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75-546: Their name, Tŝilhqotʼin, makes reference to the Chilko River , which means "red ochre river," from tŝi(lh) "rock" + -qu "river" + -t'in "people". Tsilhqot'in people also use another word to refer to themselves: Nenqayni , from: nen "land" + -qay "surface" + -ni "person/people", and their country is called Tŝilhqotʼin Nen . For more information about the 2014 landmark court case that established Indigenous land title for

150-540: A ball drive, gear drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle. Guns are similar to rotors, except that they generally operate at very high pressures of 275 to 900 kPa (40 to 130 psi) and flows of 3 to 76 L/s (50 to 1200 US gal/min), usually with nozzle diameters in the range of 10 to 50 mm (0.5 to 1.9 in). Guns are used not only for irrigation, but also for industrial applications such as dust suppression and logging . Sprinklers can also be mounted on moving platforms connected to

225-419: A circular or semi-circular pattern. Traveling Sprinklers: These move along the hose path on their own, watering as they go, ideal for covering long, narrow spaces. Each type offers different advantages based on garden size and shape, water pressure, and specific watering needs. Subirrigation has been used for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables . It is a method of artificially raising

300-589: A clock or timer. Most automatic systems employ electric solenoid valves . Each zone has one or more of these valves that are wired to the controller. When the controller sends power to the valve, the valve opens, allowing water to flow to the sprinklers in that zone. There are two main types of sprinklers used in lawn irrigation, pop-up spray heads and rotors. Spray heads have a fixed spray pattern, while rotors have one or more streams that rotate. Spray heads are used to cover smaller areas, while rotors are used for larger areas. Golf course rotors are sometimes so large that

375-426: A computerized set of valves . In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns. A system using sprinklers, sprays, or guns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-set irrigation system. Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotors and are driven by

450-494: A direct financial cost to the farmer. Irrigation often requires pumping energy (either electricity or fossil fuel) to deliver water to the field or supply the correct operating pressure. Hence increased efficiency will reduce both the water cost and energy cost per unit of agricultural production. A reduction of water use on one field may mean that the farmer is able to irrigate a larger area of land, increasing total agricultural production. Low efficiency usually means that excess water

525-416: A flood (spate), water is diverted to normally dry river beds (wadis) using a network of dams, gates and channels and spread over large areas. The moisture stored in the soil will be used thereafter to grow crops. Spate irrigation areas are in particular located in semi-arid or arid, mountainous regions. Micro-irrigation , sometimes called localized irrigation , low volume irrigation , or trickle irrigation

600-684: A fur-trading company from Montreal called the North West Company had established posts in the Carrier (Dene) territory just north of the Tsilhqotʼ;in. They began trading directly and through Carrier intermediaries. In 1821, what was then the Hudson's Bay Company established a fur trade post at Fort Alexandria on the Fraser River , at the eastern limit of Tsilhqotʼin territory. This became

675-409: A higher profit than potatoes. The land is flood irrigated twice a day to simulate tidal flooding; the water is pumped from the sea using wind power. Additional benefits are soil remediation and carbon sequestration . Until the 1960s, there were fewer than half the number of people on the planet as of 2024. People were not as wealthy as today, consumed fewer calories and ate less meat , so less water

750-417: A key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been developed by many cultures around the world. Irrigation helps to grow crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during times of below-average rainfall. In addition to these uses, irrigation is also employed to protect crops from frost , suppress weed growth in grain fields, and prevent soil consolidation . It

825-424: A rectangular or square pattern. They are good for covering large, flat areas evenly. Impact (or Pulsating) Sprinklers: These create a rotating, pulsating spray, which can cover a circular or semi-circular area. They are useful for watering large lawns. Stationary Sprinklers: These have a fixed spray pattern and are best for smaller areas or gardens. Rotary Sprinklers: These use spinning arms to distribute water in

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900-708: A result of irrigation and the subsequent effects on natural and social conditions in river basins and downstream of an irrigation scheme . The effects stem from the altered hydrological conditions caused by the installation and operation of the irrigation scheme. Amongst some of these problems is depletion of underground aquifers through overdrafting . Soil can be over-irrigated due to poor distribution uniformity or management wastes water, chemicals, and may lead to water pollution . Over-irrigation can cause deep drainage from rising water tables that can lead to problems of irrigation salinity requiring watertable control by some form of subsurface land drainage . In 2000,

975-424: A single sprinkler is combined with a valve and called a 'valve in head'. When used in a turf area, the sprinklers are installed with the top of the head flush with the ground surface. When the system is pressurized, the head will pop up out of the ground and water the desired area until the valve closes and shuts off that zone. Once there is no more pressure in the lateral line, the sprinkler head will retract back into

1050-563: A smaller tributary ( Cheẑqox /Chezacut River) northwest to Chilcotin Lake ( Cheẑich’ed Biny /Chezacut Lake), and then further north and west along another tributary ( Yeqox Gunchagh or "big creek" in Tŝilhqot’in) to its nominal source. Irrigation Irrigation (also referred to as watering of plants ) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops , landscape plants , and lawns . Irrigation has been

1125-587: A so-called "formal" education. The program continued for the next six decades until a point when Indigenous children were allowed into the public school system. Ninety years after the start of the residential school program, the mission school closed circa 1981. Throughout that period, Indian agents were empowered to remove children from homes to attend St. Joseph's Mission School in Williams Lake, British Columbia . This led some to attempt to hide their children by sneaking out to hunting grounds or fields. Children fled

1200-415: A threat. In contrast to the 160 to 640 acres per family set aside in other treaties at the time in the prairies, the federal government opted for 80 acres per indigenous family to be set aside in reserve, while the provincial government was keen on 10 acres per family. Catholic Missionaries were sent to convert First Nations children to Christianity. By 1891, the first group of students were sent to receive

1275-399: Is supplementary to rainfall as happens in many parts of the world, or whether it is ' full irrigation' whereby crops rarely depend on any contribution from rainfall. Full irrigation is less common and only happens in arid landscapes experiencing very low rainfall or when crops are grown in semi-arid areas outside of any rainy seasons. Surface irrigation, also known as gravity irrigation, is

1350-480: Is a form of sprinkler irrigation utilising several segments of pipe (usually galvanized steel or aluminium) joined and supported by trusses , mounted on wheeled towers with sprinklers positioned along its length. The system moves in a circular pattern and is fed with water from the pivot point at the center of the arc. These systems are found and used in all parts of the world and allow irrigation of all types of terrain. Newer systems have drop sprinkler heads as shown in

1425-503: Is a system where water is distributed under low pressure through a piped network, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to it. Traditional drip irrigation use individual emitters, subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), micro-spray or micro-sprinklers, and mini-bubbler irrigation all belong to this category of irrigation methods. Drip irrigation, also known as microirrigation or trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests. In this system, water

1500-415: Is also the means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known as fertigation . Deep percolation, where water moves below the root zone, can occur if a drip system is operated for too long or if the delivery rate is too high. Drip irrigation methods range from very high-tech and computerized to low-tech and labor-intensive. Lower water pressures are usually needed than for most other types of systems, with

1575-502: Is also used to cool livestock , reduce dust , dispose of sewage , and support mining operations. Drainage , which involves the removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given location, is often studied in conjunction with irrigation. There are several methods of irrigation that differ in how water is supplied to plants. Surface irrigation , also known as gravity irrigation, is the oldest form of irrigation and has been in use for thousands of years. In sprinkler irrigation , water

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1650-422: Is common in many parts of the world as rainfed agriculture , or it can be full irrigation, where crops rarely rely on any contribution from rainfall. Full irrigation is less common and only occurs in arid landscapes with very low rainfall or when crops are grown in semi-arid areas outside of rainy seasons. The environmental effects of irrigation relate to the changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as

1725-422: Is delivered at or near the root zone of plants, one drop at a time. This method can be the most water-efficient method of irrigation, if managed properly; evaporation and runoff are minimized. The field water efficiency of drip irrigation is typically in the range of 80 to 90% when managed correctly. In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch , further reducing evaporation, and

1800-457: Is dependent upon farmers having sufficient access to water. However, water scarcity is already a critical constraint to farming in many parts of the world. There are several methods of irrigation. They vary in how the water is supplied to the plants. The goal is to apply the water to the plants as uniformly as possible, so that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little. Irrigation can also be understood whether it

1875-424: Is less expensive to install than a center pivot, but much more labor-intensive to operate – it does not travel automatically across the field: it applies water in a stationary strip, must be drained, and then rolled to a new strip. Most systems use 100 or 130 mm (4 or 5 inch) diameter aluminum pipe. The pipe doubles both as water transport and as an axle for rotating all the wheels. A drive system (often found near

1950-421: Is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste directly to water their crops. There can be significant health hazards related to using untreated wastewater in agriculture. Municipal wastewater can contain a mixture of chemical and biological pollutants. In low-income countries, there are often high levels of pathogens from excreta. In emerging nations , where industrial development

2025-443: Is often the irrigation choice for developing nations, for low value crops and for large fields. Where water levels from the irrigation source permit, the levels are controlled by dikes ( levees ), usually plugged by soil. This is often seen in terraced rice fields (rice paddies), where the method is used to flood or control the level of water in each distinct field. In some cases, the water is pumped, or lifted by human or animal power to

2100-422: Is outpacing environmental regulation, there are increasing risks from inorganic and organic chemicals. The World Health Organization developed guidelines for safe use of wastewater in 2006, advocating a ‘multiple-barrier' approach wastewater use, for example by encouraging farmers to adopt various risk-reducing behaviors. These include ceasing irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in

2175-537: Is piped to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure water devices. Micro-irrigation is a system that distributes water under low pressure through a piped network and applies it as a small discharge to each plant. Micro-irrigation uses less pressure and water flow than sprinkler irrigation. Drip irrigation delivers water directly to the root zone of plants. Subirrigation has been used in field crops in areas with high water tables for many years. It involves artificially raising

2250-581: Is practiced in the vineyards at Lanzarote using stones to condense water. Fog collectors are also made of canvas or foil sheets. Using condensate from air conditioning units as a water source is also becoming more popular in large urban areas. As of November 2019 a Glasgow-based startup has helped a farmer in Scotland to establish edible saltmarsh crops irrigated with sea water. An acre of previously marginal land has been put under cultivation to grow samphire , sea blite , and sea aster ; these plants yield

2325-478: Is similar in principle and action to subsurface basin irrigation. Another type of subirrigation is the self-watering container, also known as a sub-irrigated planter . This consists of a planter suspended over a reservoir with some type of wicking material such as a polyester rope. The water is drawn up the wick through capillary action. A similar technique is the wicking bed ; this too uses capillary action. Modern irrigation methods are efficient enough to supply

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2400-437: Is supplied at one end using a large hose. After sufficient irrigation has been applied to one strip of the field, the hose is removed, the water drained from the system, and the assembly rolled either by hand or with a purpose-built mechanism, so that the sprinklers are moved to a different position across the field. The hose is reconnected. The process is repeated in a pattern until the whole field has been irrigated. This system

2475-951: Is the Nemiah Valley , and the Xeni-Gwetʼin . Aside from the indigenous communities, there are only two small unincorporated towns in the whole region: Alexis Creek and Anahim Lake , the largest, with 522 people. Numerically, at least, the Tsilhqotʼin still dominate the Chilcotin plateau. Tsilhqotʼin First Nations belong to two tribal councils : Carrier-Chilcotin Tribal Council (two Carrier/Dakelh bands, one Tsilhqotʼin band, and one mixed Carrier/Dakelh-Tsilhqotʼin band) Tsilhqotʼin National Government (all Tsilhqotʼin bands without

2550-513: Is the product of linguistic anglicisation of the Tŝilhqot’in name Tŝilhqóx , (also spelled without vowel flattening as Tsilhqox ). The meaning of the name is contested, and is the subject of much folk etymologising . Some believe the meaning to be "ochre river", but other contenders are "axe river" (from tŝinlh yeqox ), "river from the ponderosa pine" (from tsilhtsilh yeqox ), or "river with rocks" (from tŝi belh yeqox ). The related name of

2625-583: Is used for irrigation in agriculture, the nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) content of the treated wastewater has the benefit of acting as a fertilizer . This can make the reuse of excreta contained in sewage attractive. In developing countries , agriculture is increasingly using untreated municipal wastewater for irrigation – often in an unsafe manner. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so they are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there

2700-556: Is usually not considered as a form of irrigation. Rainwater harvesting is the collection of runoff water from roofs or unused land and the concentration of this. Irrigation with recycled municipal wastewater can also serve to fertilize plants if it contains nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. There are benefits of using recycled water for irrigation, including the lower cost compared to some other sources and consistency of supply regardless of season, climatic conditions and associated water restrictions. When reclaimed water

2775-644: The Chilcotin Plateau , characterized by undulating grasslands , expansive forests of lodgepole pine and Douglas fir , a scattering of lakes, rivers, creeks and ponds, volcanic and glaciated landforms, and a magnificent backdrop of snow-covered peaks. Chilko River The Chilko River is a 75-kilometre-long (47 mi) river in the Chilcotin District of the Central Interior of British Columbia , Canada , flowing northeast from Chilko Lake to

2850-745: The Chilcotin River . Its main tributary is the Taseko River . The Chilko is the Chilcotin River's main tributary. In fact at their confluence the Chilko River is much larger than the Chilcotin. It is also the main reason why the lower reaches of the Chilcotin are very silty. The Chilko gets most of its silt from the Taseko River, which joins it a few kilometers above the Chilko's mouth. The name "Chilko"

2925-559: The United States , China , and European countries like the United Kingdom , also fund and organize some schemes within other nations. By 2021 the global land area equipped for irrigation reached 352 million ha, an increase of 22% from the 289 million ha of 2000 and more than twice the 1960s land area equipped for irrigation. The vast majority is located in Asia (70%), where irrigation

3000-573: The commercial greenhouse production, usually for potted plants . Water is delivered from below, absorbed by upwards, and the excess collected for recycling. Typically, a solution of water and nutrients floods a container or flows through a trough for a short period of time, 10–20 minutes, and is then pumped back into a holding tank for reuse. Sub-irrigation in greenhouses requires fairly sophisticated, expensive equipment and management. Advantages are water and nutrient conservation, and labor savings through reduced system maintenance and automation . It

3075-473: The salmon runs placed more dependence on agricultural produce such as grains, hay, and vegetables. Activities migrated to cutting hay, constructing irrigation ditches, and practicing animal husbandry . Settlers however assumed water rights , making agriculture ever more fragile. Indigenous peoples were huddled in on small acreages, such as in Canoe Creek , 20 acres for 150 indigenous people. Starvation became

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3150-557: The Chilcotin River is from that of the Tŝilhqot’in First Nation , from Tŝilhqox Gwet’in , meaning "people of Tŝilhqox". The name Tŝilhqox refers to the whole Chilko River as well as lower Chilcotin River, with its source at the north end of Chilko Lake and its mouth at its confluence with the Fraser River . Due to a confused naming process, the name " Chilcotin River " refers to only the lower segment of Tŝilhqox , then follows

3225-727: The Nile river in Egypt and Sudan; and in the Mississippi-Missouri river basin, the Southern Great Plains, and in parts of California in the United States. Smaller irrigation areas are spread across almost all populated parts of the world. By 2012, the area of irrigated land had increased to an estimated total of 3,242,917 km (801 million acres), which is nearly the size of India. The irrigation of 20% of farming land accounts for

3300-542: The Tsilhqotʼin may have protected them from the first of the smallpox epidemics , which spread up from Mexico in the 1770s. They may have been spared the smallpox epidemic of 1800 and the measles of the 1840s. Furniss in The Burden of History states that "there is no direct evidence that these smallpox epidemics reached the central interior of British Columbia or the Secwepemc, Carrier, or Tsilhqotʼin". However, in

3375-625: The Tsilhqotʼin Nation and demanded that colonial provinces engage in meaningful and prior consultation before engaging in extractive industries on Tsilhqot'in lands, see Tsilhqotʼin Nation v British Columbia . The Tŝilhqotʼin Nation before contact with Europeans were a strong warrior nation with political influences from the Similkameen region in southern British Columbia , the Pacific coast in

3450-469: The center pivot. This type of system is known as LEPA (Low Energy Precision Application). Originally, most center pivots were water-powered. These were replaced by hydraulic systems ( T-L Irrigation ) and electric-motor-driven systems (Reinke, Valley, Zimmatic). Many modern pivots feature GPS devices. A series of pipes, each with a wheel of about 1.5 m diameter permanently affixed to its midpoint, and sprinklers along its length, are coupled together. Water

3525-485: The centre of the wheel line) rotates the clamped-together pipe sections as a single axle, rolling the whole wheel line. Manual adjustment of individual wheel positions may be necessary if the system becomes misaligned. Wheel line systems are limited in the amount of water they can carry, and limited in the height of crops that can be irrigated. One useful feature of a lateral move system is that it consists of sections that can be easily disconnected, adapting to field shape as

3600-711: The components of these irrigation systems are hidden under ground, since aesthetics are important in a landscape. A typical lawn sprinkler system will consist of one or more zones, limited in size by the capacity of the water source. Each zone will cover a designated portion of the landscape. Sections of the landscape will usually be divided by microclimate , type of plant material, and type of irrigation equipment. A landscape irrigation system may also include zones containing drip irrigation, bubblers, or other types of equipment besides sprinklers. Although manual systems are still used, most lawn sprinkler systems may be operated automatically using an irrigation controller , sometimes called

3675-408: The crop or field requirements. Increasing the application efficiency means that the amount of crop produced per unit of water increases. Improved efficiency may either be achieved by applying less water to an existing field or by using water more wisely thereby achieving higher yields in the same area of land. In some parts of the world, farmers are charged for irrigation water hence over-application has

3750-410: The entire field uniformly with water, so that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little. Water use efficiency in the field can be determined as follows: Increased irrigation efficiency has a number of positive outcomes for the farmer, the community and the wider environment. Low application efficiency infers that the amount of water applied to the field is in excess of

3825-487: The epidemic of 1836–38, the disease spread to Ootsa Lake and killed an entire Carrier band. Oral history of the bands has continued to recount the effects of the many deaths in these epidemics. By the 1860s, miners panned along the Fraser, Quesnel , and Horsefly rivers and their tributaries. Various business operators and merchants followed the miners and business was booming. Farmers and ranchers developed land to provision

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3900-502: The exception of low-energy center pivot systems and surface irrigation systems, and the system can be designed for uniformity throughout a field or for precise water delivery to individual plants in a landscape containing a mix of plant species. Although it is difficult to regulate pressure on steep slopes, pressure compensating emitters are available, so the field does not have to be level. High-tech solutions involve precisely calibrated emitters located along lines of tubing that extend from

3975-534: The ground. In flower beds or shrub areas, sprinklers may be mounted on above ground risers or even taller pop-up sprinklers may be used and installed flush as in a lawn area. Hose-end sprinklers are devices attached to the end of a garden hose, used for watering lawns, gardens, or plants. They come in a variety of designs and styles, allowing you to adjust the water flow, pattern, and range for efficient irrigation. Some common types of hose-end sprinklers include: Oscillating Sprinklers: These spray water back and forth in

4050-409: The image that follows. As of 2017 most center pivot systems have drops hanging from a U-shaped pipe attached at the top of the pipe with sprinkler heads that are positioned a few feet (at most) above the crop, thus limiting evaporative losses. Drops can also be used with drag hoses or bubblers that deposit the water directly on the ground between crops. Crops are often planted in a circle to conform to

4125-490: The irrigation results in flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land. Historically, surface irrigation is the most common method of irrigating agricultural land across most parts of the world. The water application efficiency of surface irrigation is typically lower than other forms of irrigation, due in part to the lack of control of applied depths. Surface irrigation involves a significantly lower capital cost and energy requirement than pressurised irrigation systems. Hence it

4200-399: The level of the land. Surface irrigation is even used to water urban gardens in certain areas, for example, in and around Phoenix, Arizona . The irrigated area is surrounded by a berm and the water is delivered according to a schedule set by a local irrigation district . A special form of irrigation using surface water is spate irrigation , also called floodwater harvesting. In case of

4275-441: The line is moved. They are most often used for small, rectilinear, or oddly-shaped fields, hilly or mountainous regions, or in regions where labor is inexpensive. A lawn sprinkler system is permanently installed, as opposed to a hose-end sprinkler, which is portable. Sprinkler systems are installed in residential lawns, in commercial landscapes, for churches and schools, in public parks and cemeteries, and on golf courses . Most of

4350-482: The mining towns that developed around the merchants. This led to competition for resources between the Chilcotin and Europeans, leading to a stream of events known as the Chilcotin War . Governor James Douglas supported a system of reserves and indoctrination to "civilized" practices such as subsistence agriculture up until his retirement in 1864. Joseph Trutch , the chief commissioner of lands and works, abandoned

4425-535: The mixed Carrier/Dakelh-Tsilhqotʼin band) Despite its small population and isolation, the region has produced an impressive collection of literature mixing naturalism with Indigenous and settler cultures. The area is accessed by Highway 20 , which runs from the City of Williams Lake to the port town of Bella Coola . Highway 20 westbound from Williams Lake crosses the Fraser River at Sheep Creek - thereby entering Tsilhqotʼin traditional territory. The highway passes over

4500-435: The oldest form of irrigation and has been in use for thousands of years. In surface ( furrow, flood , or level basin ) irrigation systems, water moves across the surface of agricultural lands, in order to wet it and infiltrate into the soil. Water moves by following gravity or the slope of the land. Surface irrigation can be subdivided into furrow, border strip or basin irrigation . It is often called flood irrigation when

4575-436: The overarching goal of increasing self-sufficiency. Irrigation water can come from groundwater (extracted from springs or by using wells ), from surface water (withdrawn from rivers , lakes or reservoirs ) or from non-conventional sources like treated wastewater , desalinated water , drainage water , or fog collection . While floodwater harvesting belongs to the accepted irrigation methods, rainwater harvesting

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4650-567: The production of 40% of food production. The scale of irrigation increased dramatically over the 20th century. In 1800, 8 million hectares globally were irrigated, in 1950, 94 million hectares, and in 1990, 235 million hectares. By 1990, 30% of the global food production came from irrigated land. Irrigation techniques across the globe includes canals redirecting surface water, groundwater pumping, and diverting water from dams. National governments lead most irrigation schemes within their borders, but private investors and other nations, especially

4725-470: The regions saw increases in the area equipped for irrigation, with Africa growing the fastest (+29%), followed by Asia (+25%), Oceania (+24%), the Americas (+19%) and Europe (+2%). Irrigation enables the production of more crops, especially commodity crops in areas which otherwise could not support them. Countries frequently invested in irrigation to increase wheat , rice , or cotton production, often with

4800-445: The reserve policy, and set Indian policy as their having no rights to the land. By 1866, BC colonial rule required indigenous peoples to request permission from the governor to use lands. Newspapers supported the preempting of indigenous lands, seeing settlers ploughing indigenous burial grounds. Indigenous peoples who requested redress from a justice of the peace were refused. In the 1870s, the loss of hunting territories, and crashes of

4875-548: The schools, and within the first 30 years, three investigations on the physical abuse and malnutrition were conducted. Voting rights in Canadian federal elections were denied until 1960, and in provincial elections until 1949. Today, some 5,000 Tsilhqotʼin people live in Alexandria , north of Williams Lake , and in a string of five communities accessible from Williams Lake on Highway 20 (from east to west), and south from Highway 20

4950-400: The sprinkler arrives back at the reel the system shuts off. This type of system is known to most people as a "waterreel" traveling irrigation sprinkler and they are used extensively for dust suppression, irrigation, and land application of waste water. Other travelers use a flat rubber hose that is dragged along behind while the sprinkler platform is pulled by a cable. Center pivot irrigation

5025-493: The sunlight; applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw; cleaning vegetables with disinfectant; or allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure. Irrigation water can also come from non-conventional sources like treated wastewater , desalinated water , drainage water , or fog collection . In countries where humid air sweeps through at night, water can be obtained by condensation onto cold surfaces. This

5100-782: The total fertile land was 2,788,000 km (689 million acres) and it was equipped with irrigation infrastructure worldwide. About 68% of this area is in Asia, 17% in the Americas, 9% in Europe, 5% in Africa and 1% in Oceania. The largest contiguous areas of high irrigation density are found in Northern and Eastern India and Pakistan along the Ganges and Indus rivers; in the Hai He, Huang He and Yangtze basins in China; along

5175-524: The tribal people's major source for European goods. Contact with Europeans and First Nations intermediaries led to the introduction of Eurasian diseases, which were endemic among the Europeans. As they had long been exposed, some had developed acquired immunity , but the First Nations peoples were devastated by epidemics of these new diseases. Infectious disease outbreaks with high fatalities for Tsilhqotʼin populations: The geographically isolated position of

5250-405: The water source by a hose. Automatically moving wheeled systems known as traveling sprinklers may irrigate areas such as small farms, sports fields, parks, pastures, and cemeteries unattended. Most of these use a length of polyethylene tubing wound on a steel drum. As the tubing is wound on the drum powered by the irrigation water or a small gas engine, the sprinkler is pulled across the field. When

5325-414: The water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the plants' root zone. Often those systems are located on permanent grasslands in lowlands or river valleys and combined with drainage infrastructure. A system of pumping stations, canals, weirs and gates allows it to increase or decrease the water level in a network of ditches and thereby control the water table. Subirrigation is also used in

5400-404: The water table to moisten the soil below the root zone of plants. Irrigation water can come from groundwater (extracted from springs or by using wells ), from surface water (withdrawn from rivers , lakes or reservoirs ) or from non-conventional sources like treated wastewater , desalinated water , drainage water , or fog collection . Irrigation can be supplementary to rainfall , which

5475-461: The west, and the Rocky Mountains in the east. They were part of an extensive trade network centred around the control and distribution of obsidian , the material of choice for arrowheads and other stone tools. The Tsilhqotʼin first encountered European trading goods in the 1780s and 1790s when British and American ships arrived along the northwest coast seeking sea otter pelts. By 1808,

5550-413: Was a key component of the green revolution; the Americas account for 16% and Europe for 8% of the world total. India (76 million ha) and China (75 million ha) have the largest equipped area for irrigation, far ahead of the United States o fAmerica (27 million ha). China and India also have the largest net gains in equipped area between 2000 and 2020 (+21 million ha for China and +15 million ha for India). All

5625-666: Was needed to produce their food. They required a third of the volume of water humans presently take from rivers. Today, the competition for water resources is much more intense, because there are now more than seven billion people on the planet, increasing the likelihood of overconsumption of food produced by water-thirsty animal agriculture and intensive farming practices. This creates increasing competition for water from industry , urbanisation and biofuel crops . Farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food , while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently. Successful agriculture

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