians are essentially passive onlookers of war, sometimes they have active roles in conflicts. These may be quasi-military, as when in November 1975 the Moroccan government organized the " green march " of civilians to cross the border into the former Spanish colony of Western Sahara to claim the territory for Morocco - all at the same time as Moroccan forces entered the territory clandestinely. In addition, and without necessarily calling into question their status as non-combatants, civilians sometimes take part in campaigns of nonviolent civil resistance as

1040-503: Is proposed to indicate the African Union will no longer stand by to watch atrocities happen within the Union. As described by Said Djinnit (AU's Commissioner for Peace and Security) in 2004, "Africans cannot [...] watch the tragedies developing in the continent and say it is the UN's responsibility or somebody else's responsibility. We have moved from the concept of non-interference to non-indifference. We cannot, as Africans, remain indifferent to

1105-492: Is the task of monitoring areas of water. Generally conducted by military and law enforcement agencies , maritime patrol is usually aimed at identifying human activities. Maritime patrol refers to active patrol of an area, as opposed to passive monitoring systems such as sound-detection fixtures or land-based spotters. A patrol consists of a ship, submarine, aircraft or satellite examining the patrolled area and seeking out activities to be identified and reported. Maritime patrol

1170-739: The Aviakor aircraft plant in Samara at a rate of three aircraft per year. The first Tu-95 modernized by Aviakor was the Tu-95MS Dubna , transferred to the Russian Aerospace Forces on 18 November 2015. In the future, Tu-95MSs are to be upgraded with the SVP-24 sighting and computing system from the Russian company Gefest & T. The second step of the modernisation program is also the most extensive one, and

1235-688: The Black Sea area. On 26 June 2022, spokesman of the Ukrainian Air Force Yurii Ihnat reported four to six Kh-101 cruise missiles were launched by Tu-95MS and Tu-160s at Kyiv from the Caspian Sea area. The bombers reportedly flew from Astrakhan . On 5 December 2022, explosions were reported at two Russian airbases: the one at Engels-2 reportedly damaged two Tu-95s. Subsequently on 6 December satellite photos show that one Tu-95MS BEAR-H had caught fire and had to be covered in foam. A Tu-22M

1300-612: The Kh-101 cruise missiles on several militant positions in Syria. On 5 December 2017, two Tu-95MSs and two Il-76MD transport aircraft landed for the first time at the Biak Air Base in Indonesia. The bombers covered more than 7,000 km (4,300 mi) with aerial refueling before landing at the air base. During the course of their visit, the Tu-95 crews conducted their first patrol flights over

1365-625: The Saunders-Roe Princess , the Bristol Brabazon Mk 2 and the Bristol Britannia . Tupolev proposed a turboprop installation and a Tu-95 design with this configuration was officially approved by the government on 11 July 1951. It used four Kuznetsov coupled turboprops , each fitted with two contra-rotating propellers with four blades each, with a nominal 8,900 kW (12,000 hp) power rating. The engine, advanced for its time,

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1430-584: The UN Security Council "addresses: The Security Council is now involved in the protection of civilians in five main areas of action. In response to presidential statements and previous subcommittee work, the UN Security Council held a meeting in January 2009, specifically to address the protection of civilians within the context of the IHL. While no specific outcome followed this meeting, it did lead to

1495-604: The AM-3 jet engines for the proposed T-4 intercontinental jet bomber used too much fuel to give the required range. Turboprop engines were more powerful than piston engines and gave better range than the turbojets available at the time, and gave a top speed between the two. Turboprops were also initially selected for the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress to meet its long range requirement, and for the British long-range transport aircraft,

1560-640: The British Armed Forces' longest continuous operation. The many problems faced (and arguably caused by) Operation Banner have been influential in policy-making and the reluctance to deploy military forces domestically in anything other than exceptional circumstances (usually relating to serious terrorist threats). By contrast, German law prohibits entirely the peacetime intervention of military forces within Germany in armed roles. Military personnel may only be deployed in unarmed roles such as disaster relief. This

1625-635: The British Army was deployed to Northern Ireland under Operation Banner to support the local police in the wake of rioting. This deployment inflamed local tensions, with the Provisional IRA launching a guerilla campaign from 1970 to 1997, during which time controversial actions such as Operation Demetrius took place, as well as atrocities such as the Bloody Sunday massacre . Operation Banner ultimately lasted 37 years, formally ending in 2007 and becoming

1690-598: The Commentary to the Protocol pointed that anyone who is not a member of the armed forces and does not take part of hostilities in time of war is a civilian. Civilians cannot take part in armed conflict. Civilians are given protection under the Geneva Conventions and Protocols thereto. Article 51 describes the protection that must be given to the civilian population and individual civilians. Chapter III of Protocol I regulates

1755-600: The Far Eastern Ukrainka air base . On 17 August 2007, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced that Russia was resuming strategic aviation flights by sending its bombers on long-range patrols, a practice that had ended with the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. Fighters from NATO members are often sent to intercept and escort Tu-95s as they perform their missions along the periphery of NATO airspace, often close to each other. Russian Tu-95s reportedly took part in

1820-731: The Navy, Air Force and Marine Corp. In practice there are many nuances to this. The most notable being that the US Coast Guard operates under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security during peacetime but can be transferred to the U.S. Department of the Navy and rendered "military" during times of war. The US National Guard are organised at a State level and under mixed control. Under Title 32, State Governors may deploy National Guard personnel in support of civilian law enforcement - Posse Comitatus would only apply to personnel activated under Title 10 and operating under federal control. In colloquial usage,

1885-676: The Red Cross 1958 Commentary on 1949 Geneva Convention IV Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War states: "Every person in enemy hands must have some status under international law : he is either a prisoner of war and, as such, covered by the Third Convention , a civilian covered by the Fourth Convention, or again, a member of the medical personnel of the armed forces who

1950-548: The Russian Aerospace Forces while several subsequent iterations of bomber design have come and gone. Part of the reason for this longevity was its suitability, like the B-52, for modification to different missions. Whereas the Tu-95 was originally intended to drop free-falling nuclear weapons, it was subsequently modified to perform a wide range of roles, such as the deployment of cruise missiles, maritime patrol (Tu-142), and even civilian airliner ( Tu-114 ). An AWACS platform ( Tu-126 )

2015-724: The South African constitution allows military forces to assist Police only with Presidential approval. The British military does not intervene in law enforcement matters other than by exceptional ministerial approval. During the 1980 Iranian Embassy Siege , the Metropolitan Police were able to request military support and the Prime Minister approved deployment of the SAS . Unarmed military personnel routinely deploy in support for natural disasters, bomb disposal, etc. under MACA . In 1969

Tupolev Tu-95 - Misplaced Pages Continue

2080-614: The Soviet Air Force. As part of their nuclear strike mission, bomber crews would undertake frequent missions into the Arctic to practice transpolar strikes against the United States. Unlike their American counterparts , however, Tu-95 aircraft did not fly missions carrying "live" nuclear weapons. This practice, a result of live ammunition being housed in special bunkers on the bases and a lengthy loading process (done via servicing trench below

2145-562: The Tu-95 started in January 1956. For a long time, the Tu-95 was known to U.S./NATO intelligence as the Tu-20 . While this was the original Soviet Air Force designation for the aircraft, by the time it was being supplied to operational units it was already better known under the Tu-95 designation used internally by Tupolev, and the Tu-20 designation quickly fell out of use in the USSR. Since the Tu-20 designation

2210-555: The Tu-95MS can once again serve as a strategic weapons system. In July 2010, two Russian Tu-95MS set a world record for a non-stop flight for an aircraft in the class, spending more than 43 hours in the air. They flew through the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific oceans as well as the Sea of Japan, covering in total more than 30,000 km (19,000 mi) with four mid-air refuelings. The primary goal of

2275-752: The armed forces in civil affairs varies from nation to nation. In France and Italy, the National Gendarmerie and Carabinieri are military agencies permanently tasked to supporting domestic civilian law-enforcement, usually focussed on serious organised crime and counter-terrorism. Until 2008, the South African Commando System (a volunteer militia within the South African Army) assisted the Police Service in rural areas until they were replaced by specialised Police units. Section 201 of

2340-526: The bomb bay and taking up to two hours) was seen as a hindrance to overall mission readiness. During the Falklands War Tu-95s carried out intelligence-gathering flights around Ascension Island . In 1992, newly independent Kazakhstan began returning the Tu-95 aircraft of the 79th Heavy Bomber Aviation Division at Dolon air base to the Russian Federation. The bombers joined those already at

2405-401: The bomber omitted crew amenities, with dank and dingy interiors lacking a toilet or a galley. Though flying the Tu-95 was uncomfortable, especially during the routine 10-hour mission trips twice a week, constant training ensured a high degree of combat readiness and around 1,200 flight-hours annually. Due to the nature of their mission, Tu-95 bomber crews were often some of the best available in

2470-465: The civil administration via the national constitution; or else in statute law where no codified constitution exists. This usually serves to place control of military forces under the presiding civilian government. "Civilian" is often not defined explicitly but is a "negative definition" where anyone who is not designated as military personnel is (by default) a civilian. In keeping with IHL, this offers no intermediary status. Involvement and jurisdiction of

2535-436: The direct targeting of civilians is a breach of the customary laws of war and is binding on all belligerents . The actual position of the civilian in modern war remains problematic. It is complicated by a number of phenomena, including: Starting in the 1980s, it was often claimed that 90 percent of the victims of modern wars were civilians. These claims, though widely believed, are not supported by detailed examination of

2600-519: The domestic law of the detaining state for such action." Article 50 of the 1977 Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions provides: The definition is negative and defines civilians as persons who do not belong to definite categories. The categories of persons mentioned in Article 4A(1), (2), (3) and (6) of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of the Protocol I are combatants. Therefore,

2665-525: The endurance flight was to evaluate the performance of the aircraft during such a long flight, in particular monitoring the engines and other systems. On 17 November 2015, Tu-95s had their combat debut, being employed for the first time in long-range airstrikes as part of the Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War . On 17 November 2016, Tu-95MSs performed their first combat deployment, launching

Tupolev Tu-95 - Misplaced Pages Continue

2730-399: The event was filmed for documentation purposes. The footage shows the specially adapted Tu-95V plane – painted with anti-flash white on its ventral surfaces – taking off carrying the bomb, in-flight scenes of the interior and exterior of the aircraft, and the detonation. The bomb was attached underneath the aircraft, which carried the weapon semi-externally since it could not be carried inside

2795-649: The evidence, particularly that relating to wars (such as those in former Yugoslavia and in Afghanistan ) that are central to the claims. In the opening years of the 21st century, despite the many problems associated with it, the legal category of the civilian has been the subject of considerable attention in public discourse, in the media and at the United Nations, and in justification of certain uses of armed force to protect endangered populations. It has "lost none of its political, legal and moral salience." Although it

2860-462: The fire service , or other emergency services colloquially refer to members of the public as civilians. The word "civilian" goes back to the late 14th century and is from Old French civilien . Civilian is believed to have been used to refer to non-combatants as early as 1829. The term "non-combatant" now refers to people in general who are not taking part of hostilities in time of war , rather than just civilians. The International Committee of

2925-613: The first batch was completed in March 2020. Designed as a stopgap in case the Tu-114A was not finished on time, two Tu-95 bombers were fitted with passenger compartments. Both aircraft had the same layout: office space, a passenger cabin consisting of two sections which could each accommodate 20 people in VIP seating, and the rest of the 70 m (2,500 cu ft) cabin configured as a normal airliner. Both aircraft were eventually used as crew ferries by

2990-450: The inner engine nacelles . The Tu-95/I, with 2TV-2F engines, first flew in November 1952 with test pilot Alexey Perelet at the controls. After six months of test flights this aircraft suffered a propeller gearbox failure and crashed, killing Perelet. The second aircraft, Tu-95/II, used four 12,000 eshp Kuznetsov NK-12 turboprops which proved more reliable than the coupled 2TV-2F. After a successful flight testing phase, series production of

3055-519: The internal management structure. Civilian crisis management is a central pillar of the EU Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) , which in turn is part of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The CSDP is an important instrument supporting the EU's role as a global security provider. Currently, the EU maintains civilian missions in countries including Georgia, Iraq, Mali, Somalia, and

3120-676: The modernisation, including the satellite signal reception system, the instrument landing system , and other navigation systems. The first Tu-95 modernized to carry the Kh-101/102 missiles was the Tu-95MS Saratov , rolled out at the Beriev aircraft plant in Taganrog in early 2015. It was transferred to the Russian Air Force in March 2015. Since 2015, the serial modernisation is carried out also by

3185-402: The need for protection of civilians. Recognizing that large-scale civilian insecurity threatens international peace and stability, the UN aims to establish the means of protecting civilians and thereby work to ensure regional stability. Through the UN Security Council Report No 4, first published in 2008, the UN offers ways to support civilian protections in both intra and interstate conflict with

3250-460: The production of a 10-year assessment of Council actions since the passing of resolution 1265 in 1999. In addition to the UN treaties, regional treaties have also been established, such as the African Union Constitutive Act Article 4(h) which also outlines the protection of civilians and "affords the Union a right to forcibly intervene in one of its member states in 'grave circumstances', namely war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity." This

3315-402: The proposed bomber had to have an un-refueled range of 8,000 km (5,000 mi), far enough to threaten key targets in the United States. Other goals included the ability to carry an 11,000 kg (24,000 lb) load over the target. Tupolev was faced with selecting a suitable type of powerplant: the Tu-4 showed that piston engines were not powerful enough for such a large aircraft, and

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3380-431: The southern Pacific, staying airborne for more than eight hours. Tu-95MS/MSM bombers reportedly took part in the opening assault on Ukraine during the initial phase of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022. On 6 March 2022, according to Ukrainian sources, Tu-95MS and Tu-160 strategic bombers launched eight cruise missiles, presumably the Kh-101, at the Havryshivka Vinnytsia International Airport from

3445-452: The speed of sound. Its distinctive swept-back wings are set at an angle of 35°. The Tu-95 is the only propeller-driven aircraft with swept wings built in large numbers. The design bureau, led by Andrei Tupolev , designed the Soviet Union's first intercontinental bomber, the 1949 Tu-85 , a scaled-up version of the Tu-4 , a Boeing B-29 Superfortress copy. A new requirement was issued to both Tupolev and Myasishchev design bureaus in 1950:

3510-442: The targeting of civilian objects. Article 8(2)(b)(i) of the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court also includes this in its list of war crimes: "Intentionally directing attacks against the civilian population as such or against individual civilians not taking part in hostilities". Not all states have ratified 1977 Protocol I or the 1998 Rome Statute, but it is an accepted principle of international humanitarian law that

3575-459: The term "civilian staff" can refer to police employees who are not warranted constables . In keeping with Peelian Principles , the term "member of the public" is preferred for general usage to avoid suggesting that Police are something other than civilian. In the U.S., "Civilian oversight" or "Citizen oversight" is used to distinguish external committees (typically monitoring police conduct on behalf of civil administrations and taxpayers) from

3640-406: The term is sometimes used to distinguish non-military law enforcement officers , firefighters , EMS personnel, and other emergency services members from the general public. Regardless, such members are civilians - not military personnel - and are bound by municipal ; civil and criminal law to the same extent as other members of the public. In the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand

3705-530: The tragedy of our people" (IRIN News 2004). Although Article 4(h), while drafted, has not been activated, which raises the question of the AU's willingness to intervene in situations of "grave circumstance." Regardless of the lead organization (UN, AU, other) "there is clearly a risk involved for international organizations that in assuming a complicated security role such as civilian protection, they may raise expectations among local populations that cannot be met, usually not even by large-scale peace operations with

3770-432: The various Tu-95 squadrons. One of these machines is preserved at Ulyanovsk Central Airport . Starting in the 2000s, the Russian Air Force started to study different options for the modernisation of its Tu-95MS fleet. Even before the start of the modernisation program, in 2003 the aircraft were made compatible with the Kh-555 missile. Then, the proper modernisation program was initiated. Development officially started when

3835-438: The vibration level by 50%. Lastly, the tail turret has been removed. The first Tu-95MSM made its maiden flight on 22 August 2020. A new contract on upgrading Tu-95MS strategic missile-carrying bombers to the Tu-95MSM level was signed in August 2021. The Tu-95RT variant in particular was a veritable icon of the Cold War as it performed a maritime surveillance and targeting mission for other aircraft, surface ships and submarines. It

3900-557: Was also damaged. The attack was carried out by modernised Tu-141 drones. Several other modifications of the basic Tu-95/Tu-142 airframe have existed, but these were largely unrecognized by Western intelligence or never reached operational status in the Soviet military. Data from Combat Aircraft since 1945 General characteristics Performance Armament Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists Maritime patrol Maritime patrol or maritime reconnaissance

3965-439: Was designed by a German team of ex- Junkers prisoner-engineers under Ferdinand Brandner . The fuselage was conventional with a mid-mounted wing with 35 degrees of sweep, an angle that ensured that the main wing spar passed through the fuselage in front of the bomb bay. Retractable tricycle landing gear was fitted, with all three gear strut units retracting rearwards, with the main gear units retracting rearwards into extensions of

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4030-412: Was developed from the Tu-114. An icon of the Cold War , the Tu-95 has served not only as a weapons platform but as a symbol of Soviet and later Russian national prestige. Russia's air force has received the first examples of a number of modernised strategic bombers in Tu-95MS s following upgrade work. Enhancements have been confined to the bomber's electronic weapons and targeting systems. Modernization of

4095-461: Was found to be deeply restrictive during the 1972 Munich massacre when army snipers could not be deployed to assist Munich Police. GSG 9 was later formed within the Bundesgrenzschutz to provide an armed tactical capability within the civilian law enforcement structure. In the US, the 1878 Posse Comitatus Act forbids the use of the US Army for law enforcement purposes without the approval of Congress. A 2013 directive clarified that this included

4160-453: Was identifiable by a large bulge under the fuselage , which reportedly housed a radar antenna that was used to search for and detect surface ships. A series of nuclear surface tests were carried out by the Soviet Union in the early- to mid-1960s. On October 30, 1961, a modified Tu-95 carried and dropped the AN602 device named Tsar Bomba , the most powerful thermonuclear device ever detonated. Video footage of that particular test exists since

4225-435: Was used on many documents acquired by U.S. intelligence agents, the name continued to be used outside the Soviet Union. Initially, the United States Department of Defense evaluated the Tu-95 as having a maximum speed of 640 km/h (400 mph) with a range of 12,500 km (7,800 mi). These numbers had to be revised upward numerous times. Like its American counterpart, the B-52, the Tu-95 has continued to operate in

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