190-610: The Tulsa race massacre , also known as the Tulsa race riot or the Black Wall Street massacre , was a two-day-long white supremacist terrorist massacre that took place between May 31 and June 1, 1921, when mobs of white residents, some of whom had been appointed as deputies and armed by city government officials, attacked black residents and destroyed homes and businesses of the Greenwood District in Tulsa, Oklahoma . The event
380-462: A "scientific" theory of white superiority and black inferiority . One such slave owner, future president Thomas Jefferson , wrote in 1785 that blacks were "inferior to the whites in the endowments of body and mind." In the antebellum South , four million slaves were denied freedom. The outbreak of the Civil War saw the desire to uphold white supremacy being cited as a cause for state secession and
570-470: A "Negro uprising" and became concerned. Eyewitnesses reported gunshots, presumably fired into the air, increasing in frequency during the evening. In Greenwood, rumors began to fly—in particular, a report that whites were storming the courthouse. Shortly after 10 p.m., a second, larger group of approximately 75 armed black men decided to go to the courthouse. They offered their support to the sheriff, who declined their help. There are conflicting reports about
760-514: A "dark side" of social media: There certainly were hate groups before the Internet and social media. [But with social media] it just becomes easier to organize, to spread the word, for people to know where to go. It could be to raise money, or it could be to engage in attacks on social media. Some of the activity is virtual. Some of it is in a physical place. Social media has lowered the collective-action problems that individuals who might want to be in
950-628: A Latin phrase meaning "from the origin"; the ancient Romans used it to refer to a contemporary group , one of many ancient peoples in Italy . Until about 1910, these terms were used in English to refer to various Indigenous peoples. Today throughout most of the English-speaking world, it is most commonly understood to refer to the Indigenous Australians , with the notable exception of Canada, where
1140-636: A Nordic admixture and suitable for Aryanization . In the United States, the groups most associated with the white-supremacist movement are the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), Aryan Nations , and the White American Resistance movement, all of which are also considered to be antisemitic . The Proud Boys , despite claiming non-association with white supremacy, have been described in academic contexts as being such. Many white-supremacist groups are based on
1330-446: A battle by collecting guns and ammunition. Older, more prosperous men feared a destructive confrontation that likely would cost them dearly. O. W. Gurley stated that he had tried to convince the men that there would be no lynching, but the crowd responded that Sheriff McCullough had personally told them their presence was required. At about 9:30 p.m., a group of approximately 50–60 black men, armed with rifles and shotguns, arrived at
1520-538: A bipartisan group in the state legislature authorized the formation of the Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. The commission's final report, published in 2001, states that the city had conspired with the racist mob; it recommended a program of reparations to survivors and their descendants. The state passed legislation to establish scholarships for the descendants of survivors, encourage
1710-407: A black shoeshiner , was accused of assaulting Sarah Page, a white 21-year-old elevator operator in the nearby Drexel Building. He was arrested and rumors that he was to be lynched were spread throughout the city, where a white man named Roy Belton had been lynched the previous year. Upon hearing reports that a mob of hundreds of white men had gathered around the jail where Rowland was being held,
1900-496: A black man raped, assaulted, talked to or glanced at them. The Tulsa race massacre , the destruction of Black Wall Street, was spurred by an incident between a white female elevator operator and a black man. As the Oklahoma Historical Society points out, the most common explanation is that he stepped on her toe. As many as 300 people were killed because of it. The torture and murder of 14-year-old Emmett Till in 1955,
2090-704: A black man, a bird-watcher, that she was going to call the police and tell them that he was threatening her life. The Tuskegee Institute has estimated that 3,446 blacks were the victims of lynchings in the United States between 1882 and 1968, with the peak occurring in the 1890s at a time of economic stress in the South and increasing political suppression of blacks. If 1,297 whites were also lynched during this period, blacks were disproportionally targeted, representing 72.7% of all people lynched. According to scholar Amy L. Wood, "lynching photographs constructed and perpetuated white supremacist ideology by creating permanent images of
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#17328526482142280-544: A broad array of institutions and social settings. Native American name controversy There is an ongoing discussion about the terminology used by the Indigenous peoples of the Americas to describe themselves, as well as how they prefer to be referred to by others. Preferred terms vary primarily by region and age. As Indigenous peoples and communities are diverse, there is no consensus on naming. After Europeans discovered
2470-639: A collective and an individual level ( ceteris paribus , i. e. , when individuals are compared that do not differ relevantly except in ethnicity). Legal scholar Frances Lee Ansley explains this definition as follows: By "white supremacy" I do not mean to allude only to the self-conscious racism of white supremacist hate groups . I refer instead to a political, economic and cultural system in which whites overwhelmingly control power and material resources, conscious and unconscious ideas of white superiority and entitlement are widespread, and relations of white dominance and non-white subordination are daily reenacted across
2660-443: A controlled white citizenry juxtaposed to images of helpless and powerless black men." White supremacy has also played a part in U.S. school curriculum. Over the course of the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, material across the spectrum of academic disciplines has been taught with a heavy emphasis on white culture, contributions, and experiences, and a lack of representation of non-white groups' perspectives and accomplishments. In
2850-714: A designation for the circumpolar Indigenous groups of the United States, Canada, Greenland, and Russia. The term "Amerind"/"Amerindian" is a portmanteau of "American Indian". It was coined in 1902 by the American Anthropological Association , but from its creation has been controversial. It was rejected by some leading members of the Association, and while adopted by many it was never universally accepted. Usage in English occurs primarily in anthropological and linguistic contexts, rather than Native American ones; it also finds some use in news outlets in describing
3040-407: A group of 75 black men, some armed, arrived at the jail to protect Rowland. The sheriff persuaded the group to leave the jail, assuring them that he had the situation under control. The most widely reported and corroborated inciting incident occurred as the group of black men left when an elderly white man approached O. B. Mann, a black man, and demanded that he hand over his pistol. Mann refused, and
3230-651: A hate group would face. You can see that there are people out there like you. That's the dark side of social media. A series on YouTube hosted by the grandson of Thomas Robb , the national director of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, "presents the Klan's ideology in a format aimed at kids — more specifically, white kids." The short episodes inveigh against race-mixing, and extol other white-supremacist ideologies. A short documentary published by TRT describes Imran Garda's experience,
3420-474: A journalist of Indian descent, who met with Thomas Robb and a traditional KKK group. A sign that greets people who enter the town states " Diversity is a code for white genocide ." The KKK group interviewed in the documentary summarizes its ideals, principles, and beliefs, which are emblematic of white supremacists in the United States. The comic book super hero Captain America was used for dog whistle politics by
3610-639: A large Democratic majority, passed racial segregation laws, commonly known as Jim Crow laws , as its first order of business. The 1907 Oklahoma Constitution did not call for strict segregation; delegates feared that U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt would veto the document if they included such restrictions. Still, the first law passed by the new legislature segregated all rail travel, and voter registration rules effectively disenfranchised non-whites . This meant that they were also barred from either serving on juries or serving in local public offices. These laws were enforced until they were ruled unconstitutional after
3800-406: A lone black man. Black store owners reportedly then came out of nearby shops to help defend the black man, and "once they started defending him, they ended up having to shoot." The account further notes, "[The black store owners] fought back the best they could. But...[the white mob] started on that end of town, where the black people started fighting, [the white mob] set those initial shops on fire at
3990-490: A lynching actually, occurred because a white woman said that he "grabbed her and was menacing and sexually crude toward her". This practice, this exercise in racial extremism has been dragged into the modern era through the weaponizing of 9-1-1, often by white women, to invoke the power and force of the police who they are fully aware are hostile to black men. This was again evident when a white woman in New York's Central Park told
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#17328526482144180-488: A mile northeast of Greenwood) and McNulty Park (a baseball stadium at Tenth Street and Elgin Avenue). White supremacy White supremacy is the belief that white people are superior to those of other races and thus should dominate them. The belief favors the maintenance and defense of any power and privilege held by white people. White supremacy has roots in the now-discredited doctrine of scientific racism and
4370-509: A name imposed from outside rather than an Inuit term, one reason that Eskimo is considered derogatory is the widespread, but incorrect, perception that in Algonkian languages , spoken by some competitive historic tribes of present-day Canada and US, it means "eaters of raw meat". The Inuit Circumpolar Conference meeting in Barrow, Alaska (now Utqiaġvik), in 1977 officially adopted "Inuit" as
4560-623: A native woman or, as in the Jargon, all women and also anything female. It originated as a compound of Nootka łūts 'female' with the English suffix -man . Hyas klootchman tyee means "queen", klootchman cosho , "sow"; and klootchman tenas or tenas klootchman means "girl" or "little girl". Generally klootchman in regional English simply means a native woman and has not acquired the derisive sense of siwash or squaw . The short form klootch , encountered only in English-Chinook hybrid phrasings,
4750-401: A positive usage among some powwow organizations, colleges, and other Indigenous groups who hold pageants and scholarship competitions , who may use the term "Princess" as a component in the titles they award. Generally, these events are for recognizing cultural skills and community leadership. However, some have called for participants to stop using the term "Princess" for these titles, due to
4940-485: A racist faction of the skinhead subculture , despite the fact that when the skinhead culture first developed in the United Kingdom in the late 1960s, it was heavily influenced by black fashions and music , especially Jamaican reggae and ska , and African American soul music . White-supremacist recruitment activities are primarily conducted at a grassroots level as well as on the Internet. Widespread access to
5130-506: A signal for the rioters to launch an all-out assault on Greenwood. A white man stepped out from behind the Frisco depot and was fatally shot by a sniper in Greenwood. Crowds of rioters poured from their shelter, on foot, and by car, into the streets of the neighborhood. Five white men in a car led the charge but were killed by a fusillade of gunfire before they had traveled one block. Overwhelmed by
5320-410: A social system in which white people enjoy structural advantages ( privilege ) over other ethnic groups, on both a collective and individual level, despite formal legal equality. White supremacy has ideological foundations that date back to 17th-century scientific racism , the predominant paradigm of human variation that helped shape international relations and racial policy from the latter part of
5510-577: A speech at the Brookings Institution , McAleenan cited a series of high-profile shooting incidents, and said "In our modern age, the continued menace of racially based violent extremism, particularly white supremacist extremism, is an abhorrent affront to the nation, the struggle and unity of its diverse population." The new strategy will include better tracking and analysis of threats, sharing information with local officials, training local law enforcement on how to deal with shooting events, discouraging
5700-525: A supply of small arms and ammunition. Major James Bell of the 180th Infantry Regiment learned of the mounting situation downtown and the possibility of a break-in, and he consequently took measures to prevent it. He called the commanders of the three National Guard units in Tulsa, who ordered all the Guard members to put on their uniforms and report quickly to the armory. When a group of whites arrived and began pulling at
5890-409: A territory prior to colonization or formation of a nation state . The "I" is always capitalized as it is in references to a group of people. In the Americas, the term "Indigenous peoples of the Americas" was adopted, and the term is tailored to specific geographic or political regions, such as " Indigenous peoples of Panama ". "'Indigenous peoples' ... is a term that internationalizes the experiences,
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6080-420: A woman's scream and saw a young black man rushing from the building. The clerk went to the elevator and found Page in a distraught state. Thinking that she had been sexually assaulted, he summoned the authorities. Apart from the clerk's interpretation that Rowland had attempted to rape Page, many explanations have been given for the incident, with the most common explanation being that Rowland tripped as he got onto
6270-513: Is "First Nations person" (when gender-specific, "First Nations man" or "First Nations woman"). "First Peoples" is a broad term that includes First Nations, Inuit , and Métis . Owing to its similarity to the term "First Nations", the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably. "Native" or "Native Canadian" is an ambiguous term, but people frequently use it in conversation or informal writing. A majority use this term for describing Indigenous peoples, including some Indigenous people themselves. This
6460-622: Is always derisive, especially in forms such as blue-eyed klootch . In Mexico , the preferred expression used by both the Government and the media is "Indigenous peoples" ( pueblos indígenas in Spanish ). In South America , the preferred expression for the population is also Indigenous peoples ( pueblos indígenas and pueblos originarios in Spanish , and povos indígenas in Portuguese ). In Spanish Latin America, "Indians" ( indios )
6650-901: Is considered one of the worst incidents of racial violence in American history . The attackers burned and destroyed more than 35 square blocks of the neighborhood—at the time, one of the wealthiest black communities in the United States, colloquially known as "Black Wall Street ." More than 800 people were admitted to hospitals, and as many as 6,000 black residents of Tulsa were interned in large facilities, many of them for several days. The Oklahoma Bureau of Vital Statistics officially recorded 36 dead. The 2001 Tulsa Reparations Coalition examination of events identified 39 dead, 26 black and 13 white, based on contemporary autopsy reports, death certificates, and other records. The commission gave several estimates ranging from 75 to 300 dead. The massacre began during Memorial Day weekend after 19-year-old Dick Rowland ,
6840-541: Is considered to be quite offensive as Indigenous peoples living in Canada existed prior to colonization and some do not view themselves as Canadians. In Canadian French , the terms are première(s) nation(s) for "First Nations" and autochtone for "Aboriginal" (used both as a noun and adjective). The term indien or indienne has historically been used in the legislation, notably in the Loi sur les Indiens (The Indian Act), but it
7030-569: Is increasingly no longer used—today, to refer to Indigenous people from a rural area, one would most likely say campesino originario or indígena campesino . In Brazil , the most usual expression is by far índio , with indígena sounding a little more formal; the Portuguese demonym for the country of India is indiano . Indios is still in common use, including among people of Indigenous identity. In Mexico, Brazil, and several other countries, these names are normally applied only to
7220-482: Is known to have ensued across the streets of Tulsa following that first widely reported exchange of gunfire. The gunshots triggered an almost immediate response, with both sides firing on each other. The first "battle" was said to last a few seconds or so, but it took a toll, because ten whites and two black men lay dead or dying in the street. The black men who had offered to provide security retreated toward Greenwood. A rolling gunfight ensued. The armed white mob pursued
7410-537: Is often called Inuktitut , though other local designations are also used. The Algonquin autonym Anishinaabe (also Anishinabe , Anicinape ) is used as a cross-tribal term in Algonquian-majority areas, such as Anishnabe Health, Anishnabe Education, and Training Circle. The term is also used among historically Anishinaabe peoples in the Upper Midwest region of the United States. The Chinook Jargon ,
7600-647: Is often understood to mean only the peoples of the mainland body of the United States, which excludes other peoples considered Indigenous peoples of the Americas ; including the Haida , Tlingit , Athabascan , Inuit , Yupik peoples ( Yuit / Alutiiq / Cup'ik ), Inupiat , and Aleut (i.e., the groups whose traditional languages are Eskimo–Aleut languages ). Related groups among these tribal peoples are referred to collectively as either Alaskan Natives (based on geography), First Nations (in Canada), or Siberians . Supporters of
7790-402: Is openly white nationalist or white separatist because "white nationalism and white separatism cannot be meaningfully separated from white supremacy and organized hate groups". Use of the term to self-identify has been criticized as a dishonest rhetorical ploy. The Anti-Defamation League argues that white supremacists use the phrase because they believe it has fewer negative connotations than
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7980-509: Is seen as having negative connotations because of its similarity to the French indigent ("poor"). It has also acquired further negative associations in French, owing to the indigénat code enforced in French colonial Africa, 1887–1947. The old French term sauvage ("wild, savage") is no longer used either, as it is considered racist. The people of the Canadian Arctic are officially known as
8170-563: Is similar to that of many Christian Identity groups because it believes in the antisemitic conspiracy theory that there is a "Jewish conspiracy" in control of governments, the banking industry and the media. Matthew F. Hale , founder of the World Church of the Creator, has published articles stating that all races other than white are "mud races", which is what the group's religion teaches. The white-supremacist ideology has become associated with
8360-478: Is the official term for those on the Indian Register . Lands set aside for the use of First Nations are officially known as Indian reserves (abbreviated IR on maps, etc.). The word "band" is used in band government . Some First Nations communities also use "Indian Band" in their official names. In Canada, the term " Aboriginal peoples in Canada " is used for all Indigenous peoples within the country, including
8550-561: Is the term used in the United States Census. The Oxford English Dictionary cites usage of the uncapitalized term native American in several publications dating to 1737, but it is unclear whether these texts refer to Indigenous peoples, or to persons born on American soil . One early use is the 1817 novel Keep Cool by John Neal , which declares "the Indian is the only native American; he holds his charter from God himself". During
8740-457: Is their greatest enemy. Different groups of white supremacists identify various racial, ethnic, religious, and other enemies, most commonly those of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, Indigenous peoples of the Americas and Oceania, Asians , multiracial people , Middle Eastern people , Jews , Muslims , and LGBTQ+ people. In academic usage, particularly in critical race theory or intersectionality , "white supremacy" can also refer to
8930-449: Is unacceptable outside of this specific context. First Nations in Québec have also called for the term amérindien to be discontinued, in favour of autochtone . The word amérindien contains the word indien (Indian) and since they are not Indians, the word is no longer favored and it has, for example, been removed from some elementary school textbooks. The term indigène is not used as it
9120-462: The 2016 United States Presidential Election reflect ongoing challenges with white supremacy. Psychologist Janet Helms suggested that the normalizing behaviors of social institutions of education, government, and healthcare are organized around the "birthright of...the power to control society's resources and determine the rules for [those resources]". Educators, literary theorists, and other political experts have raised similar questions, connecting
9310-735: The Age of Enlightenment until the late 20th century (marked by decolonization and the abolition of apartheid in South Africa in 1991, followed by that country's first multiracial elections in 1994 ). White supremacy was dominant in the United States both before and after the American Civil War , and it persisted for decades after the Reconstruction Era . Prior to the Civil War, many wealthy white Americans owned slaves ; they tried to justify their economic exploitation of black people by creating
9500-459: The Ainu , a people Indigenous to the northernmost islands of Japan." The United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development used the term "Indigenous peoples" for the first time in its official political declaration in 2002. Before this date, the term was considered to be "still under debate" for usage in official UN documents. The English adjective "aboriginal" and the noun "aborigine" come from
9690-544: The Christian Identity movement. In the United States, white supremacy is primarily associated with the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), Aryan Nations , and the White American Resistance movement, all of which are also considered to be antisemitic . The Proud Boys , despite claiming non-association with white supremacy, have been described in academic contexts as being such. In recent years, websites such as Twitter (known as X since July 2023), Reddit , and Stormfront , and
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#17328526482149880-619: The Dutch Empire . It continued when the British took over the Cape of Good Hope in 1795. Apartheid was introduced as an officially structured policy by the Afrikaner -dominated National Party after the general election of 1948 . Apartheid's legislation divided inhabitants into four racial groups — "black", "white", "coloured", and "Indian", with coloured divided into several sub-classifications. In 1970,
10070-558: The First Presbyterian Church , tried to dissuade mob action. Chief of Police John A. Gustafson later claimed that he tried to talk the crowd into going home. Anxiety on Greenwood Avenue was rising. Many black residents worried about the safety of Rowland. Small groups of armed black men ventured toward the courthouse in automobiles, partly for surveillance and to demonstrate they were prepared to take necessary action to protect Rowland. Many white men interpreted these actions as
10260-782: The Indian Act , and "Indigenous peoples" used for Native peoples more generally, including Inuit and Métis , who do not fall under the "First Nations" category. Status Indian remains a legal designation because of the Indian Act. Europeans at the time of Christopher Columbus 's voyage often referred to all of South and East Asia as "India" or "the Indias/ Indies ", sometimes dividing the area into " Greater India ", "Middle India", and "Lesser India". The oldest surviving terrestrial globe , by Martin Behaim in 1492 (before Columbus' voyage), labels
10450-513: The Inuit and First Nations , as well as the Métis . More recently, the term Indigenous peoples has been used more frequently and in 2015 the federal government department responsible for First Nations, Metis, and Inuit issues changed its name from Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada to Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada . "First Nations" came into common usage in the 1980s to replace
10640-503: The Japanese ) and European with the latter being mostly European and African (with fair hair and skin, but black facial features and/or hair texture) admixed ancestry, respectively, with the first three necessarily involving a degree of Indigenous ancestry. Ainocos and sararás might have some level of Native ancestry. Ainoco is sometimes replaced by another Japanese derived term known as hafu (meaning "half") or eurasiano ,
10830-588: The Nordic theory , which regarded Nordics as the "master race", superior to all others, including other Aryans (Indo-Europeans). Rosenberg got the racial term Untermensch from the title of Klansman Lothrop Stoddard 's 1922 book The Revolt Against Civilization: The Menace of the Under-man . It was later adopted by the Nazis from that book's German version Der Kulturumsturz: Die Drohung des Untermenschen (1925). Rosenberg
11020-543: The Rhodesian Bush War which was fought by African nationalists , Rhodesian prime minister Ian Smith acceded to biracial political representation in 1978 and the state achieved recognition from the United Kingdom as Zimbabwe in 1980. Nazism promoted the idea of a superior Germanic people or Aryan race in Germany during the early 20th century. Notions of white supremacy and Aryan racial superiority were combined in
11210-636: The Scramble for Africa , Jim Crow laws in the United States, the activities of the Native Land Court in New Zealand, the White Australia policies from the 1890s to the mid-1970s, and apartheid in South Africa. This ideology is also today present among neo-Confederates . White supremacy underlies a spectrum of contemporary movements including white nationalism , white separatism, neo-Nazism , and
11400-746: The Taíno people of Puerto Rico. The term "Amerind" has official status in Guyana. The Canadian Indian Act , first passed in 1876, in defining the rights of people of recognized First Nations, refers to them as "Indians". The responsible federal government department was the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, now Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada , headed by the Minister of Indigenous and Northern Affairs . The Act officially recognizes people commonly known as "Status Indians", although "Registered Indian"
11590-551: The Tribune hit the streets shortly after 3 p.m., and soon, news spread of a potential lynching. By 4 p.m., local authorities were on alert. White residents began congregating at and near the Tulsa County Courthouse. By sunset, around 7:30 p.m., the several hundred white residents assembled outside the courthouse appeared to have the makings of a lynch mob. Willard M. McCullough, the newly elected sheriff of Tulsa County ,
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#173285264821411780-428: The civil rights movement . In an analysis of American history textbooks, she highlights word choices that repetitively "normalize" slavery and the inhumane treatment of black people. She also notes the frequent showcasing of white abolitionists and actual exclusion of black abolitionists and the fact that black Americans had been mobilizing for abolition for centuries before the major white American push for abolition in
11970-950: The dog in the manger has the final right to the manger, though he may have lain there for a very long time. I do not admit that right. I do not admit for instance that a great wrong has been done to the Red Indians of America or the black people of Australia. I do not admit that a wrong has been done to those people by the fact that a stronger race, a higher-grade race or at any rate a more worldly-wise race ... has come in and taken their place." British historian Richard Toye , author of Churchill's Empire , concluded that "Churchill did think that white people were superior." A number of Southern African nations experienced severe racial tension and conflict during global decolonization , particularly as white Africans of European ancestry fought to protect their preferential social and political status. Racial segregation in South Africa began in colonial times under
12160-499: The scapegoating of disenfranchised populations to white superiority. As of 2018, there were over 600 white-supremacist organizations recorded in the U.S. On July 23, 2019, Christopher A. Wray , the head of the FBI , said at a Senate Judiciary Committee hearing that the agency had made around 100 domestic terrorism arrests since October 1, 2018, and that the majority of them were connected in some way with white supremacy. Wray said that
12350-633: The "Native American Party" and were referred to in the press with the capitalized term. In 1918, leaders of the Indigenous Peyote Religion incorporated as the Native American Church of Oklahoma. In 1956, British writer Aldous Huxley wrote to thank a correspondent for "your most interesting letter about the Native American churchmen". The use of Native American or native American to refer to Indigenous peoples who live in
12540-401: The "Nordic peoples" to be a superior race. By the early 19th century, white supremacy was attached to emerging theories of racial hierarchy. The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer attributed cultural primacy to the white race: The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians , are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples,
12730-514: The "purity" of the Nordic or Germanic race. Gobineau's theories, which attracted a strong following in Germany, emphasized the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan or Germanic peoples and Jewish culture. As the Nazi Party 's chief racial theorist, Alfred Rosenberg oversaw the construction of a human racial "ladder" that justified Hitler's racial and ethnic policies . Rosenberg promoted
12920-497: The 16th and 17th centuries, and have more sustained contact with the resident peoples, they understood that the residents were not a homogeneous group sharing a unified culture and government, but discrete societies with their own distinct languages and social systems. Early historical accounts show that some colonists, including Jesuit missionaries in New France, attempted to learn and record the autonyms of these individual groups, but
13110-421: The 1850s, a group of Anglo-Saxon Protestant Americans used the capitalized term Native Americans to differentiate themselves from recent Irish and German immigrants, both of which groups were predominantly Catholic. The group later formed the " Know-Nothings ", a 19th-century political party that opposed immigration to the United States , a policy known as nativism . The Know-Nothings also called themselves
13300-484: The 1940s, became minority views within the white community by the mid-1970s, and continued to decline in 1990s' polls to a single-digit percentage. For sociologist Howard Winant , these shifts marked the end of "monolithic white supremacy" in the United States. After the mid-1960s, white supremacy remained an important ideology to the American far-right . According to Kathleen Belew , a historian of race and racism in
13490-414: The 19th century, Geography lessons contained teachings on a fixed racial hierarchy, which white people topped. Mills (1994) writes that history as it is taught is really the history of white people, and it is taught in a way that favors white Americans and white people in general. He states that the language used to tell history minimizes the violent acts committed by white people over the centuries, citing
13680-448: The 19th century, black Americans were consistently portrayed as lazy, immature, and intellectually and morally inferior to white Americans, and in many ways not deserving of equal participation in U.S. society. For example, a math problem in a 19th-century textbook read, "If 5 white men can do as much work as 7 negroes..." implying that white men are more industrious and competent than black men (p. 99). In addition, little to nothing
13870-584: The 19th century, with white supremacists maintaining the belief that white people were members of an Aryan " master race " that was superior to other races, particularly the Jews, who were described as the "Semitic race", Slavs , and Gypsies , who they associated with "cultural sterility". Arthur de Gobineau , a French racial theorist and aristocrat, blamed the fall of the ancien régime in France on racial degeneracy caused by racial intermixing, which he argued had destroyed
14060-399: The 19th century. She ultimately asserts the presence of a masternarrative that centers Europe and its associated peoples (white people) in school curriculum, particularly as it pertains to history. She writes that this masternarrative condenses history into only history that is relevant to, and to some extent beneficial for, white Americans. Elson (1964) provides detailed information about
14250-837: The 2012 annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service, the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution , at the time there were 26,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany, including 6,000 neo-Nazis . Fifty-one people died from two consecutive terrorist attacks at the Al Noor Mosque and the Linwood Islamic Centre by an Australian white supremacist carried out on March 15, 2019. The terrorist attacks have been described by Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern as "One of New Zealand's darkest days". On August 27, 2020,
14440-497: The 21-year-old white elevator operator who was on duty. Whether—and to what extent—Rowland and Page knew each other has long been a matter of speculation. The two likely knew each other at least by sight because Rowland would have regularly ridden in Page's elevator on his way to and from the restroom. A clerk at Renberg's, a clothing store on the first floor of the Drexel, heard what sounded like
14630-473: The Afrikaner-run government abolished non-white political representation , and starting that year black people were deprived of South African citizenship. South Africa abolished apartheid in 1991. In Rhodesia a predominantly white government issued its own unilateral declaration of independence from the United Kingdom in 1965 during an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to avoid majority rule. Following
14820-513: The Americas before they were so named. As of 1995, according to the US Census Bureau , 50% of people who identified as Indigenous preferred the term American Indian , 37% preferred Native American , and the remainder preferred other terms or had no preference. According to The American Heritage Dictionary , " Indigenous specifies that something or someone is native rather than coming or being brought in from elsewhere: an indigenous crop;
15010-590: The Americas came into widespread, common use during the civil rights era of the 1960s and 1970s. This term was considered to represent historical fact more accurately (i.e., "Native" cultures predated European colonization). In addition, activists also believed it was free of negative historical connotations that had come to be associated with previous terms. Between 1982 and 1993, most American manuals of style came to agree that "color terms" referring to ethnic groups, such as Black, should be capitalized as proper names, as well as Native American . By 2020, "Indigenous"
15200-530: The Americas have been active in discussions of how they wish to be known. Indigenous people have pressed for the elimination of terms they consider to be obsolete, inaccurate, or racist . During the latter half of the 20th century and the rise of the Red Power movement , the United States government responded by proposing the use of the term "Native American" to recognize the primacy of Indigenous peoples' tenure in
15390-585: The Americas, they called most of the Indigenous people collectively "Indians". The distinct people in the Arctic were called "Eskimos". Eskimo has declined in usage. When discussing broad groups of peoples, naming may be based on shared language, region, or historical relationship, such as Anishinaabeg , Tupi–Guarani -speaking peoples, Pueblo -dwelling peoples, Amazonian tribes , or LDN peoples ( Lakota , Dakota , and Nakota peoples). Although "Indian" has been
15580-666: The Blood Law. To preserve the Aryan or Nordic race , the Nazis introduced the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, which forbade sexual relations and marriages between Germans and Jews, and later between Germans and Romani and Slavs . The Nazis used the Mendelian inheritance theory to argue that social traits were innate, claiming that there was a racial nature associated with certain general traits, such as inventiveness or criminal behavior. According to
15770-459: The Bureau was "aggressively pursuing [domestic terrorism] using both counterterrorism resources and criminal investigative resources and partnering closely with our state and local partners," but said that it was focused on the violence itself and not on its ideological basis. A similar number of arrests had been made for instances of international terrorism. In the past, Wray has said that white supremacy
15960-500: The Greenwood neighborhood. On the morning after the incident, Henry Carmichael, a white detective, and Henry C. Pack, a black patrolman, located Rowland on Greenwood Avenue and detained him. Rowland was initially taken to the Tulsa city jail at the corner of First Street and Main Street. Late that day, Police Commissioner J. M. Adkison said he had received an anonymous telephone call threatening Rowland's life. He ordered Rowland transferred to
16150-611: The Holocaust . Christian Identity is another movement closely tied to white supremacy. Some white supremacists identify themselves as Odinists , although many Odinists reject white supremacy. Some white-supremacist groups, such as the South African Boeremag , conflate elements of Christianity and Odinism. Creativity (formerly known as "The World Church of the Creator") is atheistic and it denounces Christianity and other theistic religions . Aside from this, its ideology
16340-558: The Indian Ocean. The name was adopted by other Spanish and ultimately other Europeans; for centuries the Indigenous peoples of the Americas were collectively called "Indians" in various European languages. This misnomer was perpetuated in place naming; the islands of the Caribbean were named, and are still known as, the West Indies . As European colonists began to settle in the Americas in
16530-412: The Internet has led to a dramatic increase in white-supremacist websites. The Internet provides a venue for open expression of white-supremacist ideas at little social cost because people who post the information are able to remain anonymous. White separatism is a political and social movement that seeks the separation of white people from people of other races and ethnicities . This may include
16720-523: The Inuit, which means 'the people', or singularly, Inuk , which means 'the person', as a result of the 1977 Inuit Circumpolar Conference. Canada's Constitution Act, 1982 , uses "Inuit", as does the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, the national organization that represents the Inuit in Canada. The preferred term in Canada's Central Arctic is Inuinnaq , and in the eastern Canadian Arctic Inuit . The language
16910-565: The Oklahoma Historical Society, some in the mob were deputized by a police officer and instructed to "get a gun and get a nigger". So began a major attack on the African-American community. At around 11 p.m., members of the National Guard unit began to assemble at the armory to organize a plan to subdue the rioters. Several groups were deployed downtown to set up guard at the courthouse, police station, and other public facilities. Members of
17100-538: The Oklahoma National Guard arrived by special train at about 9:15 a.m., with 109 troops from Oklahoma City. Ordered in by the governor, he could not legally act until he had contacted all the appropriate local authorities, including Mayor T. D. Evans , the sheriff, and the police chief. Meanwhile, his troops paused to eat breakfast. Barrett summoned reinforcements from several other Oklahoma cities. Barrett declared martial law at 11:49 a.m., and by noon
17290-611: The Southern Reconstruction era that was the genesis of the Ku Klux Klan. Nazi Germany promulgated white supremacy based on the belief that the Aryan race , or the Germans, were the master race . It was combined with a eugenics programme that aimed for racial hygiene through compulsory sterilization of sick individuals and extermination of Untermenschen ("subhumans"): Slavs , Jews and Romani , which eventually culminated in
17480-455: The United States , white militancy shifted after the Vietnam War from supporting the existing racial order to a more radical position (self-described as " white power " or " white nationalism ") committed to overthrowing the United States government and establishing a white homeland. Such anti-government militia organizations are one of three major strands of violent right-wing movements in
17670-577: The United States, many people who were considered non-white were disenfranchised , barred from government office, and prevented from holding most government jobs well into the second half of the 20th century. Professor Leland T. Saito of the University of Southern California writes: "Throughout the history of the United States, race has been used by whites for legitimizing and creating difference and social, economic and political exclusion." The denial of social and political freedom to minorities continued into
17860-402: The United States, with white-supremacist groups (such as the Ku Klux Klan , neo-Nazi organizations, and racist skinheads ) and a religious fundamentalist movement (such as Christian Identity ) being the other two. Howard Winant writes that, "On the far right the cornerstone of white identity is belief in an ineluctable, unalterable racialized difference between whites and nonwhites." In
18050-483: The Whites to go home, and one said: "they said you told them to come up here." McCullough said "I did not" and a negro said you did tell us to come. Having seen the armed black men, some of the more than 1,000 whites who had been at the courthouse went home for their own guns. Others headed for the National Guard armory at the corner of Sixth Street and Norfolk Avenue, where they planned to arm themselves. The armory contained
18240-486: The above-named peoples. While Athabascans, Haida, Eyak, and Tlingit are American Indians, Inuit, Yupik, and Unangan (Aleut) are not. Likewise, Yupik, Unangan, and Inuit are all district peoples with distinct languages. The term Eskimo was once common, but it is now perceived as derogatory and is being replaced in common use with "Inuit" or individual groups' own names for themselves. As mentioned above, Yupik and Unangan are distinct from Inuit. In addition to being
18430-704: The air. Smoke ascended the sky in thick, black volumes and amid it all, the planes—now a dozen or more in number—still hummed and darted here and there with the agility of natural birds of the air. Planes circling in midair: They grew in number and hummed, darted, and dipped low. I could hear something like hail falling upon the top of my office building. Down East Archer, I saw the old Mid-Way hotel on fire, burning from its top, and then another and another and another building began to burn from their tops. The sidewalks were literally covered with burning turpentine balls. I knew all too well where they came from, and I knew all too well why every burning building first caught fire from
18620-478: The alt-right and people who have come in from the more traditional neo-Nazi world. We're in a very different world now." David Duke , a former Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan , wrote in 1999 that the Internet was going to create a "chain reaction of racial enlightenment that will shake the world." Daniels documents that racist groups see the Internet as a way to spread their ideologies, influence others and gain supporters. Legal scholar Richard Hasen describes
18810-483: The alt-right in college campus recruitment in 2017, an ironic co-optation because Captain America battled against Nazis in the comics, and was created by Jewish cartoonists. There has been debate whether Winston Churchill , who was voted "the greatest ever Briton" in 2002, was "a racist and white supremacist". In the context of rejecting the Arab wish to stop Jewish immigration to Palestine , he said: I do not admit that
19000-549: The arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate. The eugenicist Madison Grant argued in his 1916 book, The Passing of the Great Race , that the Nordic race had been responsible for most of humanity's great achievements, and that admixture was "race suicide". In this book, Europeans who are not of Germanic origin but have Nordic characteristics such as blonde/red hair and blue/green/gray eyes, were considered to be
19190-410: The black contingent toward Greenwood, with many stopping to loot local stores for additional weapons and ammunition. Along the way, bystanders, many of whom were leaving a movie theater after a show, were caught off guard by the mobs and fled. Panic set in as the white mob began firing on any black people in the crowd. The white mob also shot and killed at least one white man in the confusion. According to
19380-469: The campaign and presidency of Donald Trump , have contributed to an increased activity and interest in white supremacy. Different forms of white supremacy have different conceptions of who is considered white (though the exemplar is generally light-skinned, blond-haired, and blue-eyed — traits most common in northern Europe and that are viewed pseudoscientifically as being traits of an Aryan race ), and not all white-supremacist organizations agree on who
19570-571: The case that they were targeted first only out of convenience—Archer being the first street on Greenwood's side of the Frisco Tracks. Moreover, while the Taylor account seems adamant that this incident occurred before the initial gunfight at the Courthouse (and then "escalated to the Courthouse"), it's still possible that the incident Taylor witnessed was itself simply a product of the rolling gunfight that
19760-458: The city, many middle-class white families who employed black people in their homes as live-in cooks and servants were accosted by white rioters. They demanded the families turn over their employees to be taken to detention centers around the city. Many white families complied, but those who refused were subjected to attacks and vandalism in turn. At around 1 a.m., the white mob began setting fires, mainly in businesses on commercial Archer Street at
19950-493: The concept of preserving genetic purity, and do not focus solely on discrimination based on skin color. The KKK's reasons for supporting racial segregation are not primarily based on religious ideals, but some Klan groups are openly Protestant . The 1915 silent drama film The Birth of a Nation followed the rising racial, economic, political, and geographic tensions leading up to the Emancipation Proclamation and
20140-407: The country. The term has become widespread nationally but only partially accepted by various Indigenous groups. Other naming conventions have been proposed and used, but none is accepted by all Indigenous groups. Typically, each name has a particular audience and political or cultural connotation, and regional usage varies. In Canada, the term " First Nations " is generally used for peoples covered by
20330-487: The courthouse. Throughout the early morning hours, groups of armed white and black men squared off in gunfights. The fighting was concentrated along sections of the Frisco tracks, a dividing line between the black and white commercial districts. A rumor circulated that more black people were coming by train from Muskogee to help with an invasion of Tulsa. At one point, passengers on an incoming train were forced to take cover on
20520-641: The creolized form of Chinook Jargon spoken at the Grand Ronde Agency in Oregon, a distinction is made between siwash and sawash . The accent in the latter is on the second syllable, resembling the French original, and is used in Grand Ronde Jargon meaning "anything native or Indian"; by contrast, they consider siwash to be defamatory. The Chinook Jargon term for a native woman is klootchman , an originally Nootka word adopted in regional English to mean
20710-559: The demographic mix in the U.S. as a result. With 38 U.S. states having banned interracial marriage through anti-miscegenation laws , the last 16 states had such laws in place until 1967 when they were invalidated by the Supreme Court of the United States ' decision in Loving v. Virginia . These mid-century gains had a major impact on white Americans' political views; segregation and white racial superiority, which had been publicly endorsed in
20900-523: The district. Black Americans had created their own businesses and services in this enclave, including several grocers, two newspapers, two movie theaters, nightclubs, and numerous churches. Black professionals, including doctors, dentists, lawyers, and clergy, served the community. During his trip to Tulsa in 1905, Washington encouraged the cooperation, economic independence, and excellence being demonstrated there. Greenwood residents selected their own leaders and raised capital there to support economic growth. In
21090-505: The economic development of Greenwood, and develop a park in memory of the victims of the massacre in Tulsa. The park was dedicated in 2010. Schools in Oklahoma have been required to teach students about the massacre since 2002, and in 2020, the massacre officially became a part of the Oklahoma school curriculum. In 1921, Oklahoma had a racially, socially, and politically tense atmosphere. The territory of northern Oklahoma had been established for
21280-400: The elevator, and as he tried to catch his fall, he grabbed onto the arm of Page, who then screamed. Others suggested that Rowland and Page had a lover's quarrel. The 2001 Oklahoma Commission Final Report notes that it was unusual for both Rowland and Page to be working downtown on Memorial Day when most stores and businesses were closed. But it has been speculated that Rowland was there because
21470-469: The end of 1921, 3,200 of Tulsa's 72,000 residents were Klan members, according to one estimate. In the early 20th century, lynchings were common in Oklahoma as part of a continuing effort to assert and maintain white supremacy . By 1921, at least 31 people, mostly men and boys, had been lynched in the newly formed state; 26 were black. At the same time, black veterans pushed to have their civil rights enforced, believing that they had earned full citizenship as
21660-608: The entire Asian subcontinent region as "India", named ultimately after the Indus River . Columbus carried a passport in Latin from the Spanish monarchs that dispatched him ad partes Indie ("toward the regions of India") on their behalf. When he landed in the Antilles , Columbus referred to the resident peoples he encountered there as "Indians", reflecting his purported belief that he had reached
21850-548: The establishment of a white ethnostate by removing non-whites from existing communities or by forming new communities elsewhere. Most modern researchers do not view white separatism as distinct from white-supremacist beliefs. The Anti-Defamation League defines white separatism as "a form of white supremacy"; the Southern Poverty Law Center defines both white nationalism and white separatism as "ideologies based on white supremacy." Facebook has banned content that
22040-1208: The ethnic groups that have maintained their identity and, to some extent, their original way of life. Less common terms for Indigenous peoples of the Americas include amerindio (in Spanish) and ameríndio (in Portuguese). In most of Latin America there are also large segments of the population with mixed Indigenous and non-Indigenous ancestry, who are largely integrated into mainstream society, and by and large no longer identify themselves with their Indigenous ancestral groups unless they coexist with their ancestral Indigenous nation. Names for such groups include mestizo , zambo and pardo in Spanish, for people with European and Native, African and Native or European and African admixed ancestry respectively, besides castizo for people who are over three-quarters European and around one-fourth Native in ancestry, and caboclo (current) or mameluco (dated), cafuzo , juçara , ainoko / ainoco and sarará in Portuguese, for people of European and Native, Native and African, European, Native and African, East Asian (especially
22230-621: The evidence presented in the report concluding that bombs were in fact dropped from planes during the violence. In 2015, a previously unknown written eyewitness account of the events of May 31, 1921, was discovered and subsequently obtained by the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture . The 10-page typewritten letter was authored by Buck Colbert Franklin , noted Oklahoma attorney and father of John Hope Franklin . Notable quotes include: Lurid flames roared and belched and licked their forked tongues into
22420-506: The exact time and nature of the incident, or incidents, that immediately precipitated the massacre. According to the 2001 Commission, "As the black men were leaving, a white man attempted to disarm a tall, African American World War I veteran. A struggle ensued, and a shot rang out." Then, according to the sheriff, "all hell broke loose." At the end of the exchange of gunfire, 12 people were dead, 10 white and two black. Another firsthand account originates from Eloise Taylor Butler—the daughter of
22610-424: The extent of white-supremacist activity in the country, but nevertheless she and other experts see an increase in the number of hate crimes and amount of white-supremacist violence. In the latest wave of white supremacy, in the age of the Internet, Blee sees the movement as having become primarily a virtual one, in which divisions between groups become blurred: "[A]ll these various groups that get jumbled together as
22800-444: The famed "Peg Leg" Taylor—who was nineteen years old and in Greenwood on that day. According to Eloise's great-granddaughter, who passed on the story that Eloise told her, while "the initial story was that it started at the Courthouse," in fact, "It escalated to the Courthouse. It started like down the street from the Courthouse." This key inciting incident reportedly occurred when a group of around six white men approached and beat down
22990-403: The floor of the train cars, as they had arrived amid crossfire, with the train taking hits on both sides. Small groups of whites made brief forays by car into Greenwood, indiscriminately firing into businesses and residences. They often received return fire. Meanwhile, white rioters threw lighted oil rags into several buildings along Archer Street, igniting them. As unrest spread to other parts of
23180-529: The following year, Tulsa and many other cities continued to establish and enforce segregation for the next three decades. Many servicemen returned to Tulsa following the end of the First World War in 1918. As they tried to re-enter the labor force, social tensions and white supremacist sentiment increased in cities where job competition was fierce. An economic slump in Northeastern Oklahoma increased
23370-531: The forced resettlement of Native Americans from the southeast , some of whom had owned slaves. The slaves were the first black inhabitants of Indian Territory, having been brought in by their native owners. Other areas had received many settlers from the South whose families had been slaveholders before the Civil War . Oklahoma was admitted as a state on November 16, 1907. The newly created state legislature , which had
23560-600: The formation of the Confederate States of America . In an 1890 editorial about Native Americans and the American Indian Wars , author L. Frank Baum wrote: "The Whites, by law of conquest , by justice of civilization, are masters of the American continent, and the best safety of the frontier settlements will be secured by the total annihilation of the few remaining Indians." The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U.S. citizenship to whites only. In some parts of
23750-407: The grating over a window, Bell went outside to confront the crowd of 300 to 400 men. Bell told them that the Guard members inside were armed and prepared to shoot anyone who tried to enter. After this show of force, the crowd withdrew from the armory. At the courthouse, the crowd had swollen to nearly 2,000, many of them now armed. Several local leaders, including Reverend Charles W. Kerr , pastor of
23940-477: The growing crowd out on the street, Sheriff McCullough turned the men away. A few blocks away on Greenwood Avenue, members of the black community gathered to discuss the situation at Gurley's Hotel. Given the recent lynching of Belton, a white man accused of murder, they believed that Rowland was greatly at risk. Many black residents were determined to prevent the crowd from lynching Rowland, but they were divided about tactics. Young World War I veterans prepared for
24130-401: The historic dissemination of simplistic and negative ideas about non-white races. Native Americans, who were subjected to attempts of cultural genocide by the U.S. government through the use of American Indian boarding schools , were characterized as homogenously "cruel," a violent menace toward white Americans, and lacking civilization or societal complexity (p. 74). For example, in
24320-496: The hosting of hate sites online, and encouraging counter-messages. In a 2020 article in The New York Times titled "How White Women Use Themselves as Instruments of Terror", columnist Charles M. Blow wrote: We often like to make white supremacy a testosterone-fueled masculine expression, but it is just as likely to wear heels as a hood. Indeed, untold numbers of lynchings were executed because white women had claimed that
24510-440: The image of Till's body in the casket, one hundred days after his murder Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white person. Sociologist Stephen Klineberg has stated that U.S. immigration laws prior to 1965 clearly "declared that Northern Europeans are a superior subspecies of the white race". The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 opened entry to the U.S. to non-Germanic groups, and significantly altered
24700-607: The immigration of physically unhealthy elements, and simply excludes the immigration of certain races." German praise for America's institutional racism, previously found in Hitler's Mein Kampf , was continuous throughout the early 1930s. Nazi lawyers were advocates of the use of American models. Race-based U.S. citizenship and anti-miscegenation laws directly inspired the Nazis' two principal Nuremberg racial laws —the Citizenship Law and
24890-499: The issues and the struggles of some of the world's colonized peoples", writes Māori educator Linda Tuhiwai Smith . "The final 's' in 'Indigenous peoples' ... [is] a way of recognizing that there are real differences between different Indigenous peoples." A rarely used term is to call the North American continent: Turtle Island . Though officially named North America , a number of histories from various countries make reference to
25080-491: The jail to support the sheriff and his deputies in defending Rowland from the mob. Corroborated by ten witnesses, attorney James Luther submitted to the grand jury that they were following the orders of Sheriff McCullough, who publicly denied he gave any orders: I saw a car full of negroes driving through the streets with guns; I saw Bill McCullough and told him those negroes would cause trouble; McCullough tried to talk to them, and they got out and stood in single file. W. G. Daggs
25270-400: The latter term involving people of European and Asian mixed ancestry, particularly East Asian. In some Spanish-speaking countries, there are also Ladinos who do not have significant European ancestry, but have adopted the culture of the dominant non-Indigenous population. In Brazil, however, assimilated Indigenous people are called caboclos (itself a subset of pardos , or brown people),
25460-404: The level of unemployment. The Civil War, which ended in 1865, was still in living memory; civil rights for African Americans were lacking. The Ku Klux Klan was resurgent (influenced by the popular 1915 film The Birth of a Nation ). Since 1915, the Ku Klux Klan had been growing in urban chapters across the country. Its first significant appearance in Oklahoma occurred on August 12, 1921. By
25650-609: The local chapter of the American Legion joined in on patrols of the streets. The forces appeared to have been deployed to protect the white districts adjacent to Greenwood. The National Guard rounded up numerous black people and took them to the Convention Hall on Brady Street for detention. At around midnight, a small crowd of whites assembled outside the courthouse. Members of the crowd were heard yelling expletives and calling for Rowland to be lynched, but ultimately did not storm
25840-422: The mid-20th century, resulting in the civil rights movement . The movement was spurred by the lynching of Emmett Till , a 14-year-old boy. David Jackson writes it was the image of the "murdered child's ravaged body, that forced the world to reckon with the brutality of American racism ." Vann R. Newkirk II wrote "the trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of white supremacy." Moved by
26030-663: The more recently adopted "Native American". In the late 20th century, some etymologists suggested that the origin of the term was not from a confusion with India, but from the Spanish expression En Dios , meaning "in God", or a similar one in Italian. David Wilton notes in Word Myths: Debunking Linguistic Urban Legends that this phrase does not appear in any of Columbus' writing. Wilton says that many European languages since Greek and Roman times used variations of
26220-573: The more secure jail on the top floor of the Tulsa County Courthouse. Rowland was well-known among attorneys and other legal professionals within the city, many of whom knew him through his work as a shoeshiner. Some witnesses later recounted hearing several attorneys defend Rowland in their conversations with one another. One of the men said, "Why, I know that boy, and have known him a good while. That's not in him." The Tulsa Tribune , owned, published, and edited by Richard Lloyd Jones , and one of two white-owned papers that were published in Tulsa, broke
26410-442: The morning of June 1, at least "a dozen or more" planes circled the neighborhood and dropped "burning turpentine balls" on an office building, a hotel, a filling (gas) station, and multiple other buildings. Men also fired rifles at black residents, gunning them down in the street. Richard S. Warner concluded in his submission to The Oklahoma Commission that contrary to later reports by claimed eyewitnesses of seeing explosions, there
26600-537: The most common collective name, many English exonyms have been used to refer to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas (also known as the New World ), who were resident within their own territories when European colonists arrived in the 15th and 16th centuries. Some of these names were based on French , Spanish , or other European language terminology used by earlier explorers and colonists, many of which were derived from
26790-402: The myth of a continent existing atop a turtle's back. Though not present across all nations and countries, this symbolism and icon has spread to become nearly pan-Indigenous. As Europeans, Asians and Africans have terms that allude to their home continents, "Turtle Islander" is an attempt to do just that. In some situations, the term " Indian princess " is considered offensive. There is also
26980-478: The names that tribes called each other. Some resulted from the colonists' attempt to translate endonyms from the native language into their own, or to transliterate by sound. In addition, some names or terms were pejorative, arising from prejudice and fear, during periods of conflict (such as the American Indian Wars ) between the cultures involved. In the 20th and 21st centuries, there has been greater awareness among non-Indigenous peoples that Indigenous peoples in
27170-437: The nearby Curtiss-Southwest Field outside Tulsa. Law enforcement officials later said that the planes were to provide reconnaissance and protect against a "Negro uprising". Law enforcement personnel were thought to be aboard at least some flights. Eyewitness accounts, such as testimony from the survivors during Commission hearings and a manuscript by eyewitness and attorney Buck Colbert Franklin , discovered in 2015, said that on
27360-471: The next morning, killing men and burning and looting stores and homes. Around noon on June 1, the Oklahoma National Guard imposed martial law , ending the massacre. About 10,000 black people were left homeless, and the cost of the property damage amounted to more than $ 1.5 million in real estate and $ 750,000 in personal property (equivalent to $ 38.43 million in 2023). By the end of 1922, most of
27550-422: The old man attempted to disarm him. A gunshot went off, and then, according to the sheriff's reports, "all hell broke loose." The two groups shot at each other until midnight when the group of black men were greatly outnumbered and forced to retreat to Greenwood. At the end of the exchange of gunfire, 12 people were dead, 10 white and 2 black. Alternatively, another eyewitness account was that the shooting began "down
27740-553: The old trade language of the Pacific Northwest, uses siwash (an adaptation of the French sauvage ) for "Indian", "Native American", or "First Nations", either as adjective or noun. While normally meaning a male native, it is used in certain combinations, such as siwash cosho ("a seal", literally "Indian pig" or "Indian pork"). Many native communities perceive the terms sauvage and siwash negatively, but others use it freely. They consider use by non-natives to be derogatory. In
27930-537: The paper have apparently been destroyed, and the relevant page is missing from the microfilm copy. The Tulsa Race Riot Commission in 1997 offered a reward for a copy of the editorial, which went unclaimed. A copy of the Tulsa Tribune of 1 June 1921 was found: on the front page was an article headlined "Nab Negro for attacking girl in an Elevator" [right]. The editorial page was also found: it did not have an article headlined "To Lynch A Negro Tonight". Other newspapers of
28120-504: The passage of the federal Voting Rights Act of 1965 . Major cities passed laws that imposed additional restrictions. On August 4, 1916, Tulsa passed an ordinance that mandated residential segregation by forbidding members of either race from residing on any block where three-quarters or more of the residents were members of the other race . Although the United States Supreme Court declared such an ordinance unconstitutional
28310-610: The public domain" and intensified the New Zealand head tax . In 1921, Massey wrote in the Evening Post : "New Zealanders are probably the purest Anglo-Saxon population in the British Empire. Nature intended New Zealand to be a white man's country, and it must be kept as such. The strain of Polynesian will be no detriment". This is one of many quotes attributed to him regarded as being openly racist. Supporters of Nordicism consider
28500-407: The residents' homes had been rebuilt, but the city and real estate companies refused to compensate them. Many survivors left Tulsa, while residents who chose to stay in the city, regardless of race, largely kept silent about the terror, violence, and resulting losses for decades. The massacre was largely omitted from local, state, and national histories for years. In 1996, 75 years after the massacre,
28690-458: The result of their military service. In what became known as the " Red Summer " of 1919, industrial cities across the Midwest and Northeast experienced severe race riots in which whites attacked black communities, sometimes with the assistance of local authorities. As a booming oil city, Tulsa also supported a large number of affluent, educated, and professional African American residents. Greenwood
28880-635: The riot as a night watchman. This Land Press reported that previously, Brady led the Tulsa Outrage , the November 7, 1917, tarring and feathering of members of the Industrial Workers of the World —an incident understood to be economically and politically, rather than racially, motivated. Upon sunrise, around 5 a.m., a train whistle sounded (Hirsch said it was a siren). Some rioters believed this sound to be
29070-485: The roof of the courthouse. He disabled the building's elevator and had his remaining men barricade themselves at the top of the stairs with orders to shoot any intruders in sight. The sheriff went outside and tried to talk the crowd into going home, but to no avail. According to an account by Scott Ellsworth, the sheriff was "hooted down". At about 8:20 p.m., three white men entered the courthouse, demanding that Rowland be turned over to them. Although vastly outnumbered by
29260-573: The ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmins , the Incas , and the rulers of the South Sea Islands . All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all
29450-439: The same claim, but his reference makes no mention of firefighters. Mary E. Jones Parrish, a survivor of the massacre, gave only praise for the National Guard. Another reference Elsworth gives to support the claim of holding firefighters at gunpoint is only a summary of events in which they suppressed the firing of guns by the rioters and disarmed them of their firearms. Yet another of his references states that they were fired upon by
29640-499: The same curriculum as white Americans because they supposedly were intellectually inferior, and Asian Americans, some of whom were prevented from learning much about their ancestral lands because they were deemed a threat to "American" culture, i.e. white culture, at the turn of the 20th century. With the emergence of Twitter in 2006, and platforms such as Stormfront , which was launched in 1996, an alt-right portal for white supremacists with similar beliefs, both adults and children,
29830-450: The same term used for people of European and Amerindian ancestry who do not have at the same time a white-passing phenotype and a mainstream Brazilian cultural identity—which also means that caboclos are not necessarily mestiços (Portuguese for "mixed-race" in general). During the late 20th century the term "Indigenous peoples" evolved into a political term that refers to ethnic groups with historical ties to groups that existed in
30020-400: The sheer number of attackers, black residents retreated north on Greenwood Avenue to the edge of town. Chaos ensued as terrified residents fled. The rioters shot indiscriminately and killed many along the way. Splitting into small groups, they began breaking into houses and buildings, looting. Several residents later testified the rioters broke into occupied homes and ordered the residents out to
30210-513: The shine parlor where he worked may have been open to draw in some of the parade traffic. While Page had been required to work in order to transport Drexel Building employees and their families to choice parade viewing spots on the building's upper floors. Although the police questioned Page, no written account of her statement has been found, but apparently, she told the police that Rowland had grabbed her arm and nothing more, and would not press charges. The police determined that what happened between
30400-494: The shooter was sentenced to life without parole . In 2016, there was a rise in debate over the appropriateness of the naming of Massey University in Palmerston North after William Massey , whom many historians and critics have described as a white supremacist. Lecturer Steve Elers was a leading proponent of the idea that Massey was an avowed white supremacist, given Massey "made several anti-Chinese racist statements in
30590-494: The southern edge of the Greenwood district. As news traveled among Greenwood residents in the early morning hours, many began to take up arms in defense of their neighborhood, while others began a mass exodus from the city. Throughout the night both sides continued fighting, sometimes only sporadically. As crews from the Tulsa Fire Department arrived to put out fires, they were turned away at gunpoint. Scott Elsworth makes
30780-430: The story in that afternoon's edition with the headline: "Nab Negro for Attacking Girl In an Elevator", describing the alleged incident. According to some witnesses, the same edition of the Tribune included an editorial warning of a potential lynching of Rowland, titled "To Lynch Negro Tonight". The paper was known at the time to have a " sensationalist " style of news writing. Allegedly, all original copies of that issue of
30970-425: The street from the Courthouse" when black business owners came to the defense of a lone black man being attacked by a group of around six white men. It is possible that the eyewitness did not recognize the fact that this incident was occurring as a part of a rolling gunfight that was already underway. As news of the violence spread throughout the city, mob violence exploded. White rioters invaded Greenwood that night and
31160-506: The street, where they could be driven or forced to walk to detention centers. A rumor spread among the rioters that the new Mount Zion Baptist Church was being used as a fortress and armory. Purportedly twenty caskets full of rifles had been delivered to the church, though no evidence was found. Numerous eyewitnesses described airplanes carrying white assailants, who fired rifles and dropped firebombs on buildings, homes, and fleeing families. The privately owned aircraft had been dispatched from
31350-462: The surrounding areas of northeastern Oklahoma, they also enjoyed relative prosperity and participated in the oil boom. On May 30, 1921, 19-year-old Dick Rowland , a black shoeshiner who was employed at a Main Street shine parlor, entered the only elevator in the nearby Drexel Building at 319 South Main Street in order to use the top-floor "colored" restroom, which his employer had arranged for use by his black employees. There, he encountered Sarah Page,
31540-470: The term white supremacist . Dobratz and Shanks-Meile reported that adherents usually reject marriage "outside the white race" . They argued for the existence of "a distinction between the white supremacist's desire to dominate (as in apartheid , slavery , or segregation ) and complete separation by race". They argued that this is a matter of pragmatism, because, while many white supremacists are also white separatists, contemporary white separatists reject
31730-485: The term "Indian band". Elder Sol Sanderson says that he coined the term in the early 1980s. Others state that the term came into common usage in the 1970s to avoid using the word "Indian", which some people considered offensive. Apparently, no legal definition of the term exists. However, the Assembly of First Nations , the national advocacy group for First Nations peoples, adopted the term in 1985. The singular commonly used
31920-515: The term "Indian" to describe the peoples of the Indian subcontinent, more than a millennium before the voyages of Columbus. Objections to the usage of "Indian" and "American Indian" include the fact that "Indian" arose from a historical error, and does not accurately reflect the origin of the people to whom it refers. In addition, some feel that the term has so absorbed negative and demeaning connotations through its historical usage as to render it objectionable in context. Additionally, "American Indian"
32110-649: The term "aboriginal" (but not aborigine) came into use in the Canadian Constitution Act, 1982. " Alaska Native " refers to the Indigenous peoples in Alaska , including the Aleut , Athabascan , Haida , Inuit ( Inupiat ), Tlingit , Yup'ik ( Cup'ik , Alutiiq , etc.),and Yupik peoples . The term predominates because of its legal use in the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act , and includes all
32300-454: The terms "Indian" and "American Indian" argue that they have been in use for such a long time that many people have become accustomed to them and no longer consider them exonyms . Both terms are still widely used today. "American Indian" appears often in treaties between the United States and the Indigenous peoples with whom they have been negotiating since the colonial period, and many federal, state, and local laws also use it. "American Indian"
32490-543: The time like The Black Dispatch and the Tulsa World did not call attention to any such editorial after the event. So, the exact content of the column—and whether or not it existed at all—remains in dispute. However, Chief of Detectives James Patton attributed the cause of the riots entirely to the newspaper account and stated, "If the facts in the story as told the police had only been printed I do not think there would have been any riot whatsoever." The afternoon edition of
32680-508: The top. I paused and waited for an opportune time to escape. 'Where oh where is our splendid fire department with its half dozen stations?' I asked myself, 'Is the city in conspiracy with the mob?' Franklin reports seeing multiple machine guns firing at night and hearing "thousands and thousands of guns" being fired simultaneously from all directions. He states that he was arrested by "a thousand boys, it seemed,... firing their guns every step they took." Adjutant General Charles F. Barrett of
32870-570: The troops had managed to suppress most of the remaining violence. Thousands of black residents had fled the city; another 4,000 people had been rounded up and detained at various centers. Under martial law, the detainees were required to carry identification cards. As many as 6,000 Greenwood residents were interned at three local facilities: Convention Hall (now known as the Tulsa Theater ), the Tulsa County Fairgrounds (then located about
33060-404: The two individuals was less than an assault. They conducted a low-key investigation rather than launching a man-hunt for her alleged assailant. Regardless of whether or not assault had occurred, Rowland had reason to be fearful, as African American men accused of raping white women were often prime targets for lynch mobs. Realizing the gravity of the situation, Rowland fled to his mother's house in
33250-482: The use of the general term "Indian" persisted. In 1968, the American Indian Movement (AIM) was founded in the United States. In 1977, a delegation from the International Indian Treaty Council , an arm of AIM, elected to collectively identify as "American Indian", at the United Nations Conference on Indians in the Americas in Geneva , Switzerland. Some Indigenous activists and public figures, such as Russell Means ( Oglala Lakota ), have preferred "American Indian" to
33440-426: The use of the words, for example, "discovery," "colonization," and " New World " when describing what was ultimately a European conquest of the Western Hemisphere and its indigenous peoples . Swartz (1992) seconds this reading of modern history narratives when it comes to the experiences, resistances, and accomplishments of black Americans throughout the Middle Passage , slavery , Reconstruction , Jim Crow , and
33630-409: The very beginning." The 2001 Commission itself does note that "African American homes and businesses along Archer were the first targets" of the white mob's arson. These could possibly be the same shops "down the street from the Courthouse" where this inciting incident reportedly took place, and it establishes an immediate motive for those particular shops being targeted first. Of course, it may simply be
33820-535: The view of philosopher Jason Stanley , white supremacy in the United States is an example of the fascist politics of hierarchy, in that it "demands and implies a perpetual hierarchy" in which whites dominate and control non-whites. The presidential campaign of Donald Trump led to a surge of interest in white supremacy and white nationalism in the United States, bringing increased media attention and new members to their movement; his campaign enjoyed their widespread support. Some academics argue that outcomes from
34010-401: The view that returning to a system of segregation is possible or desirable in the United States. The term white supremacy is used in some academic studies of racial power to denote a system of structural or societal racism which privileges white people over others, regardless of the presence or the absence of racial hatred. According to this definition, white racial advantages occur at both
34200-435: The white mob, "It would mean a fireman's life to turn a stream of water on one of those negro buildings. They shot at us all morning when we were trying to do something but none of my men was hit. There is not a chance in the world to get through that mob into the negro district." By 4 a.m., an estimated two dozen black-owned businesses had been set ablaze. Tulsa co-founder and Ku Klux Klan member W. Tate Brady participated in
34390-460: Was a district in Tulsa that was organized in 1906 following Booker T. Washington 's 1905 tour of Arkansas , Indian Territory , and Oklahoma. It was a namesake of the Greenwood District, which Washington had established as his own district in Tuskegee, Alabama , five years earlier. Greenwood became so prosperous that it came to be known as "the Negro Wall Street" (now commonly referred to as "the Black Wall Street"). Most black people lived together in
34580-404: Was a key justification for European colonialism . As a political ideology , it imposes and maintains cultural, social , political , historical or institutional domination by white people and non-white supporters. In the past, this ideology had been put into effect through socioeconomic and legal structures such as the Atlantic slave trade , European colonial labor and social practices,
34770-416: Was a significant and "pervasive" threat to the U.S. On September 20, 2019, the acting Secretary of Homeland Security , Kevin McAleenan , announced his department's revised strategy for counter-terrorism, which included a new emphasis on the dangers inherent in the white-supremacy movement. McAleenan called white supremacy one of the most "potent ideologies" behind domestic terrorism-related violent acts. In
34960-419: Was also included in these capitalization guidelines. Other objections to Native American —whether capitalized or not—include a concern that it is often understood to exclude American groups outside the contiguous United States (e.g., Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico), and Indigenous groups in South America, Mexico, and Canada. The word American is sometimes questioned because the people referred to resided in
35150-495: Was determined to avoid events such as the 1920 lynching of white murder suspect Roy Belton in Tulsa, which had occurred during the term of his predecessor. The sheriff took steps to ensure Rowland's safety. McCullough organized his deputies into a defensive formation around Rowland, who was terrified. The Guthrie Daily Leader reported that Rowland had been taken to the county jail before crowds started to gather. The sheriff positioned six of his men, armed with rifles and shotguns, on
35340-440: Was killed near Boulder and Sixth street. I was under the impression that a man with authority could have stopped and disarmed them. I saw Chief of Police on south side of courthouse on top step, talking; I did not see any officer except the Chief; I walked in the court house and met McCullough in about 15 feet of his door; I told him these negroes were going to make trouble, and he said he had told them to go home; he went out and told
35530-596: Was no reliable evidence to support such attacks. Warner noted that while a number of newspapers targeted at black readers heavily reported the use of nitroglycerin , turpentine, and rifles from the planes, many cited anonymous sources or second-hand accounts. Beryl Ford, one of the pre-eminent historians of the disaster, concluded from his large collection of photographs that there was no evidence of any building damaged by explosions. Danney Goble commended Warner on his efforts and supported his conclusions. State representative Don Ross (born in Tulsa in 1941), however, dissented from
35720-399: Was provided in which they were given a way to connect. Jessie Daniels, of CUNY-Hunter College , discussed the emergence of other social media outlets such as 4chan and Reddit , which meant that the "spread of white nationalist symbols and ideas could be accelerated and amplified." Sociologist Kathleen Blee notes that the anonymity which the Internet provides can make it difficult to track
35910-401: Was taught about black Americans' contributions, or their histories before being brought to U.S. soil as slaves. According to Wayne (1972), this approach was taken especially much after the Civil War to maintain whites' hegemony over emancipated black Americans. Other racial groups have received oppressive treatment, including Mexican Americans , who temporarily were prevented from learning
36100-515: Was the leading Nazi who attributed the concept of the East-European "under man" to Stoddard. An advocate of the U.S. immigration laws that favored Northern Europeans, Stoddard wrote primarily on the alleged dangers posed by " colored " peoples to white civilization, and wrote The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy in 1920. In establishing a restrictive entry system for Germany in 1925, Hitler wrote of his admiration for America's immigration laws: "The American Union categorically refuses
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