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109-662: Some truffle species are prized as food. Edible truffles are used in Italian , French and other national haute cuisines . Truffles are cultivated and harvested from natural environments. The black truffle or black Périgord truffle ( Tuber melanosporum ), the second-most commercially valuable species, is named after the Périgord region in France. Black truffles associate with oaks , hazelnut , cherry, and other deciduous trees and are harvested in late autumn and winter. The genome sequence of

218-778: A "Treatise on the Potato" after the French Antoine-Augustin Parmentier 's successful promotion of the tuber. In 1790, Francesco Leonardi in his book L'Apicio moderno ( Modern Apicius ) sketches a history of the Italian cuisine from the Roman Age and gives the first recipe of a tomato-based sauce. In the 19th century, Giovanni Vialardi, chef to King Victor Emmanuel II , wrote Trattato di cucina, Pasticceria moderna, Credenza e relativa Confettureria ( A Treatise of Modern Cookery and Patisserie ) with recipes "suitable for

327-607: A "cuisine of the head rather than the throat" and it is characterized by the separation of flavours, without ever upsetting the ancient Italian culinary tradition despite the use, in its recipes, of some culinary traditions of other countries. He is known for using modern technology and classic cuisine. Italian cuisine has a great variety of different ingredients which are commonly used, ranging from fruits and vegetables to grains to cheeses, meats, and fish. In northern Italy, fish (such as cod, or baccalà ), potatoes, rice, corn (maize), sausages, pork, and different types of cheese are

436-639: A banquet given by Duke Charles for Queen Christina of Sweden , with details of the food and table settings for each guest, including a knife, fork, spoon, glass, a plate (instead of the bowls more often used), and a napkin. Other books from this time, such as Galatheo ( Etiquette ) by Giovanni della Casa , tell how scalci ( waiters ) should manage themselves while serving their guests. Waiters should not scratch their heads or other parts of themselves, or spit, sniff, cough or sneeze while serving diners. The book also told diners not to use their fingers while eating and not to wipe sweat with their napkin. At

545-587: A bean dish from the Marca di Trevisio, a torta , compositum londardicum , dishes similar to dishes the modern day. Two other books from the 14th century include recipes for Roman pastello , Lasagna pie, and call for the use of salt from Sardinia or Chioggia . In the 15th century, Maestro Martino was chef to the Patriarch of Aquileia at the Vatican . His Libro de arte coquinaria ( Culinary art book ) describes

654-640: A comprehensive view of Italian cooking of that period. It contains over 1,000 recipes, with information on banquets including displays and menus as well as illustrations of kitchen and table utensils. This book differs from most books written for the royal courts in its preference for domestic animals and courtyard birds rather than game. Recipes include lesser cuts of meats such as tongue, head, and shoulder. The third volume has recipes for fish in Lent . These fish recipes are simple, including poaching , broiling , grilling , and frying after marination. Particular attention

763-461: A drizzle of olive oil. Castelvetro's book is separated into seasons with hop shoots in the spring and truffles in the winter, detailing the use of pigs in the search for truffles. In 1662, Bartolomeo Stefani, chef to the Duchy of Mantua , published L'Arte di Ben Cucinare ( The Art of Well Cooking ). He was the first to offer a section on vitto ordinario ( ordinary food ). The book described

872-416: A food commodity". Although pecan farmers used to find them along with pecans and discard them, considering them a nuisance, they sell for about $ 160 a pound and have been used in some gourmet restaurants. The term "truffle" has been applied to several other genera of similar underground fungi. The genera Terfezia and Tirmania of the family Terfeziaceae are known as the "desert truffles" of Africa and

981-534: A food of the middle class, have become a luxury. The situation changed in the late 1960s and early 1970s, with researchers in France and Italy establishing mycorrhizas with truffle spores. Beginning from the 1980s, truffle plantations are compensating for some of the decline in wild truffles, and exist in various countries including France, Italy, Spain and Australia. About 80% of the truffles now produced in France come from specially planted truffle groves. Investments in cultivated plantations are underway in many parts of

1090-454: A higher surface area and a greater ability to explore soils for nutrients. Acquisition of nutrients includes the uptake of phosphorus, nitrate or ammonium, iron, magnesium , and other ions . Many ectomycorrhizal fungi form fungal mats in the upper layers of soils surrounding host plants. These mats have significantly higher carbon and fixed nitrogen concentrations than surrounding soils. Because these mats are nitrogen sinks, leaching of nutrients

1199-502: A key flavour, but also beans , pumpkins , courgette , and peppers , all of which came from the Americas during the last few hundred years. In the first decade of the 17th century, Giacomo Castelvetro wrote Breve Racconto di Tutte le Radici di Tutte l'Herbe et di Tutti i Frutti ( A Brief Account of All Roots, Herbs, and Fruit ), translated into English by Gillian Riley. Originally from Modena , Castelvetro moved to England because he

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1308-807: A means of sexual reproduction. Geopora cooperi , also known as pine truffle or fuzzy truffle, is an edible species of this genus. Rhizopogon spp. are ectomycorrhizal members of the Basidiomycota and the order Boletales , a group of fungi that typically form mushrooms. Like their ascomycete counterparts, these fungi can create truffle-like fruiting bodies. Rhizopogon spp. are ecologically important in coniferous forests where they associate with various pines, firs, and Douglas fir . In addition to their ecological importance, these fungi hold economic value, as well. Rhizopogon spp. are commonly used to inoculate coniferous seedlings in nurseries and during reforestation. Hysterangium spp. are ectomycorrhizal members of

1417-449: A modest household". Many of his recipes are for regional dishes from Turin , including 12 for potatoes such as cappon magro genovese . In 1829, Il Nuovo Cuoco Milanese Economico ( The New Economic Milanese Chef ) by Giovanni Felice Luraschi featured Milanese dishes such as kidney with anchovies and lemon and gnocchi alla romana . Gian Battista and Giovanni Ratto's La Cucina Genovese ( Genoese cuisine ) in 1871 addressed

1526-633: A more refined and elegant cuisine. His book contains a recipe for maccaroni siciliani , made by wrapping dough around a thin iron rod to dry in the sun. The macaroni was cooked in capon stock flavoured with saffron , displaying Persian influences. Martino noted the avoidance of excessive spices in favour of fresh herbs. The Roman recipes include coppiette (air-dried salami ) and cabbage dishes. His Florentine dishes include eggs with torta bolognese , torta sienese and Genoese recipes such as piperata (sweets), macaroni, squash , mushrooms , and spinach pie with onions . Martino's text

1635-573: A mushroom-forming genus. Studies have suggested that selection for subterranean fruiting bodies among ascomycetes and basidiomycetes occurred in water-limited environments. Most sources agree that the term "truffle" is derived from the Latin term tūber by way of the Vulgar Latin tufera , meaning "swelling" or "lump". This then entered other languages through Old French dialects. The mycelia of truffles form symbiotic , mycorrhizal relationships with

1744-405: A process in which small and local farmers and food producers should be simultaneously protected from and included in the global food system . The Italian chef Gualtiero Marchesi (1930–2017) is unanimously considered the founder of the new Italian cuisine and, in the opinion of many, the most famous Italian chef in the world. He contributed mostly to the development of Italian cuisine, placing

1853-493: A prominent place in Italian cuisine, as in general in the Mediterranean cuisine. Fish is the second course in meals and is also an ingredient in the preparation of seasonings for types of pasta. It is also widely used in appetisers . Italian cuisine is also well known (and well regarded) for its use of a diverse variety of pasta. Pasta include noodles in various lengths, widths, and shapes. Most pastas may be distinguished by

1962-622: A region is close to the sea or the mountains, and economics. Italian cuisine is also seasonal with priority placed on the use of fresh produce. Boletales The Boletales are an order of Agaricomycetes containing over 1300 species with a diverse array of fruiting body types. The boletes are the best known members of this group, and until recently, the Boletales were thought to only contain boletes. The Boletales are now known to contain distinct groups of agarics , puffballs , and other fruiting-body types. The order Boletales originally

2071-545: A significant influence on several other cuisines around the world, particularly in East African states such as Somalia and in the United States in the form of Italian-American cuisine . A key characteristic of Italian cuisine is its simplicity, with many dishes made up of few ingredients, and therefore Italian cooks often rely on the quality of the ingredients, rather than the complexity of preparation. Italian cuisine

2180-442: A single dish ( pizza al piatto ) or as a snack, even on the go ( pizza al taglio ). In the various regions, dishes similar to pizza are the various types of focaccia , such as piadina , crescia or sfincione . Each area has its own specialties , primarily at a regional level , but also at the provincial level. The differences can come from a bordering country (such as France, Austria or Slovenia), whether

2289-428: A variety of pasta, regional bread, extra virgin olive oils, and wines. Counterfeit products violate registered trademarks or other distinctive signs protected by law such as the designations of origin (DOC, PDO, DOCG, PGI, TSG, IGT). Therefore, the counterfeiting is legally punishable. However, Italian Sounding cannot be classified as illegal from a strictly legal standpoint, but they still represent "a huge damage to

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2398-550: A very wide range of preparations and recipes. It is also important as an ingredient in the preparation of sauces for pasta. In addition to the varieties mentioned, albeit less commonly, sheep , goat , horse , rabbit and, even less commonly, game meat are also consumed in Italy. Since Italy is largely surrounded by the sea, therefore having a great coastal development and being rich in lakes, fish (both marine and freshwater), as well as crustaceans , molluscs , and other seafood, enjoy

2507-520: Is "garlic truffle" ( Tuber macrosporum ). In the U.S. Pacific Northwest , several species of truffle are harvested both recreationally and commercially, most notably, the Leucangium carthusianum , Oregon black truffle; Tuber gibbosum , Oregon spring white truffle; and Tuber oregonense , Oregon winter white truffle. Kalapuya brunnea , the Oregon brown truffle, has also been commercially harvested and

2616-540: Is analogous to the dispersal of seeds in fruit of angiosperms. When the ascospores are fully developed, the truffle exudes volatile compounds that attract animal vectors. For successful dispersal, these spores must survive passage through the digestive tracts of animals. Ascospores have thick walls composed of chitin to help them endure the environment of animal guts. Animal vectors include birds, deer, and rodents such as voles , squirrels , and chipmunks . Many species of trees, such as Quercus garryana , are dependent on

2725-455: Is at the origin of a turnover of more than € 200 billion worldwide. Over the centuries, many popular dishes and recipes have often been created by ordinary people more so than by chefs , which is why many Italian recipes are suitable for home and daily cooking , respecting regional specificities, privileging only raw materials and ingredients from the region of origin of the dish and preserving its seasonality. The Mediterranean diet forms

2834-416: Is better known as Italian Sounding , consisting in the use of Italian words as well as images, colour combinations (the Italian tricolour ), geographical references, and brands evocative of Italy to promote and market agri-food products which in reality have nothing to do with Italian cuisine. Italian Sounding invests in almost every sector of Italian food, from the most famous Italian cheeses to cured meats,

2943-406: Is correlated with increasing photosynthetic rates in the spring as trees leaf out. Truffle fungi receive carbohydrates from their host plants, providing them with valuable micro- and macronutrients. Plant macronutrients include potassium , phosphorus , nitrogen , and sulfur . In contrast, micronutrients include iron , copper , zinc , and chloride . In truffle fungi, as in all ectomycorrhizae,

3052-430: Is divided into two broad categories: dry pasta (100% durum wheat flour mixed with water) and fresh pasta (also with soft wheat flour and almost always mixed with eggs). Pasta is generally cooked by boiling. Under Italian law, dry pasta (pasta secca) can only be made from durum wheat flour or durum wheat semolina , and is more commonly used in southern Italy compared to their northern counterparts, who traditionally prefer

3161-419: Is energy intensive because the fungus must allocate resources to the production of large sporocarps . Ascospores are borne within sac-like structures called asci, which are contained within the sporocarp. Because truffle fungi produce their sexual fruiting bodies underground, spores cannot be spread by wind and water. Therefore, nearly all truffles depend on mycophagous animal vectors for spore dispersal. This

3270-487: Is evidence of the Etruscans making pasta in Italy during the 4th century BC. The first known Italian food writer was a Greek Sicilian named Archestratus from Syracuse in the 4th century BC. He wrote a poem that spoke of using "top quality and seasonal" ingredients. He said that flavours should not be masked by spices , herbs or other seasonings . He placed importance on simple preparation of fish . Simplicity

3379-691: Is found mainly in the Langhe and Montferrat areas of the Piedmont region in northern Italy , and most famously, in the countryside around the cities of Alba and Asti . A large percentage of Italy's white truffles also come from Molise . The " whitish truffle " ( Tuber borchii ) is a similar species native to Tuscany , Abruzzo , Romagna , Umbria , the Marche , and Molise . It is reportedly not as aromatic as those from Piedmont, although those from Città di Castello are said to come quite close. A less common truffle

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3488-528: Is given to seasons and places where fish should be caught. The final volume includes pies, tarts, fritters, and a recipe for a sweet Neapolitan pizza (not the current savoury version, as tomatoes had not yet been introduced to Italy). However, such items from the New World as corn (maize) and turkey are included. Eventually, through the Columbian exchange , Italian cuisine would also adopt not just tomatoes as

3597-566: Is home to the oldest restaurant in Italy and the second in Europe, the Antica trattoria Bagutto  [ it ] , which has existed since at least 1284. The oldest Italian book on cuisine is the 13th century Liber de coquina ( Cookbook ) written in Naples. Dishes include "Roman-style" cabbage ( ad usum romanorum ), ad usum campanie which were "small leaves" prepared in the "Campanian manner",

3706-467: Is more closely related to the agarics and false truffles of Chroogomphus , Gomphidius , and Rhizopogon than to Boletus . In some older classification systems, a part of the family Boletaceae was separated to form the family Strobilomycetaceae. However, more recent molecular genetics studies have found it to be an unnatural grouping. According to the 2008 (10th) edition of the Dictionary of

3815-546: Is of culinary note. The Oregon white truffle is increasingly harvested due to its high quality and also exported to other countries. Oregon celebrates its traditional truffle harvesting with a 'truffle festival', combined with culinary shows and wine tastings. The pecan truffle ( Tuber lyonii ) syn. texense is found in the Southern United States , usually associated with pecan trees. Chefs who have experimented with them agree "they are very good and have potential as

3924-435: Is particularly adapted to finding truffles using its refined sense of smell, visual clues, and long-term memory of prosperous populations of truffles. This intimacy between animals and truffles indirectly influences the success of mycorrhizal plant species. After ascospores are dispersed, they remain dormant until germination is initiated by exudates excreted from host plant roots. Following germination, hyphae form and seek out

4033-537: Is produced in the earth for our nourishment. It is so-called because Pythagoras , as is well known, only used such produce. There is no doubt that this kind of food appears to be more natural to man, and the use of meat is noxious." This book was the first to give the tomato a central role with 13 recipes. Zuppa al pomodoro ( lit.   ' tomato soup ' ) in Corrado's book is a dish similar to today's Tuscan pappa al pomodoro . Corrado's 1798 edition introduced

4142-455: Is reduced. Mycelial mats can also help maintain the structure of soils by holding organic matter in place and preventing erosion . Often, these networks of mycelium provide support for smaller organisms in the soil, such as bacteria and microscopic arthropods . Bacteria feed on the exudates released by mycelium and colonise the soil surrounding them. Microscopic arthropods such as mites feed directly on mycelium and release valuable nutrients for

4251-425: Is similar to that of the pheromone androstenol that also occurs in humans. As of 2010, the volatile profiles of seven black and six white truffle species have been studied. Truffles long eluded techniques of cultivation, as Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (1825) noted: The most learned men have sought to ascertain the secret and fancied they discovered the seed. Their promises, however, were vain, and no planting

4360-455: Is traditionally served with meat sauce (including game meat). In southern Italy, tomatoes (fresh or cooked into tomato sauce), peppers, olives and olive oil, garlic, artichokes, oranges, ricotta cheese , aubergines , courgette , certain types of fish (anchovies, sardines, and tuna), and capers are important components to the local cuisine. Many cheeses and dairy products are made in Italy. There are more than 600 distinct types throughout

4469-846: Is used to make pasta. During the 12th century, a Norman king surveyed Sicily and saw people making long strings made from flour and water called atriya , which eventually became trii , a term still used for spaghetti in southern Italy. Normans also introduced the casserole , salted cod (Italian: baccalà ), and stockfish , all of which remain popular. Food preservation was either chemical or physical, as refrigeration did not exist. Meats and fish were smoked , dried or kept on ice. Brine and salt were used to pickle items such as herring , and to cure pork . Root vegetables were preserved in brine after they had been parboiled . Other means of preservation included oil , vinegar , or immersing meat in congealed, rendered fat. For preserving fruits, liquor , honey , and sugar were used. Milan

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4578-419: The denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) and the denominazione di origine controllata e garantita (DOCG). protected designation of origin (PDO) and protected geographical indications (PGI) have also been established in olive growing. Some of these are new introductions: the kiwifruit was introduced from New Zealand to Italy in the 1970s, and three decades later, the province of Latina

4687-900: The Ascomycota , Basidiomycota , and Glomeromycota . For example, the genera Rhizopogon and Hysterangium of Basidiomycota both form subterranean fruiting bodies and play similar ecological roles as truffle forming ascomycetes. The ancestors of the Ascomycota genera Geopora , Tuber , and Leucangium originated in Laurasia during the Paleozoic era. Phylogenetic evidence suggests that most subterranean fruiting bodies evolved from above-ground mushrooms. Over time mushroom stipes and caps were reduced, and caps began to enclose reproductive tissue. The dispersal of sexual spores then shifted from wind and rain to utilising animals. The phylogeny and biogeography of

4796-565: The Eocene about 50 million years ago. The specimens are preserved permineralized in-situ in the Eocene Okanagan Highlands Princeton chert site. This indicates that the soft bodies of ectomycorrhizal fungi do not easily fossilize. Molecular clockwork has suggested the evolution of ectomycorrhizal fungi occurred approximately 130 million years ago. The evolution of subterranean fruiting bodies has occurred numerous times within

4905-510: The Italian economy and to the potential resources of Made in Italy ". Two out of three Italian agri-food products sold worldwide are not made in Italy. The Italian Sounding phenomenon is estimated to generate € 55 billion worldwide annually. Following the spread of fast food , also in Italy, imported from Anglo-Saxon countries and in particular from the United States in 1986, in Bra, Piedmont ,

5014-568: The Sclerodermataceae , Boletinellaceae and Gyroporaceae appear to form a discrete group within the Boletales, and together with the Pisolithaceae , and the Astraceae , are grouped under the suborder Sclerodermatineae . Thus, the boletes of Boletinellus and Phlebopus are more closely related to earthballs of Scleroderma than to Boletus . Similarly, the bolete genus Suillus

5123-517: The Slow Food cultural and gastronomic movement was founded, then converted into an institution with the aim of protecting culinary specificities and to safeguard various regional products of Italian cuisine under the control of the Slow Food Presidia . Slow Food also focuses on food quality, rather than quantity. It speaks out against overproduction and food waste , and sees globalization as

5232-521: The Tiber , roviglioni and shad from Lake Albano , snails from Rieti , figs from Tuscolo, grapes from Narni , oil from Cassino , oranges from Naples, and eels from Campania . Grains from Lombardy and Campania are mentioned as is honey from Sicily and Taranto. Wine from the Ligurian coast, Greco from Tuscany and San Severino , and Trebbiano from Tuscany and Piceno are also mentioned in

5341-596: The "slippery jack," is said by some to be delicious cooked, provided the slimy coat of its cap is removed beforehand. Many boletes, while not toxic, are nonetheless bitter-tasting and inedible. The Paxillaceae contain a number of species that have been implicated in fatal poisonings. A few boletes are also highly toxic (though generally not deadly), notably the fairly conspicuous Boletus satanas and allies. Still, many mushroom hunters recommend that beginners start with boletes, since deadly mix-ups are far less likely than with agarics. There are several genera classified in

5450-542: The 1950s onwards, a great variety of typical products of Italian cuisine have been recognised as PDO, PGI, TSG and GI by the Council of the European Union , to which they are added the indicazione geografica tipica (IGT), the regional prodotto agroalimentare tradizionale (PAT) and the municipal denominazione comunale d'origine (De.C.O.). In the oenological field, there are specific legal protections:

5559-498: The 19th century to the present, truffle production fell by 97–99% to 20–50 tonnes annually. Reasons given for this decline include the Industrial Revolution , the subsequent rural flight and the multiple European wars of the 20th century, which reduced the rural population. For example, World War I resulted in the mobilisation of 65% of the agricultural workers from the region of Lot alone. Knowledge of truffle cultivation,

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5668-591: The Basidiomycota and the order Hysterangiales that form sporocarps similar to true truffles. These fungi form mycelial mats of vegetative hyphae that may cover 25–40% of the forest floor in Douglas fir forests, thereby contributing to a significant portion of the biomass present in soils. Like other ectomycorrhizal fungi, Hysterangium spp. play a role in nutrient exchange in the nitrogen cycle by accessing nitrogen unavailable to host plants and acting as nitrogen sinks in forests. Glomus spp. are arbuscular mycorrhizae of

5777-620: The Fungi , the Boletales comprise 17 families , 96 genera , and 1316 species . The Boletales are largely ectomycorrhizal fungi, hence are found mainly in or near woodlands. Certain species are parasitic rather than ectomycorrhizal. Members of the family Gomphidiaceae are thought to be parasitic upon members of the family Suillaceae ; these relationships are often highly species-specific. Other parasitic boletes included Pseudoboletus parasiticus which grows on Scleroderma citrinum . A few species are saprophytic and lignicolous , like those in

5886-461: The Italian culinary culture among the most important around the world, with the creation, thanks to the use of Italian ingredients, dishes and culinary traditions, of the Italian version of the French nouvelle cuisine . Italian nouvelle cuisine is characterized by lighter, more delicate dishes and an increased emphasis on presentation , and it designed for the most expensive restaurants. It is defined as

5995-579: The Middle East. Pisolithus tinctorius , which was historically eaten in parts of Germany , is sometimes called "Bohemian truffle". Geopora spp. are important ectomycorrhizal partners of trees in woodlands and forests throughout the world. Pinus edulis , a widespread pine species of the Southwest US, is dependent on Geopora for nutrient and water acquisition in arid environments. Like other truffle fungi, Geopora produces subterranean sporocarps as

6104-597: The Roman era. This includes the jujube (Italian: giuggiole ), which is celebrated as a regional cuisine in Arquà Petrarca . The Romans also imported cherries, apricots, and peaches. Arabs invaded Sicily in the 9th century, introducing spinach , almonds , and rice . They also brought with them foods from foreign lands that are celebrated as traditional Italian foods: citrus fruit , artichokes, chickpeas , pistachios , sugarcane , aubergines , and durum wheat , which

6213-641: The Southern Hemisphere were harvested in Gisborne, New Zealand in 1993. New Zealand's first burgundy truffle was found in July 2012 at a Waipara truffle farm. It weighed 330 g and was found by the farm owner's beagle. Italian cuisine Italian cuisine is a Mediterranean cuisine consisting of the ingredients , recipes , and cooking techniques developed in Italy since Roman times and later spread around

6322-509: The Southwest United States is Pinus edulis , commonly known as pinyon pine. P. edulis associates with the subterranean fungi Geopora and Rhizopogon . As global temperatures rise, so does the occurrence of severe droughts, detrimentally affecting the survival of aridland plants. This variability in climate has increased the mortality of P. edulis . Therefore, the availability of compatible mycorrhizal inoculum can greatly affect

6431-511: The basis of Italian cuisine, rich in pasta , fish , fruits, and vegetables. Cheese , cold cuts , and wine are central to Italian cuisine, and along with pizza and coffee (especially espresso ) form part of Italian gastronomic culture. Desserts have a long tradition of merging local flavours such as citrus fruits , pistachio , and almonds with sweet cheeses such as mascarpone and ricotta or exotic tastes as cocoa, vanilla, and cinnamon. Gelato , tiramisu , and cassata are among

6540-437: The beginning of the 18th century, Italian culinary books began to emphasise the regionalism of Italian cuisine rather than French cuisine . Books written then were no longer addressed to professional chefs but to bourgeois housewives. Periodicals in booklet form such as La cuoca cremonese ( The Cook of Cremona ) in 1794 give a sequence of ingredients according to season along with chapters on meat, fish, and vegetables. As

6649-490: The black truffle was published in March 2010. The black summer truffle ( Tuber aestivum ) is found across Europe and is prized for its culinary value. Burgundy truffles (designated Tuber uncinatum , but the same species) are harvested in autumn until December and have aromatic flesh of a darker colour. These are associated with various trees and shrubs. Tuber magnatum, the high-value white truffle ( Italian : tartufo bianco )

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6758-478: The boletes, spore-bearing tissue which is also easily separable from the cap, and similar microscopic characteristics of spores and cystidia . Taxonomic studies using secondary metabolites and later molecular phylogenetic evidence moved several physically dissimilar groups into Boletales, including the Sclerodermataceae (earthballs) and the Rhizopogonaceae ( false truffles ). Phylogenetic analyses shows

6867-517: The book. The courts of Florence , Rome , Venice, and Ferrara were central to the cuisine. Cristoforo di Messisbugo , steward to Ippolito d'Este , published Banchetti Composizioni di Vivande ( Banquets Compositions of Food ) in 1549. Messisbugo gives recipes for pies and tarts (containing 124 recipes with various fillings). The work emphasises the use of Eastern spices and sugar. In 1570, Bartolomeo Scappi , personal chef to Pope Pius V , wrote his Opera ( Work ) in five volumes, giving

6976-459: The canon of classic modern Italian cuisine, and it is still in print. Its recipes predominantly originate from Romagna and Tuscany , where he lived. Around 1880, two decades after the Unification of Italy , was the beginning of Italian diaspora , and with it started the spread of Italian cuisine in the world. Italy has a large number of traditional specialities protected under EU law . From

7085-399: The cell walls of plants, limiting their capacity to decompose plant litter. Plant hosts can also depend on their associated truffle fungi. Geopora , Peziza , and Tuber spp. are vital in the establishment of oak communities. Tuber species prefer argillaceous or calcareous soils that are well drained and neutral or alkaline . Tuber truffles fruit throughout the year, depending on

7194-417: The century progressed these books increased in size, popularity, and frequency. In the 18th century, medical texts warned peasants against eating refined foods as it was believed that these were poor for their digestion and their bodies required heavy meals. It was believed that peasants ate poorly because they preferred eating poorly. However, many peasants had to eat rotten food and mouldy bread because that

7303-526: The country known as Italy did not unite until the 19th century , the cuisine can claim traceable roots as far back as the 4th century BC. Food and culture were very important at that time evident from the cookbook ( Apicius ) which dates to the first century BC. Through the centuries, neighbouring regions, conquerors, high-profile chefs, political upheaval, and the discovery of the New World have influenced its development. Italian cuisine started to form after

7412-435: The country, of which 490 are protected and marked as PDO ( protected designation of origin ), PGI ( protected geographical indication ) and PAT ( prodotto agroalimentare tradizionale ). Olive oil is the most commonly used vegetable fat in Italian cooking and as the basis for sauces, replaced only in some recipes and in some geographical areas by butter or lard . Italy is the largest consumer of olive oil, at 30% of

7521-428: The country, as well as all the diverse regional gastronomies , different from each other, especially between the north , the centre , and the south of Italy, which are in continuous exchange. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated with variations throughout the country. Italian cuisine offers an abundance of taste, and is one of the most popular and copied around the world. Italian cuisine has left

7630-456: The cuisine of Liguria . This book contained the first recipe for pesto . La Cucina Teorico-Pratica ( The Theoretical-Practical Cuisine ) written by Ippolito Cavalcanti described the first recipe for pasta with tomatoes. La scienza in cucina e l'arte di mangiare bene ( The Science of Cooking and the Art of Eating Well ), by Pellegrino Artusi , first published in 1891, is widely regarded as

7739-604: The digging that dropped the production rate of the area for some years. An alternative to truffle pigs are dogs. Dogs offer an advantage because they do not have a strong desire to eat truffles, so they can be trained to locate sporocarps without digging them up. Pigs attempt to dig up truffles. Fly species of the genus Suillia can also detect the volatile compounds associated with subterranean fruiting bodies. These flies lay their eggs above truffles to provide food for their young. At ground level, Suilla flies can be seen flying above truffles. The mycelia or fruiting bodies release

7848-447: The dish, in three different ways: Pizza, consisting of a usually round, flat base of leavened wheat-based dough topped with tomatoes, cheese, and often various other ingredients (such as anchovies, mushrooms, onions, olives, meats, and more), which is then baked at a high temperature, traditionally in a wood-fired oven, is the best known and most consumed Italian food in the world. In 2009, upon Italy's request, Neapolitan pizza

7957-416: The dispersal of sporocarps to inoculate isolated individuals. For example, the acorns of Q. garryana may be carried to new territory that lacks the necessary mycorrhizal fungi for establishment. Some mycophagous animals depend on truffles as their dominant food source. Flying squirrels, Glaucomys sabrinus , of North America play a three-way symbiosis with truffles and their associated plants. G. sabrinus

8066-528: The ectomycorrhizal trophic mode in diverse fungi. The subphylum Pezizomycotina , containing the order Pezizales, is approximately 400 million years old. Within the order Pezizales, subterranean fungi evolved independently at least fifteen times. Contained within Pezizales are the families Tuberaceae , Pezizaceae , Pyronematacae , and Morchellaceae . All of these families contain lineages of subterranean or truffle fungi. The oldest ectomycorrhizal fossils are from

8175-512: The fall of the Roman Empire , when different cities began to separate and form their own traditions. Many different types of bread and pasta were made, and there was a variation in cooking techniques and preparation. Trade, the location on the Silk Road , and its routes to Asia also influenced the local development of special dishes. Due to the climatic conditions and the different proximity to

8284-490: The female pig's natural truffle-seeking and her intent to eat the truffle were thought to be due to a compound within the truffle similar to androstenol , the sex pheromone of boar saliva, to which the sow is keenly attracted. Studies in 1990 demonstrated that the compound actively recognised by both truffle pigs and dogs is dimethyl sulfide . In Italy, the use of pigs to hunt truffles has been prohibited since 1985 because of damage caused by animals to truffle mycelia during

8393-449: The formation of mycorrhizae are necessary to ensure the success of a plantation. Total investment per hectare for an irrigated and barrier-sealed plantation (against wild boars) can cost up to €10,000. Considering the level of initial investment and the maturity delay, farmers who have not taken care of both soil conditions and seedling conditions are at high risk of failure. The first black truffles ( Tuber melanosporum ) to be produced in

8502-648: The fresh egg variety. Durum flour and durum semolina have a yellow tinge in colour. Italian dried pasta is traditionally cooked al dente ( lit.   ' to the tooth ' ). There are many types of wheat flour with varying gluten and protein levels depending on the variety of grain used. Particular varieties of pasta may also use other grains and milling methods to make the flour, as specified by law. Some pasta varieties, such as pizzoccheri , are made from buckwheat flour. Fresh pasta may include eggs (Italian: pasta all'uovo , lit.   ' egg pasta ' ). Both dry and fresh pasta are used to prepare

8611-840: The genus Buchwaldoboletus . Boletes are usually identified by having a sponge-like surface under the cap, instead of the usual gills. They occur in a variety of colours, such as red, white, brown and gray. Many of the inedible boletes are either white or red, and these should be avoided during picking. The genus Boletus contains many edible species, most notably, B. edulis , including B. aereus and B. pinophilus , though many others are eaten, as well, such as B. badius . B. edulis and its relatives are of great commercial importance in Europe and North America. Species of Suillus are considered by many to be slimy and insipid; in Russia, though, they are often pickled and even sold commercially this way. In North America, S. pungens , known also as

8720-483: The genus Tuber was investigated in 2008 using internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of nuclear DNA and revealed five major clades (Aestivum, Excavatum, Rufum, Melanosporum and Puberulum); this was later improved and expanded in 2010 to nine major clades using 28S large subunits (LSU) rRNA of mitochondrial DNA . The Magnatum and Macrosporum clades were distinguished as distinct from the Aestivum clade. The Gibbosum clade

8829-562: The idea of transplanting some seedlings that he had collected at the foot of oak trees known to host truffles in their root system. For discovering how to cultivate truffles, some sources now give priority to Pierre II Mauléon (1744–1831) of Loudun (in western France), who began to cultivate truffles around 1790. Mauléon saw an "obvious symbiosis" between the oak tree, the rocky soil, and the truffle and attempted to reproduce such an environment by taking acorns from trees known to have produced truffles and sowing them in chalky soil. His experiment

8938-511: The late 19th century, an epidemic of phylloxera destroyed many of the vineyards in southern France. Another epidemic killed most of the silkworms there, too, making the fields of mulberry trees useless. Trufficulture became an important source of income for those affected. The calcareous and exposed vineyard soils were well-suited to the cultivation of truffles. By 1890, truffières (truffle plantations) covered 750 km of land in France, and 2,000 tonnes of truffles were produced in that year. From

9047-615: The majority of nutrient exchange occurs in the Hartig net, the intercellular hyphal network between plant root cells. A unique feature of ectomycorrhizal fungi is the formation of the mantle on the outer surface of fine roots. Truffles have been suggested to co-locate with the orchid species Epipactis helleborine and Cephalanthera damasonium , though this is not always the case. Truffle fungi are ecologically important in nutrient cycling. Plants obtain nutrients via their fine roots. Mycorrhizal fungi are much smaller than fine roots, so they have

9156-870: The most common ingredients. Pasta dishes with tomato are common throughout Italy. Italians use ingredients that are fresh and subtly seasoned and spiced. In northern Italy there are many types of stuffed pasta , although polenta and risotto are equally popular if not more so. Ligurian ingredients include several types of fish and seafood dishes. Basil (found in pesto ), nuts, and olive oil are very common. In Emilia-Romagna, common ingredients include prosciutto (Italian ham), cotechino , different sorts of salami , truffles, grana , Parmesan (Italian: Parmigiano Reggiano ), tomatoes ( Bolognese sauce or ragù ) and balsamic vinegar (Italian: aceto balsamico ). Traditional central Italian cuisine uses ingredients such as tomatoes, all types of meat, fish, and pecorino . In Tuscany , pasta (especially pappardelle )

9265-421: The most famous examples of Italian desserts, cakes, and patisserie. Italian cuisine relies heavily on traditional products; the country has a large number of traditional specialities protected under EU law . Italy is the world's largest producer of wine , as well as the country with the widest variety of indigenous grapevine varieties in the world. Italian cuisine has developed over the centuries. Although

9374-461: The phylum Glomeromycota within the order Glomerales . Members of this genus have low host specificity, associating with a variety of plants including hardwoods, forbs, shrubs, and grasses. These fungi commonly occur throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Members of the genus Elaphomyces are commonly mistaken for truffles. Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated the convergent evolution of

9483-452: The roots of host plants. Arriving at roots, hyphae begin to form a mantle or sheath on the outer surface of root tips. Hyphae then enter the root cortex intercellularly to form the Hartig net for nutrient exchange. Hyphae can spread to other root tips colonising the entire root system of the host. Over time, the truffle fungus accumulates sufficient resources to form fruiting bodies. Rate of growth

9592-476: The roots of several tree species, including beech , birch , hazel , hornbeam , oak , pine , and poplar . Mutualistic ectomycorrhizal fungi such as truffles provide valuable nutrients to plants in exchange for carbohydrates . Ectomycorrhizal fungi cannot survive in the soil without their plant hosts. In fact, many of these fungi have lost the enzymes necessary for obtaining carbon through other means. For example, truffle fungi have lost their ability to degrade

9701-430: The sea, different basic foods and spices were available from region to region. Regional cuisine is represented by some of the major cities in Italy. For example, Milan (in the north of Italy) is known for risottos , Trieste (in the northeast of Italy) is known for multicultural food, Bologna (in the centre of Italy) is known for its tortellini , and Naples (in the south of Italy) is famous for its pizzas . There

9810-684: The shapes for which they are named— penne , maccheroni , spaghetti , linguine , fusilli , lasagne . Many more varieties are filled with other ingredients, such as ravioli and tortellini . The word pasta is also used to refer to dishes in which pasta products are a primary ingredient. It is usually served with sauce. There are hundreds of different shapes of pasta with at least locally recognised names. Examples include spaghetti ('thin rods'), rigatoni ('tubes' or 'cylinders'), fusilli ('swirls'), and lasagne ('sheets'). Dumplings, such as gnocchi (made with potatoes or pumpkin) and noodles such as spätzle , are sometimes considered pasta. Pasta

9919-566: The soil and the seasons was lost along with the people. Another consequence was no more grazing sheep or shepherds who pruned trees for feed and fuelwood, so former truffle plantations turned into closed forests that no longer produced truffles. Truffles were once sold at weekly markets (bi-weekly in the case of a market in Martel, Lot ) and in quantities of two to six tonnes in good weeks, but only Lalbenque and Limogne today have weekly truffle markets. Prices have increased so that truffles, once seen as

10028-429: The species, and can be found buried between the leaf litter and the soil. Most fungal biomass is found in the humus and litter layers of soil. Most truffle fungi produce both asexual spores (mitospores or conidia ) and sexual spores (meiospores or ascospores / basidiospores ). Conidia can be produced more readily and with less energy than ascospores and can disperse during disturbance events. Production of ascospores

10137-414: The successful establishment of P. edulis seedlings. Associated ectomycorrhizal fungi will likely play a significant role in the survival of P. edulis with continuing global climate change . Because truffles are subterranean, they are often located with the help of an animal (sometimes called a truffler ) possessing a refined sense of smell. Traditionally, pigs have been used to extract truffles. Both

10246-415: The total of sausages and cured meats consumed in Europe, while others are marked as PAT. Salumi are Italian meat products typical of an antipasto , predominantly made from pork and cured . They are also include bresaola , which is made from beef, and some cooked products, such as mortadella and prosciutto . Meat , especially beef , pork, and poultry , is very present in Italian cuisine, in

10355-456: The uptake of other organisms. Thus, truffle fungi and other ectomycorrhizal fungi facilitate a complex system of nutrient exchange between plants, animals, and microbes. Plant community structure is often affected by the availability of compatible mycorrhizal fungi. In arid-land ecosystems, these fungi become essential for the survival of their host plants by enhancing the ability to withstand drought. A foundation species in arid-land ecosystems of

10464-523: The volatile constituents responsible for the natural aroma of truffles or derive from truffle-associated microbes . The chemical ecology of truffle volatiles is complex, interacting with plants, insects, and mammals, which contribute to spore dispersal. Depending on the truffle species, lifecycle, or location, they include: Several truffle species and varieties are differentiated based on their relative contents or absence of sulfides , ethers or alcohols , respectively. The sweaty-musky aroma of truffles

10573-421: The world together with waves of Italian diaspora . Significant changes occurred with the colonization of the Americas and the introduction of potatoes , tomatoes , capsicums , maize , and sugar beet —the latter introduced in quantity in the 18th century. It is one of the best-known and most widely appreciated gastronomies worldwide. Italian cuisine includes deeply rooted traditions common throughout

10682-477: The world total. It also has the largest range of olive cultivars in existence and is the second largest producer and exporter in the world, producing more than 464,000 tons. Bread has always been a fundamental food in Italian cuisine, and that of other Mediterranean countries. There are numerous regional types of bread. Italian cuisine has a great variety of sausages and cured meats , many of which are protected and marked as PDO and PGI, and make up 34% of

10791-410: The world using controlled irrigation for regular and resilient production. A critical phase of the cultivation is the quality control of the mycorrhizal plants. Between 7 and 10 years are needed for the truffles to develop their mycorrhizal network, and only after that do the host plants come into production. Complete soil analysis to avoid contamination by other dominant fungi and very strict control of

10900-440: Was a Protestant . The book lists Italian vegetables and fruits along with their preparation. He featured vegetables as a central part of the meal, not just as accompaniments. Castelvetro favoured simmering vegetables in salted water and serving them warm or cold with olive oil, salt, fresh ground pepper, lemon juice, verjus or orange juice . He also suggested roasting vegetables wrapped in damp paper over charcoal or embers with

11009-648: Was abandoned and replaced by a culture of gastronomy as the Roman Empire developed . By the time De re coquinaria was published in the 1st century AD, it contained 470 recipes calling for heavy use of spices and herbs. The Romans employed Greek bakers to produce breads and imported cheeses from Sicily, as the Sicilians had a reputation as the best cheesemakers . The Romans reared goats for butchering , and grew artichokes and leeks . Some foods considered traditional were imported to Italy from foreign countries during

11118-620: Was all they could afford. In 1779, Antonio Nebbia from Macerata in the Marche region, wrote Il Cuoco Maceratese ( The Cook of Macerata ). Nebbia addressed the importance of local vegetables and pasta, rice, and gnocchi . For stock, he preferred vegetables and chicken over other meats. In 1773, the Neapolitan Vincenzo Corrado's Il Cuoco Galante ( The Courteous Cook ) gave particular emphasis to vitto pitagorico ( pythagorean food ). "Pythagorean food consists of fresh herbs, roots, flowers, fruits, seeds and all that

11227-412: Was created to describe boletes, but based on micromorphological and molecular phylogenetic characteristics, a large number of nonbolete species have recently been reclassified to belong to this group, as well. The order also includes some gilled mushrooms, in the families Gomphidiaceae , Serpulaceae , Tapinellaceae , Hygrophoropsidaceae , and Paxillaceae , which often have the same flesh texture as

11336-483: Was designated the "Land of the Kiwi" and given protected status as a regional delicacy. Italian cuisine is one of the most popular and copied cultures worldwide. The lack or total unavailability of some of its most characteristic ingredients outside of Italy, leads to the complete de-naturalization of Italian ingredients, and above all else leads to falsifications (or food fraud). This phenomenon, widespread in all continents,

11445-507: Was ever followed by a harvest. This perhaps is all right, for as one of the great values of truffles is their dearness, perhaps they would be less highly esteemed if they were cheaper. Truffles can be cultivated. As early as 1808, attempts to cultivate truffles, known in French as trufficulture , were successful. People had long observed that truffles were growing among the roots of certain trees, and in 1808, Joseph Talon , from Apt ( département of Vaucluse ) in southern France , had

11554-513: Was included in a 1475 book by Bartolomeo Platina printed in Venice entitled De honesta voluptate et valetudine ( On Honest Pleasure and Good Health ). Platina puts Martino's Libro in a regional context, writing about perch from Lake Maggiore , sardines from Lake Garda , grayling from Adda , hens from Padua , olives from Bologna and Piceno , turbot from Ravenna , rudd from Lake Trasimeno , carrots from Viterbo , bass from

11663-511: Was registered with the European Union as a traditional speciality guaranteed dish, and in 2017 the art of its making was included on UNESCO 's list of intangible cultural heritage . Up to 20% of the flour in the traditional pizza crust can be strong Manitoba flour , which was introduced to Italy from Canada as part of the Marshall Plan after World War II. In Italy it is consumed as

11772-549: Was resolved as distinct from all other clades, and the Spinoreticulatum clade was separated from the Rufum clade. The truffle habit has evolved independently among several basidiomycete genera. Phylogenetic analysis has revealed that basidiomycete subterranean fruiting bodies, like their ascomycete counterparts, evolved from above ground mushrooms. For example, Rhizopogon species likely arose from an ancestor shared with Suillus ,

11881-551: Was successful, with truffles found in the soil around the newly grown oak trees years later. In 1847, Auguste Rousseau of Carpentras (in Vaucluse ) planted 7 hectares (17 acres) of oak trees (again from acorns found on the soil around truffle-producing oak trees), and he subsequently obtained large harvests of truffles. He received a prize at the 1855 World's Fair in Paris . Others imitated these successful attempts in France and Italy. In

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