Misplaced Pages

#526473

101-667: The name of the period derives from the tulip craze among the Ottoman court society. Cultivating this culturally ambiguous emblem had become a celebrated practice. The Tulip Period illustrated the conflicts brought by early modern consumer culture . During this period the elite and high-class society of the Ottoman period had established an immense fondness for the tulip, which were utilized in various occasions. Tulips defined nobility and privilege, both in terms of goods and leisure time. The Tulip Period, an era of relative peace and prosperity, saw

202-441: A ghazal : Yok bu şehr içre senin vasfetdiğin dilber Nedîm Bir perî sûret görünmüş bir hayâl olmuş sana [O] Nedim; the beauty you praise, they don't exist in this city, A fairy-face has become your visions, your daydream. Gültekin argues, using this line as well as the rest of the ghazal , that this is a criticism of the idealized beloved present in much of Ottoman poetry and that Nedim states, in satirical fashion, that

303-459: A common element of steppe and winter-rain Mediterranean vegetation . They thrive in climates with long, cool springs and dry summers. Tulips are most commonly found in meadows , steppes and chaparral , but also introduced in fields, orchards, roadsides and abandoned gardens. Botrytis tulipae is a major fungal disease affecting tulips, causing cell death and eventually the rotting of

404-691: A great affinity with these nights, describing them as "assemblies that Alexander could not have imagined in his dreams". In his qasidas, lively descriptions of Ramadan days are interspersed with praises for the architecture of Sa'd-âbâd , which he portrays as "the highest level of paradise". Meanwhile, locations such as the Hippodrome , Eyüp , Üsküdar , Kasr-ı Cinân, Çeşme-i Nur, Cetvel-i Sim, Nev-Peyda, Hayr-âbâd, Ferkadan and Cesr-i Sürur are repeatedly praised in his poems, specifically in his Ode to Sa'd-âbâd ( Sa'd-âbâd Kasîdesi ). Along with his qasidas, he seems to have noted down features and scenes from

505-574: A handsome [young] man, What a torment you are! I do not know whether you are young woman or a young man, [O] infidel! Despite this, not all scholars of Nedîm agree that he had satirical intent. Avşar argues that the "daydream" poem reflects Nedîm's pessimism, on how worldly pleasures can never truly mend his pains, and how the love that could do such a thing is purely imaginary. Avşar further argues that what could easily be perceived as satire of poetic tradition, can also be interpreted as an emotional outcry or even subtle political criticism, principally of

606-538: A narcissus. Carolus Clusius is largely responsible for the spread of tulip bulbs in the final years of the 16th century; he planted tulips at the Vienna Imperial Botanical Gardens in 1573. He finished the first major work on tulips in 1592 and made note of the colour variations. After he was appointed the director of the Leiden University 's newly established Hortus Botanicus , he planted both

707-433: A person of such standards can not be found in all of Constantinople . Earlier in the same ghazal, he mentions the process of a rolling mill to describe how his beloved came to be made, which Gültekin purports to be humorous criticism of how unachievable the body standards mentioned in traditional poetry would have been. Other poems of his, such as the so-called "infidel" poem, generally read as Nedîm describing his love for

808-401: A person whose gender he can not figure out, could, according to Gültekin, also be related back to his criticism of gender ambiguity in traditional Ottoman poetry. The lines in which this is most obvious is the following: Kız oğlan nâzı nâzın şehlevend âvâzı âvâzın Belâsın ben de bilmem kız mısın oğlan mısın kâfir Your coquetry is the coquetry of a young woman, your voice the voice of

909-421: A pioneering work in this sense, influencing later poets such as Enderunlu Fazıl . His writing style, often described as "joyful" and "melodious", was aimed at bridging the gap between folk and art literature; adopting the prose register of Ottoman Turkish, referring to beloveds in concrete, clear terms, and using a relatively narrow, local vocabulary. He was, according to Mazıoğlu, the "primary representative of

1010-524: A private gardener by clipping the stem and flower of an individual specimen. Commercial growers usually harvest the tulip bulbs in late summer and grade them into sizes; bulbs large enough to flower are sorted and sold, while smaller bulbs are sorted into sizes and replanted for sale in the future. Because tulip bulbs don't reliably come back every year, tulip varieties that fall out of favour with present aesthetic values have traditionally gone extinct. Unlike other flowers that do not suffer this same limitation,

1111-616: A prolific author of interfaith love poems. According to Kappler, the "infidel" lover in Nedîm's poetry (and Ottoman poetry in general) represents some level of paradoxical incompatibility between lover and beloved, and the idea that cultural, religious and sexual diversity is necessary for a "perfect" human relationship. Therefore, the "infidel" stands both for the attractiveness of the beloved and their unreachability. Kappler gives this as an example: Hâl kafir zülf kâfir çeşm kafir el-amân Ser-be-ser iklîm-i hüsnün kâfiristân oldı hep The mole

SECTION 10

#1732844705527

1212-558: A range of different, and sometimes contradictory ways. According to H. A. R. Gibb , for instance, Nedîm's school of poetry could have been described as a local, vernacular style of lyric poetry that makes use of "realistic descriptions of women", with a worldly focus and a lack of interest in Sufi mysticism . However, these older descriptions have faced criticism, notably by Stephen Murray and others, for being shaped by certain ideological and cultural forces. The early 18th century, defined by

1313-537: A rebirth of Ottoman art and architecture (see Tulip Period architecture ). During this period, Ottoman public buildings incorporated, for the first time, elements of western European designs, leading to the foundation of Ottoman Baroque architecture in the following decade. Under the guidance of Sultan Ahmed III 's son-in-law, Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha , the Ottoman Empire embarked on new policies and programs during this period, which established

1414-835: A single terminal flower, or when pluriflor as two to three (e.g. Tulipa turkestanica ), but up to four, flowers on the end of a floriferous stem ( scape ), which is single arising from amongst the basal leaf rosette. In structure, the flower is generally cup or star-shaped. As with other members of Liliaceae the perianth is undifferentiated ( perigonium ) and biseriate (two whorled ), formed from six free (i.e. apotepalous ) caducous tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts ( trimerous ) each. The two whorls represent three petals and three sepals but are termed tepals because they are nearly identical. The tepals are usually petaloid (petal-like), being brightly coloured, but each whorl may be different, or have different coloured blotches at their bases, forming darker colouration on

1515-755: A teaching garden and his private garden with tulips in late 1593. Thus, 1594 is considered the date of the tulip's first flowering in the Netherlands, despite reports of the cultivation of tulips in private gardens in Antwerp and Amsterdam two or three decades earlier. These tulips at Leiden would eventually lead to both the tulip mania and the tulip industry in the Netherlands. Over two raids, in 1596 and in 1598, more than one hundred bulbs were stolen from his garden. Tulips spread rapidly across Europe, and more opulent varieties such as double tulips were already known in Europe by

1616-535: A used wine-glass. There have also been researchers, such as Muhsin Macit, who have characterized Nedîm's poetic style as less an innovation and more a synthesis of earlier avant-garde tendencies, which until then had not become widespread. Indeed, it is known that Nedîm had admired the poetry of earlier Diwan poets, such as Fuzûlî , Nef‘î , Bâkî , Yahyâ, Nev‘îzâde Atâî and Azmîzâde Mustafa Hâletî. However, Macit does accept that his lack of symbolism when referring to lovers

1717-597: A wide variety of colours, black tulips have historically been difficult to achieve. The Queen of the Night tulip is as close to black as a flower gets, though it is, in fact, a dark and glossy maroonish purple. The first truly black tulip was bred in 1986 by a Dutch flower grower in Bovenkarspel, Netherlands. The specimen was created by cross-breeding two deep purple tulips, the Queen of the Night and Wienerwald tulips. The tulip's fruit

1818-417: A year or more of growth before plants are large enough to flower. Tulips grown from seeds often need five to eight years before plants are of flowering size. To prevent cross-pollination, increase the growth rate of bulbs and increase the vigour and size of offsets, the flower and stems of a field of commercial tulips are usually topped using large tractor-mounted mowing heads. The same goals can be achieved by

1919-515: Is a genus of the lily family, Liliaceae , once one of the largest families of monocots , but which molecular phylogenetics has reduced to a monophyletic grouping with only 15 genera. Within Liliaceae, Tulipa is placed within Lilioideae , one of three subfamilies, with two tribes . Tribe Lilieae includes seven other genera in addition to Tulipa . The genus, which includes about 75 species ,

2020-556: Is a globose or ellipsoid capsule with a leathery covering and an ellipsoid to globe shape. Each capsule contains numerous flat, disc-shaped seeds in two rows per chamber. These light to dark brown seeds have very thin seed coats and endosperm that do not normally fill the entire seed. Tulipanin is an anthocyanin found in tulips. It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin . The chemical compounds named tuliposides and tulipalins can also be found in tulips and are responsible for allergies. Tulipalin A, or α-methylene-γ-butyrolactone,

2121-458: Is a common allergen , generated by hydrolysis of the glucoside tuliposide A. It induces a dermatitis that is mostly occupational and affects tulip bulb sorters and florists who cut the stems and leaves. Tulipanin A and B are toxic to horses, cats and dogs. The colour of a tulip is formed from two pigments working in concert; a base colour that is always yellow or white, and a second laid-on anthocyanin colour. The mix of these two hues determines

SECTION 20

#1732844705527

2222-552: Is almost certainly new. Nedîm is well known for his praise of Constantinopolitan architecture, which Mehmet Kaplan suggests to be his most prominent aspect. Many authors, including Kortantamer, single out his praise of Constantinople as one of his most innovative facets, which Nilüfer Karadavut describes it as realist ; praising his ability to depict a real city in poetic form. Nevertheless, Karadavut also points out that his depiction of Constantinople frequently engages in symbolism and hyperbole more typical of Ottoman poets, which

2323-513: Is divided into four subgenera . The word tulip , first mentioned in western Europe in or around 1554 and seemingly derived from the "Turkish Letters" of diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq , first appeared in English as tulipa or tulipant , entering the language by way of French: tulipe and its obsolete form tulipan or by way of Modern Latin tulipa , from Ottoman Turkish tülbend (" muslin " or " gauze "), and may be ultimately derived from

2424-556: Is infidel, the curl is infidel, the eye is infidel, alas! From end to end the country of your beauty has become the land of the infidels! While there is wide consensus that Nedîm's focus was not on Sufism or philosophy , there is dispute on his religiosity and philosophical beliefs. It is known that he did want to join a tariqa at one point, however most dispute that he was a member. Some researchers, including Gölpınarlı, suggest that his religious beliefs might not have been fully genuine. Others, such as Muhsin Macit, have pointed out

2525-834: Is not mentioned by any writer from antiquity, therefore it seems probable that tulips were introduced into Anatolia only with the advance of the Seljuks . In the Ottoman Empire , numerous types of tulips were cultivated and bred, and today, 14 species can still be found in Turkey. Tulips are mentioned by Omar Kayam and Jalāl ad-Dīn Rûmi . Species of tulips in Turkey typically come in red, less commonly in white or yellow. The Ottoman Turks had discovered that these wild tulips were great changelings, freely hybridizing (though it takes 7 years to show colour) but also subject to mutations that produced spontaneous changes in form and colour. A paper by Arthur Baker reports that in 1574, Sultan Selim II ordered

2626-481: Is obvious, it doesn't need my name, The writers of our city can recognize it as mine. During these years, Nedîm was noted as an accomplished teacher, being invited to huzur sessions in Ramadan for his knowledge on Islamic matters, while also being highly productive; climbing through the ranks of Ottoman bureaucracy in various fields: as a scholar, chief librarian, translator of historical works, naîb (an assistant to

2727-463: Is seen in these lines: Bu şehr-i Stanbul ki bî-misl ü bahâdır Bir sengine yek-pâre Acem mülkü fedadır [O], city of Istanbul, priceless and peerless! I would sacrifice all of Persia for one of your stones! His interest in architecture is likely because of his participation in state gatherings, and so-called " halva nights", where the state bureaucracy would spend time together in major locations around Constantinople . He seems to have had

2828-433: Is thought to be derived from a Persian word for turban , which it may have been thought to resemble by those who discovered it. Tulips were originally found in a band stretching from Southern Europe to Central Asia, but since the seventeenth century have become widely naturalised and cultivated ( see map ). In their natural state, they are adapted to steppes and mountainous areas with temperate climates . Flowering in

2929-685: Is unknown who first brought the tulip to Northwestern Europe, the most widely accepted story is that it was Oghier Ghislain de Busbecq , an ambassador for Emperor Ferdinand I to Suleyman the Magnificent . According to a letter, he saw "an abundance of flowers everywhere; Narcissus , hyacinths and those in Turkish called Lale, much to our astonishment because it was almost midwinter, a season unfriendly to flowers." However, in 1559, an account by Conrad Gessner describes tulips flowering in Augsburg , Swabia in

3030-620: Is unknown, it is known that Nedîm had already started to publish poetry by this time. Despite this, he continued to work as a teacher and scholar, in schools such as the Molla Kırîmî, Nişancı Pasha-yı Atîk , and Sekban Ali Pasha madrasas , eventually becoming a leading scholar in the Sahn-ı Seman Madrasas while teaching various subjects until his death in 1730. While his first poems were most probably published before this, Nedîm's more traditional qasidas had become quite well known by

3131-537: The kadı ), and, later, the sultan's nedîm (lit. companion); all while continuing to write poetry. Nedîm's unique lyric style, vernacular vocabulary, and literary innovation had already caught the eye of many observers during this lifetime, including that of noted tezkire author Sâlim, who praised him as the taze-zebân (lit. fresh-tongued) poet of his era. Others, such as occasional poets Râşid and Âsım, embraced his school of poetry by writing tanzîrs ( pastiches ) of his works. Despite this early bout of fame, he

Tulip Period - Misplaced Pages Continue

3232-675: The Baroque style in Europe. An iconic example is the Fountain of Ahmed III built in 1728 in front of Topkapı Palace in Istanbul, one of many fountains and sebils built in this period. In addition to European influences, the architecture of the Tulip Period was also influenced by Safavid art and architecture to the east. The return of the sultan's court to Istanbul – after a period of residence in Edirne in

3333-514: The Golden Horn inlet. The palace grounds included a long marble-lined canal, the Cedval-i Sim , around which were gardens, pavilions, and palace apartments in a landscaped setting. This overall design probably emulated French pleasure palaces, following the descriptions of Paris and Versailles brought to the sultan's court by Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmed Efendi in 1721. In addition to his own palace,

3434-568: The Nâbî school; a school of highly philosophical, almost didactic ghazals . In this environment, which left little space to Nedîm's lyric style, he came to be known as the pioneer of his Nedîmâne school of poetry; emphasizing inventiveness, vernacular diction, and a certain licentiousness . His works suggest that he was aware of the innovative nature of his poetry, as he claims this status in multiple poems: Ma‘lûmdur benim sühanım mahlas istemez Fark eyler onu şehrimizin nüktedânları My word

3535-524: The Ottoman Old Regime and the Tulip period , was a relatively peaceful period in Ottoman history. This environment allowed Ottoman art to enjoy a renaissance; the old musical canon was renewed and partially replaced, architecture took on perceptible European and Safavid influence, and poetry written in a more local, less Persianate Ottoman Turkish flourished. Nedîm's poetry is specifically considered

3636-516: The Persian : دلبند delband (" Turban "), this name being applied because of a perceived resemblance of the shape of a tulip flower to that of a turban. This may have been due to a translation error in early times when it was fashionable in the Ottoman Empire to wear tulips on turbans. The translator possibly confused the flower for the turban. Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq stated that the "Turks" used

3737-715: The Topkapı Sarayı in Istanbul . It is also reported that shortly after arriving in Constantinople in 1554, Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, ambassador of the Austrian Habsburgs to the court of Suleyman the Magnificent, claimed to have introduced the tulip to Europe by sending a consignment of bulbs west. The fact that the tulip's first official trip west took it from one court to the other could have contributed to its ascendency. Sultan Ahmet III maintained famous tulip gardens in

3838-541: The ceramic tulipiere was devised for the display of cut flowers stem by stem. Vases and bouquets, usually including tulips, often appeared in Dutch still-life painting . To this day, tulips are associated with the Netherlands, and the cultivated forms of the tulip are often called "Dutch tulips". The Netherlands has the world's largest permanent display of tulips at the Keukenhof . The majority of tulip cultivars are classified in

3939-420: The ovaries are superior, with three chambers. The "Semper Augustus" was the most expensive tulip during the 17th-century tulip mania . After seeing the tulip in the garden of Dr. Adriaen Pauw, a director of the new East India Company , Nicolas van Wassenaer wrote in 1624 that "The colour is white, with Carmine on a blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top". With limited specimens in existence at

4040-453: The tepals , internally. Because of a degree of variability within the populations and a long history of cultivation, classification has been complex and controversial. The tulip is a member of the lily family , Liliaceae , along with 14 other genera, where it is most closely related to Amana , Erythronium , and Gagea in the tribe Lilieae . There are about 75 species , and these are divided among four subgenera . The name "tulip"

4141-594: The 'Didieri Group' with unicolorous tepals. Tulip bulbs are typically planted around late summer and fall, in well-drained soils. Tulips should be planted 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inches) apart from each other. The recommended hole depth is 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 inches) deep and is measured from the top of the bulb to the surface. Therefore, larger tulip bulbs would require deeper holes. Species of tulips are normally planted deeper. Ned%C3%AEm Ahmed Effendi , better known by his mahlas ( nom de plume ) Nedîm ( Ottoman Turkish : نديم; c.  1681 – 1730),

Tulip Period - Misplaced Pages Continue

4242-523: The American East, white-tailed deer eat tulips, with no apparent ill effects. However, tulips are poisonous to domestic animals e.g. horses, cats, and dogs. Cultivation of the tulip began in Iran ( Persia ), probably in the 10th century. Early cultivars must have emerged from hybridisation in gardens from wild collected plants, which were then favoured, possibly due to flower size or growth vigour. The tulip

4343-631: The Balkans are native, subsequent identification of Tulipa sylvestris subsp. australis as a native of the Iberian peninsula and adjacent North Africa shows that this may be a simplification. In addition to these regions in the west tulips have been identified in Greece, Cyprus and the Balkans . In the south, Iran marks its furthest extent, while the northern limit is Ukraine. Although tulips are also throughout most of

4444-536: The Dutch tulipomania gained their delicately feathered patterns from an infection with the tulip breaking virus , a mosaic virus that was carried by the green peach aphid , Myzus persicae . While the virus produces fantastically streaked flowers, it also weakens plants and reduces the number of offsets produced. Dutch growers would go to extraordinary lengths during tulipomania to make tulips break, borrowing alchemists’ techniques and resorting to sprinkling paint powders of

4545-466: The Dutch. Between 1634 and 1637, the enthusiasm for the new flowers in Holland triggered a speculative frenzy now known as the tulip mania that eventually led to the collapse of the market three years later. Tulip bulbs had become so expensive that they were treated as a form of currency, or rather, as futures, forcing the Dutch government to introduce trading restrictions on the bulbs. Around this time,

4646-610: The Kadi of A‘azāz in Syria to send him 50,000 tulip bulbs. However, John Harvey points out several problems with this source, and there is also the possibility that tulips and hyacinth ( sümbüll ), originally Indian spikenard ( Nardostachys jatamansi ) have been confused. Sultan Selim also imported 300,000 bulbs of Kefe Lale (also known as Cafe-Lale, from the medieval name Kaffa, probably Tulipa schrenkii ) from Kefe in Crimea , for his gardens in

4747-526: The Mediterranean and Europe, these regions do not form part of the natural distribution. Tulips were brought to Europe by travellers and merchants from Anatolia and Central Asia for cultivation, from where they escaped and naturalised ( see map ). For instance, less than half of those species found in Turkey are actually native. These have been referred to as neo-tulipae. Tulips are indigenous to mountainous areas with temperate climates , where they are

4848-457: The Netherlands. The gardening book Revnak'ı Bostan (Beauty of the Garden) by Sahibül Reis ülhaç Ibrahim Ibn ülhaç Mehmet, written in 1660 does not mention the tulip at all, but contains advice on growing hyacinths and lilies . However, there is considerable confusion of terminology, and tulips may have been subsumed under hyacinth, a mistake several European botanists were to perpetuate. In 1515,

4949-521: The Tulip's historical forms do not survive alongside their modern incarnations. In horticulture, tulips are divided into fifteen groups (Divisions) mostly based on flower morphology and plant size. They may also be classified by their flowering season: A number of names are based on naturalised garden tulips and are usually referred to as neo-tulipae. These are often difficult to trace back to their original cultivar, and in some cases have been occurring in

5050-545: The attention of Northern Europeans until the sixteenth century, when Northern European diplomats to the Ottoman court observed and reported on them. They were rapidly introduced into Northern Europe and became a much-sought-after commodity during tulip mania . Tulips were frequently depicted in Dutch Golden Age paintings , and have become associated with the Netherlands , the major producer for world markets, ever since. In

5151-559: The city, and later used them in his chronogram ( tarih ) poems, most of which he wrote for the Grand Vizier of the time, İbrahim Paşa. Ottoman poetic tradition , being an offshoot of Persian poetry , was one that often made use of highly symbolic, ideal beloveds and hopeless, desperate lovers, specifically in its lyrics . This detached attitude seems to have left Nedîm unsatisfied, and some of his most notable works are often identified as satires of this tradition. Nedîm mentions this in

SECTION 50

#1732844705527

5252-609: The colours. Tulip growth is also dependent on temperature conditions. Slightly germinated plants show greater growth if subjected to a period of cool dormancy, known as vernalisation . Furthermore, although flower development is induced at warmer temperatures (20–25 °C or 68–77 °F), elongation of the flower stalk and proper flowering is dependent on an extended period of low temperature (< 10 °C or 50 °F). Tulip bulbs imported to warm-winter areas are often planted in autumn to be treated as annuals. The colour of tulip flowers also varies with growing conditions. In

5353-420: The demand for the inflated value of the rare bulbs and escalating demands for flowers in the elite’s palaces and gardens. Tulip mania demonstrated the state's power to regulate the economy by increasing the prices for bulbs. Courtiers at the time forwarded a petition to denounce the practice of flower sellers, whom they perceived to be taking advantage of the elite by raising the prices of the bulbs. This led to

5454-426: The desired hue or pigeon droppings onto flower roots. Tulips affected by the mosaic virus are called "broken"; while such plants can occasionally revert to a plain or solid colouring, they will remain infected and have to be destroyed. Today the virus is almost eradicated from tulip growers' fields. The multicoloured patterns of modern varieties result from breeding; they normally have solid, un-feathered borders between

5555-718: The early 17th century to c. 1960, is held by Polly Nicholson at Blackland House , near Calne in Wiltshire. It is believed the first tulips in the United States were grown near Spring Pond at the Fay Estate in Lynn and Salem , Massachusetts. From 1847 to 1865, Richard Sullivan Fay, Esq., one of Lynn's wealthiest men, settled on 500 acres (2 km ; 202 ha) located partly in present-day Lynn and partly in present-day Salem. Mr. Fay imported many different trees and plants from all parts of

5656-510: The early 17th century, entire properties were exchanged as payment for a single tulip bulb. The value of the flower gave it an aura of mystique, and numerous publications describing varieties in lavish garden manuals were published, cashing in on the value of the flower. An export business was built up in France, supplying Dutch, Flemish, German and English buyers. The trade drifted slowly from the French to

5757-538: The early 17th century. These curiosities fitted well in an age when natural oddities were cherished especially in the Netherlands, France, Germany and England, where the spice trade with the East Indies had made many people wealthy. Nouveaux riches seeking wealthy displays embraced the exotic plant market, especially in the Low Countries where gardens had become fashionable. A craze for bulbs soon grew in France, where in

5858-602: The eastern shore of the Caspian Sea through Turkmenistan , Bukhara , Samarkand and Tashkent (Uzbekistan), to the eastern end of the range in the Pamir-Alai and Tien-Shan mountains in Central Asia, which form the centre of diversity . Further to the east, Tulipa is found in the western Himalayas , southern Siberia , Inner Mongolia, and as far as the northwest of China. While authorities have stated that no tulips west of

5959-431: The first Ottoman-language printing press during the 1720s, and promoted commerce and industry. The Grand Vizier was concerned with improving trade relations and enhancing commercial revenues, which would help to explain the return to gardens and the more public style of the Ottoman court during this period. The Grand Vizier was himself very fond of tulip bulbs, setting an example for Istanbul’s elite who started to cherish

6060-474: The garden of Councillor Heinrich Herwart. In Central and Northern Europe, tulip bulbs are generally removed from the ground in June and must be replanted by September for the winter. It is doubtful that Busbecq could have had the tulip bulbs harvested, shipped to Germany and replanted between March 1558 and Gessner's description the following year. Pietro Andrea Mattioli illustrated a tulip in 1565 but identified it as

6161-402: The ideals of Ottoman erotic poetry, as erotic desire in his works seem to also be directed towards older men, in stark contrast to the mostly pederastic norms of erotic literature at the time. In a poem, Nedîm mentions how his lover is kissable "from hair to hair"; this, according to Murray, can only be used to refer to an adult male. Homoerotic themes can also be found in his frequent usage of

SECTION 60

#1732844705527

6262-436: The interior surface. The inner petals have a small, delicate cleft at the top, while the sturdier outer ones form uninterrupted ovals. The flowers have six distinct, basifixed introrse stamens arranged in two whorls of three, which vary in length and may be glabrous or hairy. The filaments are shorter than the tepals and dilated towards their base. The style is short or absent and each stigma has three distinct lobes, and

6363-756: The joyous, high-spirited nature of the Tulip period." Despite this, there is wide consensus that there were aspects of Nedîm's poetry which borrow heavily from earlier traditional poetry, especially in his qasida odes and panegyrics, and Ziya Avşar argues that his usual high-spirited style was mainly an artistic choice, rather than being reflective of his state of mind. Tanpınar and Avşar both argue that there are traces of sadness in his poems that are more typical of Ottoman Diwan poems than vernacular Turkish poetry, which Avşar argues to be prominent in these lines: Bir nîm-neşve say bu cihânın bahârını Bir sâgar-ı keşîdeye tut lâle-zârını Assume this world's spring to be half as happy, Assume its flowery [joy] to be

6464-445: The late 17th century – resulted in renewed building activity in the capital. Significant efforts were also made to repair or restore many of the city’s older buildings. Ahmed III’s grand vizier, Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha , was in large part responsible for stimulating this construction and restoration activity. According to scholar Ünver Rüstem, the patronage of Ahmet III’s court in the realm of architecture and culture in this period

6565-447: The most admired breaks of his time. Breeding programmes have produced thousands of hybrid and cultivars in addition to the original species (known in horticulture as botanical tulips). They are popular throughout the world, both as ornamental garden plants and as cut flowers . Tulips are perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes that bloom in spring and die back after flowering to an underground storage bulb. Depending on

6666-422: The phrase serv-i revân (flowing cypress), which is a gendered term in the context of Ottoman poetic tropes, referring almost exclusively to tall men. Due to the empire's cultural and religious diversity, Ottoman poetry often involved "interfaith love", that is, generally, love between a Muslim lover and a dhimmi beloved. Such characterizations are typical of Nedîm, and Matthias Kappler singles out Nedîm as

6767-430: The plains of India, as he did with other plants like melons and grapes. The tulip represents the official symbol of Turkey. In Moorish Andalus , a "Makedonian bulb" ( basal al-maqdunis ) or "bucket- Narcissus " ( naryis qadusi ) was cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens. It was supposed to have come from Alexandria and may have been Tulipa sylvestris , but the identification is not wholly secure. Although it

6868-426: The plant. Other pathogens include anthracnose , bacterial soft rot , blight caused by Sclerotium rolfsii , bulb nematodes , other rots including blue molds , black molds and mushy rot. The fungus Trichoderma viride can infect tulips, producing dried leaf tips and reduced growth, although symptoms are usually mild and only present on bulbs growing in glasshouses . Variegated tulips admired during

6969-522: The poems of Nedîm and in the Zenanname (Book of Women") by Enderûnlu Fâzıl . The tulip was also praised in poetry and motifs used in paintings. To this day in modern Turkey the tulip is still considered the embodiment of perfection and beauty. Turkish Airlines decorates its planes with a painting of a tulip on its fuselage. Tulip prices began to rise in the last decades of the 17th century and peaked in 1726–1727 before state intervention. This reflected

7070-727: The pollen to move several feet to another plant but only within their blossoms." Tulips can be propagated through bulb offsets , seeds or micropropagation . Offsets and tissue culture methods are means of asexual propagation for producing genetic clones of the parent plant, which maintains cultivar genetic integrity. Seeds are most often used to propagate species and subspecies or to create new hybrids . Many tulip species can cross-pollinate with each other, and when wild tulip populations overlap geographically with other tulip species or subspecies, they often hybridise and create mixed populations. Most commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids, and often sterile . Offsets require

7171-447: The process of issuing inventories of flowers and price lists to the judge of Istanbul for enforcement. Tulip Tulips are spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes in the Tulipa genus . Their flowers are usually large, showy, and brightly coloured, generally red, orange, pink, yellow, or white. They often have a different coloured blotch at the base of

7272-494: The roof of his house to avoid a similar fate to that of his grandfather, which eventually led to his fall. Other sources claim that he could have died of tremors, most likely from substance abuse or a disease resembling Parkinson's . Either way, it is known that he remained a scholar at the Sekban Ali Pasha Madrasa up until his last days. Nedim is now generally considered, along with Fuzûlî and Bâkî , to be one of

7373-603: The scholar Qasim from Herat in contrast had identified both wild and garden tulips (lale) as anemones ( shaqayq al-nu'man ) but described the crown imperial as laleh kakli . In a Turkic text written before 1495, the Chagatay Husayn Bayqarah mentions tulips ( lale ). Babur , the founder of the Mughal Empire , also names tulips in the Baburnama . He may actually have introduced them from Afghanistan to

7474-454: The seventeenth-century Netherlands, during the time of the tulip mania, an infection of tulip bulbs by the tulip breaking virus created variegated patterns in the tulip flowers that were much admired and valued. While truly broken tulips are not cultivated anymore, the closest available specimens today are part of the group known as the Rembrandts – so named because Rembrandt painted some of

7575-611: The sheer newness of Nedim's work, much of which was rather radical for its time. Nedîm's works are a diverse collection; consisting of 170 ghazals , 34 şarkıs , 44 qasidas , 88 strophic forms , 3 mathnawis , 11 rubais and 2 koşmas , as well as a few poems of other forms. More traditional poems are also interspersed with works often claimed to be satires of said traditional forms, as well as avant-garde poems in his collection. Because of this diversity, as well as cultural forces such as modernization , nationalism and heteronormativity , Nedîm's poems have been analyzed in

7676-419: The son of Kadı Mehmed Effendi, and a family vested in Ottoman bureaucracy, Nedîm's education is thought to be quite robust, including a variety of sciences, as well as "enough Arabic and Persian to write poetry." Following this education, he passed an examination process led by Shaykh-al Islam Ebezâde Abdullah Effendi, and started work as a scholar in a madrasa . While the exact date of this examination

7777-406: The species, tulip plants can be between 10 and 70 cm (4 and 28 inches) high. Tulip stems have few leaves. Larger species tend to have multiple leaves. Plants typically have two to six leaves, some species up to 12. The tulip's leaf is cauline (born on a stem), strap-shaped, with a waxy coating, and the leaves are alternate (alternately arranged on the stem), diminishing in size the further up

7878-658: The spring, they become dormant in the summer once the flowers and leaves die back, emerging above ground as a shoot from the underground bulb in early spring. Growing wild over much of the Near East and Central Asia, tulips had probably been cultivated in Persia from the 10th century. By the 15th century, tulips were among the most prized flowers; becoming the symbol of the later Ottomans. Tulips were cultivated in Byzantine Constantinople as early as 1055 but they did not come to

7979-421: The start of Ahmed III 's reign in 1703; these had helped him obtain connections with high-ranking officials, such as Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha , who would later offer him patronage , as he considered Nedîm's odes to be superior to other poetry written to his name. Nedîm was, however, better known for the challenge he provided to the literary environment of Constantinople , which by then strongly favored

8080-483: The stem. These fleshy blades are often bluish-green in colour. The bulbs are truncated basally and elongated towards the apex. They are covered by a protective tunic (tunicate) which can be glabrous or hairy inside. The tulip's flowers are usually large and are actinomorphic (radially symmetric) and hermaphrodite (contain both male ( androecium ) and female ( gynoecium ) characteristics), generally erect, or more rarely pendulous , and are arranged more usually as

8181-424: The sultan encouraged members of his court to build their own pavilions along the canal, while the regular inhabitants of Istanbul also used the surrounding area as a recreational ground for excursions and picnics. This was a novel practice in Ottoman culture that brought the public within close proximity of the ruler for the first time. It was often described or illustrated by contemporary art and literature, such as in

8282-456: The summer highland pastures ( Yayla ) at Spil Dağı above the town of Manisa . They seem to have consisted of wild tulips. However, of the 14 tulip species known from Turkey, only four are considered to be of local origin, so wild tulips from Iran and Central Asia may have been brought into Turkey during the Seljuk and especially Ottoman periods. Also, Sultan Ahmet imported domestic tulip bulbs from

8383-472: The taxon Tulipa ×gesneriana . They have usually several species in their direct background, but most have been derived from Tulipa suaveolens (today often regarded as a synonym with Tulipa schrenkii ). Tulipa ×gesneriana is in itself an early hybrid of complex origin and is probably not the same taxon as was described by Conrad Gessner in the 16th century. The UK's National Collection of English florists' tulips and Dutch historic tulips, dating from

8484-547: The three greatest poets in the Ottoman Divan poetry tradition. It was not, however, until relatively recently that he came to be seen as such: in his own time, for instance, the title of reîs-i şâirân (رئيس شاعران), or "leader of poets", was given by Sultan Ahmed III not to Nedim, but to the now relatively obscure poet Osmanzâde Tâib, and several other poets as well were considered superior to Nedim in his own day. This relative lack of recognition may have had something to do with

8585-439: The time and most owned by Pauw, his refusal to sell any flowers, despite wildly escalating offers, is believed by some to have sparked the mania. Tulip flowers come in a wide variety of colours, except pure blue (several tulips with "blue" in the name have a faint violet hue), and have absent nectaries . Tulip flowers are generally bereft of scent and are the coolest of floral characters. While tulips can be bred to display

8686-585: The time. Nedîm (then Ahmed) was born in Constantinople , most likely in 1681. His pre-nomial Mülakkab zâde (lit. descendant of the nicknamed [man]) was given to him as a result of his grandfather Merzifonlu Mülakkab Mustafa Muslihiddin Efendi; a kazasker who was known as a "man of unusual preferences", and was nicknamed as such, before being lynched in front of the Sultan Ahmed Mosque in 1648. As

8787-588: The tulip is a symbol with mythical appeal, which can be found from Ottoman palaces to their clothing, which sustains a memory of the Ottoman Empire’s social past. The tulip can be seen as a romantic monument representing the wealthy and elite, and the fragility of despotic rule. The Tulip Period saw a flowering of arts, culture and architecture. Compared with the earlier classical style of Ottoman architecture, architecture and decoration in this period became more ornate and favoured floral motifs, being influenced by

8888-581: The tulip. Tulips are mainly distributed along a band corresponding to latitude 40° north, from southeast of Europe ( Greece , Albania , North Macedonia , Kosovo , Southern Serbia , Bulgaria , most part of Romania , Ukraine , Russia) and Turkey in the west, through the Levant (Syria, Israel, Palestinian Territories , Lebanon and Jordan) and the Sinai Peninsula . From there it extends eastwards through Jerevan (Armenia), and Baku ( Azerbaijan ) and on

8989-424: The tulip’s endless variety in paint and celebrate its seasonality as well. The Ottoman standard of dress and its commodity culture incorporated their passion for the tulip. Within Istanbul, one could find tulips from the flower markets to the plastic arts to silks and textiles. Tulip bulbs could be found everywhere; the demand grew within the elite community where they could be found in homes and gardens. Therefore,

9090-495: The unsustainability of the Tulip Era , which would ultimately cause the Ottoman Empire to fall behind Western powers in terms of technology around 20 years later. While Ottoman poetry was largely preoccupied by love in a lyric sense, explicitly erotic, and especially homoerotic literature was "far from absent" in the Ottoman Empire. Writers often mentioned erotic details even in the most staid of classical forms, and to this Nedîm

9191-459: The visible unitary colour. The breaking of flowers occurs when a virus suppresses anthocyanin and the base colour is exposed as a streak. The great majority of tulips, both species and cultivars, have no discernable scent, but a few of both are scented to a degree, and Anna Pavord describes T. hungarica as "strongly scented", and among cultivars, some such as "Monte Carlo" and "Brown Sugar" are "scented", and "Creme Upstar" "fragrant". Tulipa

9292-400: The wild for many centuries. The history of naturalisation is unknown, but populations are usually associated with agricultural practices and are possibly linked to saffron cultivation . Some neo-tulipae have been brought into cultivation, and are often offered as botanical tulips. These cultivated plants can be classified into two Cultivar Groups: 'Grengiolensis Group', with picotee tepals, and

9393-432: The word tulipan to describe the flower. Extensive speculation has tried to understand why he would state this, given that the Turkish word for tulip is lale . It is from this speculation that tulipan being a translation error referring to turbans is derived. This etymology has been challenged and makes no assumptions about possible errors. At no point does Busbecq state this was the word used in Turkey, he simply states it

9494-530: The word used by his "Turk/Hungarian" guides. The Hungarian word tulipan may be adopted from an Indo-Aryan reference to the tulip as a symbol of resurrection, tala meaning "bottom or underworld" and pAna meaning "defence". Prior to arriving in Europe the Hungarians, and other Finno-Ugrians, embraced the Indo-Iranian cult of the dead, Yima/Yama, and would have been familiar with all of its symbols including

9595-452: The world and planted them among the meadows of the Fay Estate. The Netherlands is the world's main producer of commercial tulip plants, producing as many as 3 billion bulbs annually, the majority for export. "Unlike many flower species, tulips do not produce nectar to entice insect pollination. Instead, tulips rely on wind and land animals to move their pollen between reproductive organs. Because they are self-pollinating, they do not need

9696-463: Was an Ottoman lyric poet of the Tulip Period . He achieved his greatest fame during the reign of Ahmed III . He was known for his slightly decadent, even licentious poetry often couched in the most staid of classical formats, but also for bringing the folk poetic forms of türkü and şarkı into the court. Not much is known about Nedîm's early life, except for what can be inferred from records of

9797-476: Was married to Ümmügülsüm Hanım, and that they had one child before his death, however, not much information about this marriage exists. Most sources claim that he died during the Patrona Halil Rebellion . Some, including biographer Süleyman Sâdeddin, assert that his death was an accident; that he fell from the roof of his house during the rebellion. Others, including Muhsin Macit, argue that he climbed

9898-557: Was no exception. In the 17th century, anti- Sufi polemic and conservative movements in the Islamic world "eroded toleration of social, sexual, and spritiual diversity", marking a "conservative turn" from a more tolerant 16th century. Nedîm wrote his poetry during a revival of erotic sensibilities in the 18th century, about the time when the effects of the previous "conservative turn" was coming to an end, setting him apart from other poets of his era. Furthermore, Nedîm seems to have subverted

9999-498: Was not nearly celebrated to the extent that he is today, and his collected poems would not be organized into and printed as a Diwan until 1736. The nature of Nedîm's final years are often disputed, with different sources claiming different causes of death, as well as different series of events. Well known, however, is his mental illness ( illet-i vehîme , lit. anxiety disorder ), frequent use of alcohol and opium , as well as his "already fragile nature". Sources do state that he

10100-523: Was part of an effort to reengage the public with its rulers after the latter had become secluded during the royal court’s time in Edirne. One of the most important creations of the Tulip Period was the Sadâbâd Palace , a new summer palace designed and built by Damat Ibrahim Pasha in 1722–1723 for Ahmed III. It was located at Kâğıthane , a rural area on the outskirts of the city with small rivers that flow into

10201-489: Was used by the "Turks". On his way to Constantinople Busbecq states he travelled through Hungary and used Hungarian guides. Until recent times "Turk" was a common term when referring to Hungarians. The word tulipan is in fact the Hungarian word for tulip. As long as one recognizes "Turk" as a reference to Hungarians, no amount of speculation is required to reconcile the word's origin or form. Busbecq may have been simply repeating

#526473