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220-626: The three Leschan sisters were the daughters of Alexander Leschan, a Hungarian acrobat born in 1877 in Budapest , and Eva de Leeuwe, a Dutch Jewish operetta singer born in Amsterdam in 1892. In the Netherlands , where they were born and raised, they worked as circus acrobats. Though they were born in the Netherlands and Dutch native speakers, the three sisters were Hungarian citizens until they acquired

440-525: A compromise allowed the formation of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1867, a major power into the early 20th century. Austria-Hungary collapsed after World War I , and the subsequent Treaty of Trianon in 1920 established Hungary's current borders, resulting in the loss of 71% of its historical territory, 58% of its population, and 32% of its ethnic Hungarians . In the interwar period , after initial turmoil, Miklós Horthy ascended as

660-677: A high-income economy with universal health care and tuition-free secondary education . Hungary has a long history of significant contributions to arts , music , literature , sports , science and technology . It is a popular tourist destination in Europe, drawing 24.5 million international tourists in 2019. It is a member of numerous international organisations, including the Council of Europe , European Union , NATO , United Nations , World Health Organization , World Trade Organization , World Bank , Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank , and

880-618: A pardon for de Rosa, who was released after having served slightly less than half his sentence and was eventually killed in the Spanish Civil War . In 1928, after the colonial authorities in Italian Somaliland built Mogadishu Cathedral ( Cattedrale di Mogadiscio ), Umberto made his first publicised visit to Mogadishu , the territory's capital. Umberto made his second publicised visit to Italian Somaliland in October 1934. Umberto

1100-606: A Togliatti-Badoglio duumvirate might emerge, forming an alliance between what rapidly was becoming Italy's largest mass party and the military. The power and influence of Badoglio's government, based in Salerno , was very limited, but the entry of the Communists, followed by representatives of the other anti-Fascist parties, into the Cabinet of that government in April 1944 marked the moment when, as

1320-572: A bilineal descendant of the Árpád dynasty – successfully restored royal power and defeated oligarch rivals, the so-called "little kings". The second Angevin Hungarian king, Louis the Great (1342–1382), led many successful military campaigns from Lithuania to southern Italy ( Kingdom of Naples ) and was also King of Poland from 1370. After King Louis died without a male heir, the country was stabilised only when Sigismund of Luxembourg (1387–1437) succeeded to

1540-660: A change in the Royal tour. The prince had to stop in Salvador , the capital of Bahia , to supply the ships, going directly to the other countries of South America. On his return, Umberto could only be received in Salvador again. Governor Góis Calmon, the Italian colony and other entities warmly welcomed the heir to the Italian Throne. Umberto was educated for a military career and in time became

1760-514: A democracy by executing "the vastest education programme Italy has ever seen" to eliminate illiteracy in Italy once and for all. A few days later, on 19 April 1944, Umberto in an interview with The Times complained that the ACC was too liberal in giving Italians too much freedom, as the commissioners "seemed to expect the Italian people to run before they could walk". In the same interview, Umberto demanded

1980-653: A destabilisation of the Soviet bloc. On 4 November, reinforcements of more than 150,000 troops and 2,500 tanks entered the country from the Soviet Union. Nearly 20,000 Hungarians were killed resisting the intervention, while an additional 21,600 were imprisoned afterward for political reasons. Some 13,000 were interned and 230 brought to trial and executed. Nagy was secretly tried, found guilty, sentenced to death, and executed by hanging in June 1958. Because borders were briefly opened, nearly

2200-681: A determining politician, representing the monarchy as regent in place of the Habsburgs. Hungary joined the Axis powers in World War II , suffering significant damage and casualties. As a result, the Hungarian People's Republic was established as a satellite state of the Soviet Union . Following the failed 1956 revolution , Hungary became comparatively freer , but still remained a repressed member of

2420-629: A force for order, Umberto could have held out for him. However, as part of his efforts to distance himself from Fascism, Umberto agreed to appoint Bonomi as prime minister. Reflecting the tense "institutional question" of republic vs. monarchy, Umberto, when swearing in the Bonomi cabinet, allowed the ministers to take either their oaths to himself as the Lieutenant General of the Realm or to the Italian state; Bonomi himself chose to take his oath to Umberto while

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2640-479: A government "patterned on the British monarchy, and at the same time incorporating as much of America's political framework as possible". Umberto admitted that, in retrospect, his father had made grave mistakes as King and criticised Victor Emmanuel for a suffocating childhood, where he was never permitted to express his personality or hold views of his own. In the same interview, Umberto stated that he hoped to make Italy

2860-730: A just ruler because he protected them from excessive demands and other abuses by the magnates. Under his rule, in 1479, the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the Battle of Breadfield . Abroad he defeated the Polish and German imperial armies of Frederick at Breslau ( Wrocław ). Matthias' mercenary standing army, the Black Army of Hungary , was an unusually large army for its time, and it conquered Vienna as well as parts of Austria and Bohemia . King Matthias died without lawful sons, and

3080-401: A liberal democracy in Italy after the war was a republic. By this point, the government of Pietro Badoglio was so unpopular with the Italian people that Umberto was willing to accept the support of any party with a mass following, even the Communists. The fact that contrary to expectations, Togliatti and Badoglio got along very well, led to widespread fears amongst liberal-minded Italians that

3300-569: A list of 12 demands . Under Governor and President Lajos Kossuth and Prime Minister Lajos Batthyány , the House of Habsburg was dethroned. The Habsburg ruler and his advisors skillfully manipulated the Croatian, Serbian and Romanian peasantry, led by priests and officers firmly loyal to the Habsburgs, into rebelling against the Hungarian government, though the Hungarians were supported by the vast majority of

3520-411: A long exile in the Soviet Union , he did not press for an immediate proclamation of a republic. Togliatti wanted the monarchy to continue as the best way of winning the Communists' support after the war. For the same reason, Count Sforza wanted a republic as soon as possible, arguing the House of Savoy was far too closely associated with Fascism to enjoy moral legitimacy, and the only hope of establishing

3740-551: A mercenary commander. He was elected governor, then regent. He was a successful crusader against the Ottoman Turks , one of his greatest victories being the siege of Belgrade in 1456. The last strong king of medieval Hungary was the Renaissance king Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490), son of John Hunyadi. His election was the first time that a member of the nobility mounted to the Hungarian royal throne without dynastic background. He

3960-421: A more favourable view of their monarchy, while the republicans wanted a referendum as soon as possible, hoping that wartime radicalisation would work in their favour. Umberto earned widespread praise for his role in the following three years, with the Italian historian Giuseppe Mammarella calling Umberto a man "whose Fascist past was less compromising" than that of Victor Emmanuel and who, as Lieutenant General of

4180-525: A motion introduced by the gerarca Dino Grandi to take away Mussolini's powers was approved by a vote of 19 to 8. The fact that the majority of the Fascist Grand Council voted for the motion showed just how disillusioned the Fascist gerarchi had become with Mussolini by the summer of 1943. The intransigent and radical group of Fascists led by the gerarchi Roberto Farinacci , who wanted to continue

4400-447: A musical number ("Oh! Ma-ma!") in the film Ecco la radio! (" Here Is the Radio! "), directed by Giacomo Gentilomo and dedicated to EIAR. They recorded a great number of songs under the direction of Pippo Barzizza. On March 30, 1942, on Benito Mussolini 's proposal, King Victor Emmanuel III granted them Italian citizenship. The news – though at the time the population was concerned about

4620-456: A new policy line, according to which the people were no longer compelled to profess loyalty to the party if they tacitly accepted the socialist regime as a fact of life. Kádár introduced new planning priorities in the economy, such as allowing farmers significant plots of private land within the collective farm system ( háztáji gazdálkodás ). The living standard rose as consumer goods and food production took precedence over military production, which

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4840-766: A party, Benito Mussolini himself showed his admiration for them. In a 1985 interview, Alexandrina Leschan claimed she had been arrested by Fascist police after a concert at the Teatro Grattacielo in Genoa . She reported that her sisters and she were taken to the Marassi jail under charges of espionage. She blamed upon the Codevilla sisters, members of the Trio Capinere who envied their popularity. Alexandrina also reported that her sisters and she were obliged to translate interrogations of

5060-446: A peace attempt made through Papal intermediaries. More importantly, Victor Emmanuel was proudly misogynistic , holding women in complete contempt as the King believed it to be a scientific fact that the brains of women were significantly less developed than the brains of men. Victor Emmanuel simply did not believe that Marie José was competent to serve as a diplomat. For all these reasons,

5280-426: A quarter of a million people fled the country by the time the revolution was suppressed. After a second, briefer period of Soviet military occupation, János Kádár , Nagy's former minister of state, was chosen by the Soviet leadership to head the new government and chair the new ruling Socialist Workers' Party . Kádár quickly normalised the situation. In 1963, the government granted a general amnesty. Kádár proclaimed

5500-424: A republic or a monarchy instead of having the "institutional question" decided by the national assembly that would write Italy's post-war constitution. Umberto's interview caused controversy as the republican parties widely feared that a referendum would be rigged, especially in the south of Italy. In the same interview, Umberto mentioned his belief that, after the war, monarchies all over the world would move towards

5720-458: A republican direction. Still, they were willing to accept Umberto temporarily out of the belief that his personality and widespread rumours about his private life would ensure that he would not last long as either Lieutenant General of the Realm or as King, should his father abdicate. After the liberation of Rome on 6 June 1944, the various Italian political parties all applied strong pressure on Umberto to dismiss Pietro Badoglio as prime minister, as

5940-586: A separate peace treaty between Italy and the United States . Her interlocutor from the Vatican was Giovanni Battista Monsignor Montini, a senior Papal diplomat who later became Pope Paul VI . Her attempts were not sponsored by her father-in-law, the King, and Umberto was not (directly at least) involved in them. Victor Emmanuel III was anti-clerical, distrusting the Catholic Church , and wanted nothing to do with

6160-578: A severe decline in living standards. In imitation of Stalin's KGB , the Rákosi government established a secret political police, the ÁVH , to enforce the regime; approximately 350,000 officials and intellectuals were imprisoned or executed from 1948 to 1956. Many freethinkers, democrats, and Horthy-era dignitaries were secretly arrested and extrajudicially interned in domestic and foreign gulags . Some 600,000 Hungarians were deported to Soviet labour camps, where at least 200,000 died. After Stalin's death in 1953,

6380-450: A sincere Catholic who it was believed would keep the Communists out of power. However, De Gasperi admitted that though the monarchy was a conservative institution, "it was difficult to answer the argument that the monarchy had done little to serve the interests of the country or people during the past thirty years". Umberto's relations with the Allies were strained by his insistence that after

6600-640: A single shot that missed him. De Rosa was arrested and, under interrogation, claimed to be a member of the Second International who had fled Italy to avoid arrest for his political views. His trial was a major political event, and although he was found guilty of attempted murder, he was given a light sentence of five years in prison. This sentence caused a political uproar in Italy and a brief rift in Belgian-Italian relations, but in March 1932 Umberto asked for

6820-573: A successor. Umberto used the impasse to reassert the Crown's powers. The crisis ended on 12 December 1944 with Umberto appointing a new government under Bonomi consisting of ministers from four parties, the most important of which were the Communists and the Christian Democrats. In response to objections from the CLN, Bonomi, in practice, accepted their claim that they represented the Italian people rather than

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7040-408: A very congenial companion whose intelligence he respected, but was afraid that he suited his conversation according to his company". By late 1944, the question of whether the CLN or the Crown represented the Italian people came to a head. On 25 November 1944, Bonomi resigned as prime minister, saying he could not govern owing to his difficulties with the CLN, and as the politicians could not agree on

7260-503: A very rich repertoire of their own, particularly swing songs such as "Tulipan" (cover of the song "Tulip Time" originally performed by the American Andrews Sisters , with music by María Grever and Italian lyrics by Riccardo Morbelli). The style of the trio was characterized by refined vocal virtuosity on swing and jazz harmonization. As radio stars, they were so popular as to be invited to court by Prince Umberto of Savoy . At

7480-495: Is not entirely clear why Victor Emmanuel was prepared to sacrifice his 10-year-old son's right to succeed to the throne in favour of the Duke of Aosta. Umberto was brought up in an authoritarian and militaristic household and was expected to "show an exaggerated deference to his father"; both in private and public, Umberto always had to get down on his knees and kiss his father's hand before being allowed to speak, even as an adult, and he

7700-492: Is taken from the name of one of the seven major semi-nomadic Hungarian tribes, magyeri . The first element magy is likely from Proto-Ugric * mäńć- 'man, person', also found in the name of the Mansi people ( mäńćī, mańśi, måńś ). The second element eri , 'man, men, lineage', survives in Hungarian férj 'husband', and is cognate with Mari erge 'son', Finnish archaic yrkä 'young man'. The Roman Empire conquered

7920-641: Is weak and dissipated, with a degenerate and even oriental disposition inherited from his Balkan mother". Sam Reber, an American official with the ACC, who had known Umberto before the war, met the prince in Naples in early 1944 and wrote he found him "greatly improved. The Balkan playboy period was over. But he has a weak face and, to judge by first meeting, has not, I should say, the personality to inspire confidence and devotion in others". More damaging, Victor Emmanuel let it be known that he regretted handing over his powers to his son, and made clear that he felt that Umberto

8140-471: The 2015 migrant crisis , the government built a border barrier on the Hungarian-Croatian and Hungarian-Serbian borders to prevent illegal migration. The Hungarian government also criticised the official European Union policy for not dissuading migrants from entering Europe. From 17 October 2015 onward, thousands of migrants were diverted daily to Slovenia instead. Migration became a key issue in

8360-728: The 2018 parliamentary elections , which Fidesz won with a supermajority. In the late 2010s, Orbán's government came under increased international scrutiny over alleged rule-of-law violations. In 2018, the European Parliament voted to act against Hungary under the terms of Article 7 of the Treaty on European Union . Hungary has and continues to dispute these allegations. The coronavirus pandemic significantly impacted Hungary. The first cases were announced in Hungary on 4 March 2020; on 18 March 2020, surgeon general Cecília Müller announced that

8580-561: The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine . Hungary is a landlocked country . Its geography has traditionally been defined by its two main waterways, the Danube and Tisza rivers. The common tripartite division— Dunántúl ("beyond the Danube", Transdanubia ), Tiszántúl ("beyond the Tisza"), and Duna–Tisza köze ("between the Danube and Tisza")—is a reflection of this. The Danube flows north–south through

8800-801: The Battle of El Alamein , the Italo-German force was defeated by the British Eighth Army , marking the end of Axis hopes of conquering Egypt . The Axis retreated back into Libya . In November 1942, as part of the Battle of Stalingrad , the Red Army launched Operation Uranus , which saw the Soviets annihilate much of the Italian expeditionary force in Russia and encircle the German 6th Army. The disastrous Italian defeats at Stalingrad and El Alamein turned Umberto against

9020-413: The Battle of Lechfeld in 955 signaled a provisory end to most campaigns on foreign territories, at least towards the west. In 972, the ruling prince ( Hungarian : fejedelem ) Géza of the Árpád dynasty officially started to integrate Hungary into Christian Western Europe. His son Saint Stephen I became the first King of Hungary after defeating his pagan uncle Koppány . Under Stephen, Hungary

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9240-618: The Eastern Bloc . In 1989, concurrently with the Revolutions of 1989 , Hungary peacefully transitioned into a democratic parliamentary republic , joining the European Union in 2004 and being part of the Schengen Area since 2007. Since the election of Viktor Orbán in 2010, Hungary has undergone democratic backsliding becoming an illiberal democracy and hybrid regime . Hungary is

9460-570: The Ethiopian war , but was prevented from doing so by his father, who did, however, allow four royal dukes to serve in East Africa. Umberto conformed to his father's expectations and behaved like an army officer; the prince obediently got down on his knees to kiss his father's hand before speaking. However, Umberto privately resented what he regarded as a deeply humiliating relationship with his cold and emotionally distant father. Umberto's attitude toward

9680-517: The European Union  (green)  –  [ Legend ] Hungary is a landlocked country in Central Europe . Spanning 93,030 square kilometres (35,920 sq mi) of the Carpathian Basin , it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia and Slovenia to the southwest, and Austria to

9900-759: The Finno-Ugrian theory , they originated from an ancient Uralic -speaking population that formerly inhabited the forested area between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains . However, genetic and linguistic evidence suggests that the Hungarians’ origins lie east of the Southern Urals , in Western Siberia . The Hungarians arrived in the Carpathian Basin as a frame of a strong centralized steppe-empire under

10120-642: The First , Fourth and the Seventh Army (kept in reserve), which attacked French forces during the Italian invasion of France . Umberto was appointed to this position by his father, who wanted the expected Italian victory to also be a victory for the House of Savoy, as the King feared Mussolini's ambitions. A few hours after France signed an armistice with Germany on 21 June 1940, the Italians invaded France. The Italian offensive

10340-660: The Great Hungarian Plain ( Alföld ), which stretches across most of the eastern and southeastern areas of the country. To the north of the plain are the foothills of the Carpathians in a wide band near the Slovakian border. The Kékes at 1,014 m (3,327 ft) is the tallest mountain in Hungary and is found there. Umberto II of Italy Umberto II ( Italian : Umberto Nicola Tommaso Giovanni Maria di Savoia ; 15 September 1904 – 18 March 1983)

10560-424: The House of Savoy , Fascist newspapers in the area under the control of the Italian Social Republic "outed" Umberto, calling him Stellassa ("Ugly Starlet" in the Piedmontese language ). The Fascist newspapers reported in a lurid, sensationalist, and decidedly homophobic way Umberto's various relationships with men as a way of discrediting him. It was after Umberto was "outed" by the Fascist press in late 1943 that

10780-403: The Hungarian Democratic Forum , a major conservative opposition group, was elected to the head of a coalition government. József Antall became the first democratically elected prime minister since World War II. With the removal of state subsidies and rapid privatisation in 1991, Hungary was affected by a severe economic recession. The Antall government's austerity measures proved unpopular, and

11000-417: The Hunnic Empire ( c.  370 –469). The most powerful ruler of the Hunnic Empire was Attila the Hun (434–453), who later became a central figure in Hungarian mythology. After the disintegration of the Hunnic Empire, the Gepids , an Eastern Germanic tribe, who had been vassalised by the Huns, established their own kingdom in the Carpathian Basin. Other groups which reached the Carpathian Basin during

11220-450: The Mecsek Mountains and Villány Mountains in the south. The highest point of the area is the Írott-kő in the Alps, at 882 metres (2,894 ft). The Little Hungarian Plain ( Kisalföld ) is found in northern Transdanubia. Lake Balaton and Lake Hévíz , the largest lake in Central Europe and the largest thermal lake in the world, respectively, are in Transdanubia as well. The Duna–Tisza köze and Tiszántúl are characterised mainly by

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11440-407: The Portuguese Riviera . He died in Geneva Cantonal Hospital in 1983. Umberto was born at the Castle of Racconigi in Piedmont . He was the third child and the only son of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy and his wife, Jelena of Montenegro . As such, he was heir apparent from birth since the Italian throne was limited to male descendants. He was accorded the title Prince of Piedmont , which

11660-400: The Principality of Transylvania , under Ottoman (and later Habsburg) suzerainty . The remaining central area, including the capital Buda, was known as the Pashalik of Buda. In 1686, the Holy League's army, containing over 74,000 men from various nations, reconquered Buda from the Turks. After some more crushing defeats of the Ottomans in the next few years, the entire Kingdom of Hungary

11880-438: The Second World War in June 1940, Umberto hinted to his father that he should use the royal veto to block the Italian declarations of war on Britain and France, but was ignored. After the war, Umberto criticised the decision to enter the war, saying that Victor Emmanuel was too much under "Mussolini's spell" in June 1940 to oppose it. Following Italy's entry into the war, Umberto ostensibly commanded Army Group West , made up of

12100-466: The Soviet Union , saying that, as a Catholic, he fully supported Operation Barbarossa and wanted to do battle with the "godless communists". Mussolini refused the request, and instead gave Umberto the responsibility of training the Italian forces scheduled to participate in Operation Hercules , the planned Axis invasion of Malta . On 29 October 1942, he was awarded the rank of Marshal of Italy ( Maresciallo d'Italia ). During October–November 1942, in

12320-425: The Visegrád Group . The "H" in the name of Hungary is most likely derived from historical associations with the Huns , who had settled Hungary prior to the Avars . The rest of the word comes from the Latinised form of Byzantine Greek Oungroi ( Οὔγγροι ). The Greek name might be borrowed from Old Slavonic ągrinŭ , in turn borrowed from Oghur-Turkic Onogur ('ten [tribes of the] Ogurs'). Onogur

12540-457: The "institutional question", and only the Liberal Party was committed to preserving the monarchy, though many individual Liberals were republicans. Only a minority of the partisan bands fighting for the CLN were monarchists, and a prince of the House of Savoy led none. After the war, Umberto claimed that he wanted to join the partisans, and only his wartime duties prevented him from doing so. The Italian Royal Court relocated itself to Brindisi in

12760-423: The 1947 Paris Peace Treaties , Hungary was again reduced to its immediate post-Trianon borders. The war left Hungary devastated, destroying over 60% of the economy and causing significant loss of life . In addition to the over 600,000 Hungarian Jews killed, as many as 280,000 other Hungarians were raped, murdered and executed or deported for slave labour. After German occupation, Hungary participated in

12980-519: The ACC at a meeting on 10 April 1944, Victor Emmanuel transferred most of his powers to Umberto. The King bitterly told Lieutenant-General Sir Noel Mason-MacFarlane that Umberto was unqualified to rule, and that handing power over to him was equivalent to letting the Communists come to power. However, events had moved beyond Victor Emmanuel's ability to control. After Rome was liberated in June, Victor Emmanuel transferred his remaining constitutional powers to Umberto, naming his son Lieutenant General of

13200-411: The ACC censor the Italian press to end the criticism of the Royal Family, and claimed he had no choice but to support Mussolini because otherwise he would have been disinherited. Finally, Umberto made the controversial statement that Mussolini "at first had the full support of the nation" in bringing Italy into the war in June 1940. Victor Emmanuel III had only signed the declarations of war because "there

13420-426: The ACC in this plan, calling Victor Emmanuel a "despicable weakling" and Umberto "a pathological case", saying neither was qualified to rule Italy. However, given the unwillingness of the King to abdicate, nothing came of it. At a meeting of the leading politicians from the six revived political parties on 13 January 1944 in Bari , the demand was made that the ACC should force Victor Emmanuel to abdicate to "wash away

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13640-410: The Allied lines. The King and the rest of the Royal Family fled Rome via a car to Ortona to board a corvette, the Baionetta , that took them south. A small riot occurred at the Ortona dock as about 200 senior-ranking Italian military officers, who had abandoned their commands and unexpectedly showed up, begged the King to take them with him. Almost all of them were refused permission to board, making

13860-494: The Allies invaded Sicily . Just before the invasion of Sicily, Umberto had gone on an inspection tour of the Italian forces in Sicily and reported to his father that the Italians had no hope of holding Sicily. Mussolini had assured the King that the Regio Esercito could hold Sicily, and the poor performance of the Italian forces defending Sicily helped to persuade the King to finally dismiss Mussolini, as Umberto informed his father that Il Duce had lied to him. On 16 July 1943,

14080-401: The Allies pushed northwards, aside from the damage caused by the fighting, the retreating Germans systematically destroyed all of the infrastructure, leading to a humanitarian disaster in the liberated parts. Umberto, together with the rest of his father's government, spent time attempting to have humanitarian aid delivered. Under intense pressure from Robert Murphy and Harold Macmillan of

14300-401: The American historian Anthony Di Renzo wrote that he was: "Tall, stiff, and balding, he had smooth, clean-shaven blue cheeks, thin lips, and a weak chin. Dressed in military uniform as First Marshal of the Empire , decorated with the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, he seemed more like a majordomo than a king. On the campaign trail, Umberto was received with much more friendliness in

14520-454: The British and the Americans on behalf of the regent in September 1944 for Italy to be governed by a triumvirate consisting of himself, Bonomi and another former prime minister, Vittorio Orlando , which purged the prefects in the liberated areas who were "agents of Togliatti and Nenni" with Fascist-era civil servants. Badoglio also spoke of Umberto's desire not to lose any territory after the war to Greece, Yugoslavia and France. Badoglio's offer

14740-402: The British historian David Ellwood noted, "...anti-Fascism had compromised with the traditional state and the defenders of Fascism, and the Communist Party had engineered this compromise. A quite new phase in Italy's liberation was opening". Besides the "institutional question", the principle responsibility of the Royal Italian Government was the reconstruction of the liberated areas of Italy. As

14960-414: The British, with Churchill in particular believing the Italian monarchy was the only institution that was capable of preventing the Italian Communists from coming to power after the war. Unlike the conservative Badoglio, the social democrat Bonomi started to move Italian politics in an increasingly democratic direction as he argued that King Victor Emmanuel III, who had only turned against Mussolini when it

15180-417: The Communist Party's legal and political heir, the Socialist Party , won the subsequent 1994 elections . This abrupt shift in the political landscape was repeated in 1998 and 2002 ; in each electoral cycle, the governing party was ousted and the erstwhile opposition elected. Like most other post-communist European states, however, Hungary broadly pursued an integrationist agenda, joining NATO in 1999 and

15400-423: The Crown, while still swearing an oath of loyalty to Umberto as the Lieutenant General of the Realm when he took the prime minister's oath. An attempt by Umberto to have Churchill issue a public statement in favour of the monarchy led Macmillan to warn Umberto to try to be more politically neutral as regent. However, Churchill, during a visit to Rome in January 1945, called Umberto "a far more impressive figure than

15620-413: The Czechoslovak front, Kun's forces were ultimately unable to resist the Romanian invasion; by August 1919, Romanian troops occupied Budapest and ousted Kun. In November 1919, rightist forces led by former Austro-Hungarian admiral Miklós Horthy entered Budapest; exhausted by the war and its aftermath, the populace accepted Horthy's leadership. In January 1920, parliamentary elections were held, and Horthy

15840-411: The Duke had loyally served the Fascist regime until the Royal coup on 25 July 1943, which resulted in the social democrat Ivanoe Bonomi being appointed prime minister. On 5 June 1944, Victor Emmanuel formally gave up his powers to Umberto, finally recognising his son as Lieutenant General of the Realm. After the liberation of Rome, Umberto received a warm welcome from ordinary people when he returned to

16060-636: The Eternal City. Mack Smith cautioned that the friendly reception that Umberto received in Rome may have been due to him being a symbol of normalcy after the harsh German occupation as opposed to genuine affection for the prince. During the German occupation, much of the Roman population had lived on the brink of starvation, young people had been arrested on the streets to be taken off to work as slave labourers in Germany, while

16280-551: The European Union in 2004 . As a NATO member, Hungary was involved in the Yugoslav Wars . In 2006, major nationwide protests erupted after it was revealed that Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány had claimed in a closed-door speech that his party "lied" to win the recent elections . The popularity of left-wing parties plummeted in the ensuing political upheaval, and in 2010, Viktor Orbán 's national-conservative Fidesz party

16500-723: The Fascist Milizia , together with the Wehrmacht and SS , had committed numerous atrocities. Badoglio, by contrast, was greeted with widespread hostility when he returned to Rome, being blamed by many Italians as the man, together with the King, who was responsible for abandoning Rome to the Germans without a fight in September 1943. Umberto had ordered Badoglio to bring members of the Committee of National Liberation (CLN) into his cabinet after

16720-430: The Fascist regime in 1940. Sforza wrote in his diary of his belief that Victor Emmanuel, "that little monster", had put Umberto up to the interview to discredit his son. Croce wrote: "The Prince of Piedmont for twenty-two years has never shown any sign of acting independently of his father. Now he is simply repeating his father's arguments. He chooses to do this at the very moment when, having been designated lieutenant of

16940-414: The Fascist regime varied: at times, he mocked the more pompous aspects of Fascism and his father for supporting such a regime, while at other times, he praised Mussolini as a great leader. Umberto shared his father's fears that Mussolini's policy of alliance with Nazi Germany was reckless and dangerous, but he made no move to oppose Italy becoming one of the Axis powers . When Mussolini decided to enter

17160-506: The German war machine. By October 1944, the Soviets had reached the river Tisza, and despite some losses , succeeded in encircling and besieging Budapest in December. On 13 February 1945, Budapest surrendered; by April, German troops left the country under Soviet military occupation. 200,000 Hungarians were expelled from Czechoslovakia in exchange for 70,000 Slovaks living in Hungary. 202,000 ethnic Germans were expelled to Germany, and through

17380-543: The Germans and to the south by the Allies. Because of what Weinberg called the "extraordinary incompetence" of Badoglio, who, like Victor Emmanuel, had not anticipated Operation Achse until it was far too late, thousands of Italian soldiers with no leadership were taken prisoner by the Germans without resisting in the Balkans, France and Italy itself, to be taken off to work as slave labour in factories in Germany, an experience that many did not survive. How Victor Emmanuel mishandled

17600-666: The Holocaust , deporting nearly 440,000 Jews, mainly to Auschwitz . Nearly all of them were murdered. The Horthy government's complicity in the Holocaust remains a point of controversy and contention. Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, Hungary became a satellite state of the Soviet Union. The Soviet leadership selected Mátyás Rákosi to front the Stalinisation of the country, and Rákosi de facto ruled Hungary from 1949 to 1956. His government's policies of militarisation, industrialisation, collectivisation, and war compensation led to

17820-475: The Hungarian army, and Prime Minister Batthyány in October 1849. Kossuth escaped into exile. Following the war of 1848–1849, the whole country was in "passive resistance". Because of external and internal problems, reforms seemed inevitable, and major military defeats of Austria forced the Habsburgs to negotiate the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , by which the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary

18040-537: The Hungarian magnates procured the accession of the Pole Vladislaus II (1490–1516), supposedly because of his weak influence on Hungarian aristocracy. Hungary's international role declined, its political stability was shaken, and social progress was deadlocked. In 1514, the weakened old King Vladislaus II faced a major peasant rebellion led by György Dózsa , which was ruthlessly crushed by the nobles , led by John Zápolya . The resulting degradation of order paved

18260-543: The Italian Social Republic, the charges of homosexuality made against Umberto had an impact on the voters, causing at least some conservatives to vote for the republic. From his exile in Egypt, where King Farouk had welcomed him as a guest, Victor Emmanuel expressed no surprise at the result of the referendum as he always viewed Umberto as a failure who was unfit to be King, and claimed that the monarchists would have won

18480-448: The Italian armistice ordered Operation Achse on 8 September 1943, as the Germans turned against their Italian allies and occupied all of the parts of Italy not taken by the Allies. In response to the German occupation of Italy, neither Victor Emmanuel nor Marshal Pietro Badoglio made any effort at organised resistance; they instead issued vague instructions to the Italian military and civil servants to do their best and fled Rome during

18700-634: The Italian citizenship. Consequently to an accident, the father became disabled and the mother, a vaudevillian , decided to form an acrobatic dance group: however, only the elder sisters Alexandrina and Judith joined in under the management of Enrico Portino. They formed the Sunday Sisters and performed in Europe , Syria and Lebanon ; Catherine was too young and stayed in a boarding school in Amsterdam. In 1935 they got to Turin , where maestro Carlo Prato ,

18920-405: The Italian left out of power, and during the referendum campaign, Catholic priests used their pulpits to warn that "all the pains of hell" were reserved for those who voted for a republic. The Catholic Church presented the referendum not as a question of republic vs monarchy, but instead as a question of Communism vs Catholicism, warning to vote for a republic would be to vote for the Communists. On

19140-609: The King vetoed Marie José's peace attempt. After her failure – she never met the American agents – she was sent with her children to Sarre , in the Aosta Valley , and isolated from the political life of the Royal House. In the first half of 1943, as the war continued to go badly for Italy, several senior Fascist officials, upon learning that the Allies would never sign an armistice with Mussolini, began to plot his overthrow with

19360-582: The Kingdom of Hungary spent little time defending the actual territory of Hungary, with the exceptions of the Brusilov offensive in June 1916 and a few months later when the Romanian army made an attack into Transylvania, both of which were repelled. The Central Powers conquered Serbia. Romania declared war. The Central Powers conquered southern Romania and the Romanian capital Bucharest . In 1916 Franz Joseph died, and

19580-608: The Kuruc forces surrendered. During the Napoleonic Wars and afterward, the Hungarian Diet had not convened for decades. In the 1820s, the emperor was forced to convene the Diet, which marked the beginning of a Reform Period (1825–1848, Hungarian : reformkor ). The Hungarian Parliament was reconvened in 1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged and focused on providing for

19800-727: The Migration Period were the Goths , Vandals , Lombards , and Slavs . In the 560s, the Avars founded the Avar Khaganate, a state that maintained supremacy in the region for more than two centuries. The Franks under Charlemagne defeated the Avars in a series of campaigns during the 790s. Between 804 and 829, the First Bulgarian Empire conquered the lands east of the Danube and took over

20020-474: The Nazis rewarded Hungary's staunchly pro-Germany foreign policy in the First and Second Vienna Awards , peacefully restoring ethnic-Hungarian-majority areas lost after Trianon. In 1939, Hungary regained further territory from Czechoslovakia through force . Hungary formally joined the Axis powers on 20 November 1940 and in 1941 participated in the invasion of Yugoslavia , gaining some of its former territories in

20240-480: The Neapolitans, while much of the female population of Naples turned to prostitution to survive. As dire as the economic situation was in southern Italy, food shortages and inflation were even worse in northern Italy as the Germans carried out a policy of ruthless economic exploitation. Since the war in which Mussolini had involved Italy in 1940 had become such an utter catastrophe for the Italian people by 1943, it had

20460-497: The Prince of Piedmont to be shallow, vain, superficial, and of low intelligence, and alluding to his homosexuality stated his private life was "tainted by scandal". The diplomat and politician Count Carlo Sforza wrote in his diary that Umberto was utterly unqualified to be King as he called the prince "a stupid young man who knew nothing of the real Italy" and "he had been as closely associated with fascism as his father. In addition he

20680-506: The Realm ) to govern in place of his father. Since northern and central Italy were still occupied by Germany, it was finally decided at the Bari conference that the "institutional question" should be settled only once all of Italy was liberated, so all of the Italian people could have their say. In the Salò Republic , Mussolini returned to his original republicanism and, as part of his attack on

20900-477: The Realm . He made an exception when Adolf Hitler asked for a meeting. This was not considered proper, given the international situation; thereafter, Umberto was more rigorously excluded from political events. In 1935, Umberto supported the war against the Ethiopian Empire , which he called a "legitimate war" that even Giovanni Giolitti would have supported had he still been alive. Umberto wanted to serve in

21120-491: The Realm . However, Victor Emmanuel retained the title and position of King . During his period as Regent, Umberto saw his father only three times, partly out of a bid to distance himself and partly because of tensions between father and son. Mack Smith wrote that Umberto was: "More attractive and outgoing than his father, he was even more a soldier at heart, and completely inexperienced as a politician...In personality-less astute and intelligent than his father...less obstinate, he

21340-478: The Realm, showed certain "progressive" tendencies. In April 1946, a public opinion poll of registered members of the conservative Christian Democratic party showed that 73% were republicans, a poll that caused immense panic in the monarchist camp. The American historian Norman Kogan cautioned the poll was of Christian Democratic members, which was not the same thing as Christian Democratic voters who tended to be "...rural, female, or generally apolitical". Nonetheless,

21560-532: The River Don in January 1943. Learning of the planned defection, German troops occupied Hungary on 19 March 1944 to guarantee Horthy's compliance. In October, as the Soviet front approached, and the government made further efforts to disengage from the war, German troops ousted Horthy and installed a puppet government under Szálasi's fascist Arrow Cross Party . Szálasi pledged all the country's capabilities in service of

21780-576: The Roman province Moesia in 6 BC. An area east of the river Tisza became the Roman province of Dacia in 106 AD, which included today's east Hungary. It remained under Roman rule until 271. From 235, the Roman Empire went through troubled times, caused by revolts, rivalry and rapid succession of emperors. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century under the stress of the migration of Germanic tribes and Carpian pressure. This period brought many invaders into Central Europe, beginning with

22000-706: The Royal Decree formalised on 29 September 1904. During the crisis of May 1915, when Victor Emmanuel III decided to break the terms of the Triple Alliance by declaring war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire , he found himself in a quandary as the Italian Parliament was against declaring war; several times, the king discussed abdication with the throne to pass to the 2nd Duke of Aosta instead of Umberto. The British historian Denis Mack Smith wrote that it

22220-705: The Slovak, German and Rusyn nationalities and by all the Jews of the kingdom, as well as by a large number of Polish, Austrian and Italian volunteers. In July 1849 the Hungarian Parliament proclaimed and enacted the first laws of ethnic and minority rights in the world. Many members of the nationalities gained the coveted highest positions within the Hungarian Army, like János Damjanich and Józef Bem . The Hungarian forces ( Honvédség ) defeated Austrian armies. To counter

22440-473: The Soviet Army and the ÁVH; the roughly 3,000-strong resistance fought Soviet tanks using Molotov cocktails and machine-pistols. Though the preponderance of the Soviets was immense, they suffered heavy losses, and by 30 October 1956, most Soviet troops had withdrawn from Budapest to garrison the countryside. For a time, the Soviet leadership was unsure how to respond but eventually decided to intervene to prevent

22660-531: The Soviet Union pursued a programme of de-Stalinisation that was inimical to Rákosi, leading to his deposition. The following political cooling saw the ascent of Imre Nagy to the premiership. Nagy promised market liberalisation and political openness. Rákosi eventually managed to discredit Nagy and replace him with the more hard-line Ernő Gerő . Hungary joined the Warsaw Pact in May 1955, as societal dissatisfaction with

22880-537: The Soviet Union. As a result of this relatively high standard of living , a more liberalised economy, a less censored press, and less restricted travel rights, Hungary was generally considered one of the more liberal countries in which to live in Central Europe during communism. In 1980, Hungary sent a Cosmonaut into space as part of the Interkosmos . The first Hungarian astronaut was Bertalan Farkas . Hungary became

23100-468: The armistice was to become almost as controversial in Italy as his support for Fascism. Under the terms of the armistice, the ACC had the ultimate power with the Royal Italian Government in the south, being in many ways a similar position to the Italian Social Republic under the Germans. However, as the British historian James Holland noted, the crucial difference was that: "In the south, Italy

23320-575: The artistic director of the local EIAR , noted them and decided to raise them as a vocal trio devoted to harmonic singing. Their first reference group was the American Boswell Sisters . The three sisters signed with Parlophon , a record label at the time distributed by Cetra . Their name was Trio vocale sorelle Lescano ("Lescano Sisters vocal trio", shortened to Trio Lescano), their names and surname were Italianized due to Fascist language policies and their first song, "Guarany Guaranà",

23540-402: The belated hope of influencing public opinion ahead of a referendum on the continuation of the monarchy , Victor Emmanuel formally abdicated in favour of Umberto on 9 May 1946 and left for Egypt. Before departing for Egypt, Victor Emmanuel saw Umberto for the last time, saying farewell in a cold, emotionless way. The Catholic Church saw the continuation of the monarchy as the best way of keeping

23760-450: The cabinet on 22 April 1944 to preempt the Communists who joined the cabinet on 24 April. The Christian Democratic leader Alcide De Gasperi believed in 1944 that a popular vote would ensure a republic immediately, and sources from the Vatican suggested to him that only 25% of Italians favoured continuing the monarchy. The Catholic Church was in favour of Umberto, who, unlike his father, was

23980-471: The capitulation of France, Mussolini kept Umberto inactive as an Army commander. In the summer of 1940, Umberto was to command a planned invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Still, Mussolini subsequently cancelled the invasion of Yugoslavia in favour of invading the Kingdom of Greece . In June 1941, supported by his father, Umberto strongly lobbied to be given command of the Italian expeditionary force sent to

24200-530: The centre of contemporary Hungary, and the entire country lies within its drainage basin . Transdanubia, which stretches westward from the centre of the country towards Austria, is a primarily hilly region with a terrain varied by low mountains. These include the very eastern stretch of the Alps , Alpokalja , in the west of the country, the Transdanubian Mountains in the central region of Transdanubia, and

24420-584: The commander-in-chief of the Northern Armies, and then the Southern ones. This role was merely formal, the de facto command belonging to his father, King Victor Emmanuel III, who jealously guarded his power of supreme command from Il Duce , Benito Mussolini . By mutual agreement, Umberto and Mussolini always kept a distance. In 1926, Mussolini passed a law allowing the Fascist Grand Council to decide

24640-478: The conflict and invaded Croatia in 1091. The Kingdom of Croatia entered a personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary in 1102 with the coronation of King Coloman as "King of Croatia and Dalmatia" in 1102 in Biograd . The most powerful and wealthiest king of the Árpád dynasty was Béla III , who disposed of the equivalent of 23 tonnes of silver per year, according to a contemporary income register . This exceeded

24860-485: The continuation of the Italian monarchy , Victor Emmanuel abdicated his throne in favour of Umberto, in the hope that his exit might bolster the monarchy. The June 1946 referendum saw voters voting to abolish the monarchy, and Italy was declared a republic days later. Umberto departed the country; he and other male members of the House of Savoy were barred from returning. He lived out the rest of his life in exile in Cascais , on

25080-507: The contrary, do they want to hand over the fate of their future to the impossible omnipotence of a secular state without extraterrestrial ideals, without religion, and without God. One of these two alternatives shall occur according to whether the names of the champions or the destroyers of Christian civilization emerge victorious from the urns". Umberto believed that the support from the Catholic Church would be decisive and that he would win

25300-538: The country from three sides— Romania invaded Transylvania , Czechoslovakia annexed Upper Hungary (today's Slovakia), and a joint Serb - French coalition annexed Vojvodina and other southern regions. In March 1919, communists led by Béla Kun ousted the Károlyi government and proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic ( Tanácsköztársaság ), followed by a thorough Red Terror campaign. Despite some successes on

25520-502: The country, who were fleeing the Mongols. Over the centuries, they were fully assimilated. After the Mongols retreated, King Béla ordered the construction of hundreds of stone castles and fortifications, to defend against a possible second Mongol invasion. The Mongols returned to Hungary in 1285, but the newly built stone-castle systems and new tactics (using a higher proportion of heavily armed knights) stopped them. The invading Mongol force

25740-468: The criticism of himself or his father. The British Foreign Secretary, Anthony Eden , wrote after meeting Umberto, in a message to London, that he was "the poorest of poor creatures", and his only qualification for the throne was that he had more charm than his charmless father. The historian and philosopher Benedetto Croce , a minister in Badoglio's cabinet, called Umberto "entirely insignificant" as he found

25960-480: The day before the referendum, 1 June 1946, Pope Pius XII , in a sermon on St. Peter's Square , said in what was widely seen as endorsing Umberto: "What is the problem? The problem is whether one or the other of those nations, of those two Latin sisters [elections were taking place in France on the same day] with several thousands of years of civilisation, will continue to lean against the solid rock of Christianity;... or on

26180-413: The dethronement of the Habsburgs in 1707 at the Diet of Ónod , took power provisionally as the ruling prince for the wartime period, but refused the Hungarian crown and the title "king". The uprisings lasted for years. The Hungarian Kuruc army, although taking over most of the country, lost the main battle at Trencsén (1708). Three years later, because of the growing desertion, defeatism, and low morale,

26400-432: The disarmament of the Hungarian army. Disarmament meant that Hungary was to remain without a national defence at a time of particular vulnerability. During the rule of Károlyi's pacifist cabinet, Hungary lost control over approximately 75% of its pre-war territories (325,411 square kilometres (125,642 sq mi)) without a fight and was subject to foreign occupation. The Little Entente , sensing an opportunity, invaded

26620-525: The divided Hungarian nobility elected two kings simultaneously, John Zápolya and Ferdinand I of the Habsburg dynasty . With the conquest of Buda by the Turks in 1541, Hungary was divided into three parts and remained so until the end of the 17th century. The north-western part, termed as Royal Hungary , was annexed by the Habsburgs who ruled as kings of Hungary. The eastern part of the kingdom became independent as

26840-516: The economic situation had deteriorated (strikes in factories were organised by leftist and pacifist movements) and uprisings in the army had become common. In the capital cities, the Austrian and Hungarian leftist liberal movements and their leaders supported the separatism of ethnic minorities. Austria-Hungary signed a general armistice in Padua on 3 November 1918. In October 1918, Hungary's union with Austria

27060-419: The effect of discrediting all those associated with the Fascist system, including Victor Emmanuel. In late 1943, Victor Emmanuel stated that he felt he bore no responsibility for Italy's plight, for appointing Mussolini as prime minister in 1922 and for entering the war in 1940. This further increased his unpopularity and led to demands that he abdicate at once. In northern Italy, a guerrilla war began against

27280-426: The event the monarchy lost by a tight margin. On the 2 June 1946 referendum, which saw the participation of almost 90% of voters, over 54% majority voted to make Italy a republic. The conservative, rural Mezzogiorno (southern Italy) region voted solidly for the monarchy while the more urbanised and industrialised Nord (northern Italy) voted equally firmly for a republic. In northern Italy, which had been ruled by

27500-636: The fascists, both Italian and German, with most of the guerrilla units fighting under the banner of the National Liberation Committee ( Comitato di Liberazione Nazionale -CLN), who were very strongly left-wing and republican. Of the six parties that made up the CLN, the Communists, the Socialists and the Action Party were republican; the Christian Democrats and the Labour Party were ambiguous on

27720-560: The group, officially to get married. In fact, her resignment was due to economic disputes with her sisters and mother. 21-year-old singer Maria Bria took her place. After a two-year Italian concert tour, she left for South America with Alexandrina and Judith on a traveling show. They remained together until 1950, when the trio broke up in Caracas , Venezuela , after Maria Bria had quit. Their fans never realized that Catherine had been replaced, and Maria never received any payment for her job. Once she

27940-447: The high society of Rome and Turin, and that as a general knew that Italy was unready for war in 1940, but did not warn Mussolini against entering the war. Mack Smith wrote that "some of the more extreme monarchists" expressed doubts about the legitimacy of the referendum, claiming that millions of voters, many of them pro-monarchist, were unable to vote because they had not yet been able to return to their local areas to register. Nor had

28160-748: The income of the French king (estimated at 17 tonnes) and was double the receipts of the English Crown. Andrew II issued the Diploma Andreanum which secured the special privileges of the Transylvanian Saxons and is considered the first autonomy law in the world. He led the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217, setting up the largest royal army in the history of Crusades. His Golden Bull of 1222

28380-416: The issue of Italy's borders been settled definitively, so the voting rights of those in disputed areas had not been satisfactorily clarified. Other allegations were made about voter manipulation, and even the issue of how to interpret the votes became controversial, as it appeared that not just a majority of those validly voting but of those votes cast (including spoiled votes), was needed to reach an outcome in

28600-524: The issue of his homosexuality came to widespread public notice. As the Allies freed more and more of Italy from the Salò Republic , it became apparent that Victor Emmanuel was too tainted by his previous support of Fascism to have any further role. A sign of how unpopular the House of Savoy had become was that on 28 March 1944, when the Italian Communist leader Palmiro Togliatti returned to Italy after

28820-451: The kingdom, he ought to be overcoming doubt and distrust as I personally hoped he would succeed in doing. To me it seems unworthy to try to unload the blame and errors of royalty on the people. I, an old monarchist, am therefore especially grieved when I see the monarchs themselves working to discredit the monarchy". Various Italian politicians had attempted to persuade the Allies to revise the armistice of 1943 in Italy's favour because there

29040-671: The leadership of Grand Prince Álmos and his son Árpád : founders of the Árpád dynasty , the Hungarian ruling dynasty and the Hungarian state. The Árpád dynasty claimed to be a direct descendant of Attila the Hun. The Hungarians took possession of the area in a pre-planned manner, with a long move-in between 862 and 895. The rising Principality of Hungary ("Western Tourkia" in medieval Greek sources) conducted successful fierce campaigns and raids , from Constantinople to as far as today's Spain. The Hungarians defeated three major East Frankish imperial armies between 907 and 910. A defeat at

29260-471: The left, and stated that under his leadership Italy would go leftwards "in an ordered, liberal way" as he understood "the weight of the past is the monarchy's greatest handicap", which he would resolve by a "radical revision" of the Statuto Albertino . Umberto spoke favourably of Togliatti as he was "clever, agreeable, and easy to discuss problems with". In private, Umberto said he found Togliatti "to be

29480-496: The liberated areas of northern Italy civil servants appointed by the CLN, restoring the career civil servants who had served the Fascist regime back to their former posts. Over the opposition of the left-wing parties who wanted the "institutional question" resolved by the Constituent Assembly, De Gasperi announced that a referendum would be held to decide the "institutional question". At the same time, Italian women were given

29700-465: The liberation of Rome to broaden his basis of support and ensure national unity by preventing the emergence of a rival government. Umberto moved into the Quirinal Palace , while at The Grand Hotel, the Rome branch of the CLN met with the cabinet. Speaking on behalf of the CLN in general, the Roman leadership of the CLN refused to join the cabinet as long as Badoglio headed it but indicated that Bonomi

29920-505: The modern administrative system of Hungary were established during this period. After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, Prime Minister István Tisza and his cabinet tried to avoid the outbreak and escalating of a war in Europe, but their diplomatic efforts were unsuccessful. Austria-Hungary drafted over 4 million soldiers from the Kingdom of Hungary on the side of Germany, Bulgaria, and Turkey. The troops raised in

30140-610: The monarchy. Kogan wrote Victor Emmanuel's flight from Rome was "bitterly remembered" in the Nord as an act of cowardice and betrayal by the King who abandoned his people to the German occupation without a fight. The socialist leader Sandro Pertini warned Umberto not to campaign in Milan as otherwise he would be lynched by the Milanese working class if he should appear in that city. Republican cartoonists mercilessly mocked Umberto's physical quirks, as

30360-418: The negotiations. Badoglio went about the negotiations halfheartedly while allowing many German forces to enter Italy. The American historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote that Badoglio as prime minister "...did almost everything as stupidly and slowly as possible", as he dragged out the secret peace talks going on in Lisbon and Tangier , being unwilling to accept the Allied demand for unconditional surrender. During

30580-416: The new monarch Charles IV sympathised with the pacifists. With great difficulty, the Central Powers stopped and repelled the attacks of the Russian Empire. The Eastern Front of the Allied ( Entente ) Powers completely collapsed. The Austro-Hungarian Empire then withdrew from all defeated countries. Despite great success on the Eastern Front, Germany suffered complete defeat on the Western Front . By 1918,

30800-407: The night of 8–9 September 1943. Not trusting his son, Victor Emmanuel had told Umberto nothing about his attempts to negotiate an armistice nor about his plans to flee Rome if the Germans should occupy it. For the first time in his life, Umberto openly criticised his father, saying the King of Italy should not be fleeing Rome and only reluctantly obeyed his father's orders to go south with him towards

31020-463: The official language of administration. King Saint Ladislaus completed the work of King Saint Stephen , consolidating the Hungarian state's power and strengthening Christianity . His charismatic personality, strategic leadership and military talents resulted in the termination of internal power struggles and foreign military threats. The wife of the Croatian king Demetrius Zvonimir was Ladislaus's sister. At Helen's request, Ladislaus intervened in

31240-441: The ouster of Benito Mussolini . In 1944, Victor Emmanuel, compromised by his association with Italian fascism and desperate to repair the monarchy's image, transferred most of his powers to Umberto. He transferred his remaining powers to Umberto later in 1944 and named him Lieutenant General ( Luogotenente ) of the Realm; while retaining the title of King. As the country prepared for the 1946 Italian institutional referendum on

31460-426: The partisan prisoners because of their familiarity with the German language . Twenty-five years later, a research published by Virgilio Zanolla contradicted what was reported by Alexandrina. Zanolla, after cross-checking Alexandrina's 1985 statements with the Genoese chronicles of the time, maintained that the Lescano sisters were never arrested in the considered period, nor earlier or later. In fact, in November 1942,

31680-433: The passage of antisemitic laws and, because of the continued isolation of the Little Entente, economic and then political gravitation towards Italy and Germany . The Great Depression further exacerbated the situation, and the popularity of fascist politicians increased, such as Gyula Gömbös and Ferenc Szálasi , promising economic and social recovery. Horthy's nationalist agenda reached its apogee in 1938 and 1940, when

31900-470: The peace treaty of 1947 under which Italy renounced its empire. On 15 April 1944, in an interview with The Daily Express , Umberto stated his hope that Italy would become a full Allied power, expressing his wish that the Regia Marina would fight in the Pacific against the Japanese Empire and the Regio Esercito would march alongside the other Allied armies in invading Germany. In the same interview, Umberto stated that he wanted post-war Italy to have

32120-500: The peasantry. Lajos Kossuth emerged as a leader of the lower gentry in the Parliament. A remarkable upswing started as the nation concentrated its forces on modernisation even though the Habsburg monarchs obstructed all important liberal laws relating to civil and political rights and economic reforms. Many reformers ( Lajos Kossuth , Mihály Táncsics ) were imprisoned by the authorities. On 15 March 1848, mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda enabled Hungarian reformists to push through

32340-442: The period such as Ernesto Bonino ("La famiglia canterina" by Bixio Cherubini ), Enzo Aita ("Ma le gambe" by Bracchi and D'Anzi ), Maria Jottini ("Maramao perché sei morto?" by Consiglio e Panzeri ), Oscar Carboni ("Firenze sogna" by Cesare Cesarini, "Ti pi tin" and "Lungo il margine del fiume") and Silvana Fioresi ("Pippo non lo sa" by Kramer and "Il pinguino innamorato" by Casiroli, Consiglio and Rastelli). They had however

32560-468: The politicians". As a gesture to promote national unity after the traumas of the war, in June 1945, Umberto appointed as prime minister, a prominent guerrilla leader, Ferruccio Parri . In December 1945, Umberto appointed a new, more conservative government under Alcide De Gasperi . One of the first acts of the new government was to announce the High Commission for Sanctions Against Fascism would cease operating as of 31 March 1946 and to start purging from

32780-486: The poll led to appeals from Umberto to the ACC to postpone the referendum, leading to the reply that the De Gasperi cabinet had set the date for the referendum, not the ACC. The possibility of losing the referendum also led to the monarchists to appeal to Victor Emmanuel to finally abdicate. De Gasperi and the other Christian Democratic leaders refused to take sides in the referendum, urging Christian Democratic voters to follow their consciences when it came time to vote. In

33000-416: The population to the brink of starvation in both northern and southern Italy. In 1943–44, the cost of living in southern Italy skyrocketed by 321%, while it was estimated that people in Naples needed 2,000 calories per day to survive while the average Neapolitan was doing well if they consumed 500 calories a day in 1943–44. Naples in 1944 was described as a city without cats or dogs which had all been eaten by

33220-424: The referendum by a narrow margin. The De Gasperi cabinet accepted Umberto as King, but refused to accept the standard appellation for Italian kings "by the Grace of God and the will of the people". In northern Italy, which had been the scene of the guerrilla struggle against the Italian Social Republic and the Germans, much of the population had been radicalised by the struggle, and feelings were very much against

33440-490: The referendum if only he had not abdicated. Umberto himself had expected to win the referendum and was deeply shocked when the majority of his subjects chose a republic. The republic was formally proclaimed four days later, ending Umberto's brief (effective 12 June) 34-day reign as King. Umberto at first refused to accept what he called "the outrageous illegality" of the referendum and took his deposition badly. In his last official statement as King, Umberto refused to accept

33660-444: The regime swelled. Following the firing on peaceful demonstrations by Soviet soldiers and secret police, and rallies throughout the country on 23 October 1956, protesters took to the streets in Budapest, initiating the 1956 Revolution . In an effort to quell the chaos, Nagy returned as premier, promised free elections, and took Hungary out of the Warsaw Pact. The violence nonetheless continued as revolutionary militias sprung up against

33880-403: The regions of Italy instead of just Piedmont to make the Royal Court more representative of Italy. Umberto, in September 1944, vetoed an attempt by the Bonomi government to start an investigation of who was responsible for abandoning Rome in September 1943 as he feared that it would show his father was a coward. The same month, Badoglio, who was kept on as an adviser by Umberto, made an offer to

34100-413: The rest of his cabinet chose to take their oaths only to the Italian state. Churchill especially disapproved of the replacement of Badoglio with Bonomi, complaining that, in his view, Umberto was being used by "a group of aged and hungry politicians trying to intrigue themselves into an undue share of power". Through the Allied occupation, the Americans were far more supportive of Italian republicanism than

34320-458: The revision of the treaty quickly rose to the top of the national political agenda, the Horthy government was not willing to resort to military intervention to do so. The initial years of the Horthy regime were preoccupied with putsch attempts by Charles IV , the Austro-Hungarian pretender ; continued suppression of communists; and a migration crisis triggered by the Trianon territorial changes. The government's actions continued to drift right with

34540-418: The right to vote and to hold official office for the first time, again over the opposition of the left-wing parties, who viewed Italian women as more conservative than their menfolk, and believed that female suffrage would benefit the monarchist side in the referendum. The monarchists favoured putting off the referendum as long as possible out of the hope that a return to normalcy would cause the Italians to take

34760-532: The right") "right wing". This points to the idea that the Magyar Union before the Conquest formed the "right wing" (= western wing) of the Khazar military forces. The Hungarian endonym is Magyarország , composed of magyar ('Hungarian') and ország ('country'). The name "Magyar", which refers to the people of the country, more accurately reflects the name of the country in some other languages such as Turkish , Persian and other languages as Magyaristan or Land of Magyars or similar. The word magyar

34980-404: The rule of the local Slavic tribes and remnants of the Avars. By the mid-9th century, the Balaton Principality , also known as Lower Pannonia, was established west of the Danube as part of the Frankish March of Pannonia . Foundation of the Hungarian state is connected to the Hungarian conquerors , who arrived from the Pontic-Caspian steppe as a confederation of seven tribes . According to

35200-402: The secret armistice talks, Badoglio told Count Pietro d'Acquarone that he thought he might get better terms if Victor Emmanuel abdicated in favour of Umberto, complaining that the armistice terms that the King wanted were unacceptable to the Allies. D'Acquarone told Badoglio to keep his views to himself as the King was completely unwilling to abdicate, all the more so as he believed that Umberto

35420-459: The seventh nation to be represented in space by him. In the 1980s, however, living standards steeply declined again because of a worldwide recession to which communism was unable to respond. By the time Kádár died in 1989, the Soviet Union was in steep decline and a younger generation of reformists saw liberalisation as the solution to economic and social issues. Hungary's transition from communism to capitalism ( rendszerváltás , "regime change")

35640-454: The shame of the past". Beyond removing Victor Emmanuel, which everyone at the Congress of Bari wanted, the Italian politicians differed, with some calling for a republic to be proclaimed at once, some willing to see Umberto succeed to the throne, others wanting Umberto to renounce his claim to the throne in favour of his son, and finally those who were willing to accept Umberto as Luogotenente Generale del Regno (English: Lieutenant General of

35860-405: The south of Italy after fleeing Rome. In the fall of 1943, many Italian monarchists, like Benedetto Croce and Count Carlo Sforza , pressed for Victor Emmanuel III to abdicate and for Umberto to renounce his right to the succession in favour of his 6-year-old son, with a regency council to govern Italy as the best hope of saving the monarchy. Count Sforza tried to interest the British members of

36080-627: The south of Italy than in the north. People in the Mezzogiorno loved their King, who on the campaign trail in Sicily showed an encyclopedic knowledge of Sicilian villages which greatly endeared him to the Sicilians. Umberto's principal arguments for retaining the monarchy were it was the best way to revive Italy as a great power; it was the only institution capable of holding Italy together by checking regional separatism; and it would uphold Catholicism against anti-clericalism. The republicans charged that Umberto had done nothing to oppose Fascism, with his major interest being his "glittering social life" in

36300-417: The south. Hungary formally entered World War II as an Axis power on 26 June 1941, declaring war on the Soviet Union after unidentified planes bombed Kassa , Munkács , and Rahó . Hungarian troops fought on the Eastern Front for two years. Despite early success at the Battle of Uman , the government began seeking a secret peace pact with the Allies after the Second Army suffered catastrophic losses at

36520-500: The struggle to get to the head of the queue pointless. With the exceptions of Marshal Enrico Caviglia , General Calvi di Bergolo and General Antonio Sorice , the Italian generals simply abandoned their posts on the night of 8–9 September to try to flee south, which greatly facilitated the German take-over, as the Regio Esercito was left without senior leadership. On the morning of 9 September 1943, Umberto arrived with Victor Emmanuel and Badoglio in Brindisi . In September 1943, Italy

36740-408: The successes of the Hungarian revolutionary army, Habsburg Emperor Franz Joseph I asked for help from the "Gendarme of Europe", Tsar Nicholas I , whose Russian armies invaded Hungary. This made Artúr Görgey surrender in August 1849. The leader of the Austrian army, Julius Jacob von Haynau , became governor of Hungary for a few months and ordered the execution of the 13 Martyrs of Arad , leaders of

36960-415: The succession, though in practice he admitted the prince would succeed his father. An attempted assassination took place in Brussels on 24 October 1929, the day of the announcement of his betrothal to Princess Marie José. Umberto was about to lay a wreath on the Tomb of the Belgian Unknown Soldier at the foot of the Colonne du Congrès when, with a cry of 'Down with Mussolini!', Fernando de Rosa fired

37180-404: The support of the King. Adding to their worries were a number of strikes in Milan starting on 5 March 1943, with the workers openly criticising both the war and the Fascist regime which had led Italy into the war, leading to fears in Rome that Italy was on the brink of revolution. The strike wave in Milan quickly spread to the industrial city of Turin , where the working class likewise denounced

37400-399: The territory between the Alps and the area west of the Danube River from 16 to 15 BC, the Danube being the frontier of the empire. In 14 BC, Pannonia , the western part of the Carpathian Basin , which includes the west of today’s Hungary, was recognised by emperor Augustus in the Res Gestae Divi Augusti as part of the Roman Empire. The area south-east of Pannonia was organised as

37620-465: The throne, he received a customary military education and pursued a military career afterwards. In 1940, he commanded an army group during the brief Italian invasion of France shortly before the French capitulation. In 1942, he was promoted to Marshal of Italy but was otherwise inactive as an army commander during much of the Second World War . Umberto turned against the war following Italian defeats at Stalingrad and El Alamein , and tacitly supported

37840-414: The throne, who in 1433 also became Holy Roman Emperor . The first Hungarian Bible translation was completed in 1439. For half a year in 1437, there was an antifeudal and anticlerical peasant revolt in Transylvania which was strongly influenced by Hussite ideas. From a small noble family in Transylvania, John Hunyadi grew to become one of the country's most powerful lords, thanks to his capabilities as

38060-462: The throne. Umberto was the first cousin of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia . In a 1959 interview, Umberto told the Italian newspaper La Settimana Incom Illustrata that in 1922 his father had felt that appointing Benito Mussolini as prime minister was a "justifiable risk". As Prince of Piedmont , Umberto visited South America, between July and September 1924. With his preceptor , Bonaldi, he went to Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina and Chile. This trip

38280-412: The trio gave several successful concerts during a two-week period. Zanolla himself assumed that Alexandrina came up with the story forty-years later in order to erase any rumor that they were compromised with Fascism . The assumption was confirmed by Mrs. Maria Rosaria Epicureo who claimed that the Lescano sisters overstated their summons at the police station. After the war, in June 1946, Catherine left

38500-448: The virus had spread to every part of the country. In February 2021, after Hungary became the first EU country and one of the first in the former Warsaw Pact to authorize Russian and Chinese vaccines , it briefly enjoyed one of the highest vaccination rates in Europe. Relations between Hungary and its Western partners have strained, because Orbán's government has maintained relations with Russia despite sanctions against Russia after

38720-411: The visiting Papal Assistant Secretary of State told the American diplomats in Madrid that King Victor Emmanuel III and Prince Umberto were now hated by the Italian people even more than Mussolini. By this time, many Fascist gerarchi had become convinced that it was necessary to depose Mussolini to save the Fascist system, and on the night of 24–25 July 1943, at a meeting of the Fascist Grand Council ,

38940-685: The war – reached a large audience on daily newspapers, that proposed definitions for them as "the three Graces of the microphone", "the phenomenon of the century", "the sisters who fulfill the mystery of the Holy Trinity ", as Sorelle Marinetti reported in their show Non ce ne importa niente . In 1943 they performed in the revue Sognamo insieme by Nelli and Mangini, with Wanda Osiris (then known as Vanda Osiri ), Carlo Dapporto , Letizia Gissi, Nino Gallizio and Gianna Giuffré, with original musical compositions by Giuseppe Anepeta and choreographies by Vera Petri, directed by Mario Mangini himself. During their career, they often sang alongside famous singers of

39160-438: The war and Fascism. The fact that during the strikes in Milan and Turin, Italian soldiers fraternised with the striking workers, who used slogans associated with the banned Socialist and Communist parties, deeply worried Italy's conservative establishment. By this point, the successive Italian defeats had so psychologically shattered Mussolini that he become close to being catatonic , staring into space for hours on end and saying

39380-475: The war and led him to conclude that Italy must sign an armistice before it was too late. In late 1942, Umberto had his cousin, the 4th Duke of Aosta , visit Switzerland to contact the British consulate in Geneva , where he passed on a message to London that the King was willing to sign an armistice with the Allies in exchange for a promise that he be allowed to keep his throne. In 1943, Marie José, Princess of Piedmont, involved herself in vain attempts to arrange

39600-486: The war would soon turn around for the Axis because it had to, leading even his closest admirers to become disillusioned and to begin looking for a new leader. Umberto was seen as supportive of these efforts to depose Mussolini, but as Ciano (who had turned against Mussolini by this point) complained in his diary, the prince was far too passive, refusing to make a move or even state his views unless his father expressed his approval first. On 10 July 1943, in Operation Husky ,

39820-435: The war, Italy should keep all of its colonial empire , including Ethiopia and the parts of Yugoslavia that Mussolini had annexed in 1941. Both the British and Americans told Umberto that Ethiopia had its independence restored in 1941 and would not revert to Italian rule, while the Allies had promised that Yugoslavia would be restored to its pre-war frontiers after the war. Umberto later stated that he would have never signed

40040-466: The war, were only a minority, while the majority of the gerarchi supported Grandi's call to jettison Mussolini as the best way of saving Fascism. On 25 July 1943, Victor Emmanuel III finally dismissed Mussolini and appointed Marshal Pietro Badoglio, 1st Duke of Addis Abeba , as prime minister with secret orders to negotiate an armistice with the Allies. Baron Raffaele Guariglia , the Italian ambassador to Spain , contacted British diplomats to begin

40260-477: The way for Ottoman preeminence. In 1521, the strongest Hungarian fortress in the South, Nándorfehérvár (today's Belgrade , Serbia), fell to the Turks . The early appearance of Protestantism further worsened internal relations in the country. After some 150 years of wars with the Hungarians and other states, the Ottomans gained a decisive victory over the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács in 1526, where King Louis II died while fleeing. Amid political chaos,

40480-442: The west. Hungary has a population of 9.5 million, mostly ethnic Hungarians and a significant Romani minority . Hungarian is the official language and Budapest is the country's capital and largest city . Prior to the foundation of the Hungarian state, various peoples settled in the territory of present-day Hungary, most notably the Celts , Romans , Huns , Germanic peoples , Avars and Slavs . The Principality of Hungary

40700-404: The years 2010–2011, the Italian TV show Chi l'ha visto? even investigated on the possible time and place of her death. A 2013 resolution of the Turin Municipality, concerning the plaque-laying ceremony at the place where the trio had lived, reports 1976 and Venezuela as the year and place of Judith's death. Hungary – in Europe  (green & dark grey) – in

40920-405: Was captured in 1541, opening roughly a 150 years long period when the country was divided into three parts: Royal Hungary , loyal to the Habsburgs ; Ottoman Hungary ; and the largely independent Principality of Transylvania . The reunited Hungary came under Habsburg rule at the turn of the 18th century, fighting a war of independence in 1703–1711, and a war of independence in 1848–1849 until

41140-728: Was elected to a parliamentary supermajority . The legislature consequently approved a new constitution , among other sweeping governmental and legal changes including the establishment of new parliamentary constituencies, decreasing the number of parliamentarians, and shifting to single-round parliamentary elections. Since Orbán's election, Hungary has undergone democratic backsliding and has been characterized as an illiberal democracy , hybrid regime , kleptocracy , dominant-party system , and mafia state . Orbán has publicly embraced illiberalism, and has characterized Hungary as an "illiberal Christian democracy". It has also received criticism regarding LGBT rights in Hungary . During

41360-422: Was a complete fiasco, with Umberto's reputation as a general only being saved by the fact that the already defeated French signed an armistice with Italy on 24 June 1940. Thus, he could present the offensive as a victory. The Italian plans called for the Regio Esercito to reach the Rhone river valley, which the Italians came nowhere close to reaching, having penetrated only a few kilometres into France. After

41580-406: Was a difference between the Fascist regime and the Italian people. Umberto's statement that the House of Savoy bore no responsibility when he asserted that the Italian people had been of one mind with Mussolini in June 1940, was widely seen as weakening the case for revising the armistice. Most of the Committee of National Liberation (CLN) leaders operating underground in the north tended to lean in

41800-442: Was a successful military leader and an enlightened patron of the arts and learning. His library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana , was Europe's greatest collection of historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century, and second only in size to the Vatican Library . Items from the Bibliotheca Corviniana were inscribed on UNESCO 's Memory of the World Register in 2005. The serfs and common people considered him

42020-405: Was an acceptable choice as prime minister for them. Lieutenant-General Sir Noel Mason-MacFarlane of the ACC visited the Quirinal Palace and convinced Umberto to accept Bonomi as prime minister because the Crown needed to bring the CLN into the government, which required sacrificing Badoglio. As Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin were willing to see Badoglio continue as prime minister, seeing him as

42240-428: Was back to Italy, Bria was employed at the Turin Municipality and went on to retire in 1977. It was only then that the general public knew about the 1946 replacement, when Paolo Limiti invited her to the TV show Ci vediamo su RAI 1 to tell her story. However, in a 2010 interview, Bria reported that the trio split up when Judith got married and left. Alexandrina and Judith stayed in Venezuela and in 1955 Catherine, who

42460-440: Was clear that the war was lost, was unfit to continue as monarch. On 25 June 1944, the Bonomi government, which like Badoglio's government, ruled by Royal Decree as there was no parliament in Italy, had a Royal Decree issued in Umberto's name promising a Constituent Assembly for Italy after the war. As Umberto continued as regent, he surprised many, after his rocky start in the spring of 1944, with greater maturity and judgement than

42680-407: Was crowned as King of Hungary . The era witnessed impressive economic development. The formerly backward Hungarian economy became relatively modern and industrialised by the turn of the 20th century, although agriculture remained dominant until 1890. In 1873, the old capital Buda and Óbuda were officially united with Pest , creating the new metropolis of Budapest. Many of the state institutions and

42900-425: Was defeated near Pest by the royal army of King Ladislaus IV . As with later invasions, it was repelled handily, the Mongols losing much of their invading force. The Kingdom of Hungary reached one of its greatest extents during the Árpádian kings, yet royal power was weakened at the end of their rule in 1301. After a destructive period of interregnum (1301–1308), the first Angevin king, Charles I of Hungary –

43120-424: Was dissolved. Following the First World War, Hungary underwent a period of profound political upheaval, beginning with the Aster Revolution in 1918, which brought the social-democratic Mihály Károlyi to power as prime minister. The Hungarian Royal Honvéd army still had more than 1,400,000 soldiers when Károlyi was installed. Károlyi yielded to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson 's demand for pacifism by ordering

43340-432: Was established in the late 9th century by Álmos and his son Árpád through the conquest of the Carpathian Basin . King Stephen I ascended the throne in 1000, converting his realm to a Christian kingdom . The medieval Kingdom of Hungary was a European power, reaching its height in the 14th–15th centuries . After a long period of Ottoman wars , Hungary's forces were defeated at the Battle of Mohács and its capital

43560-431: Was expected to stand to attention and salute whenever his father entered a room. Umberto was given the formal military education of a Savoyard prince and like the other Savoyard princes before him, Umberto received an education that was notably short on politics; Savoyard monarchs customarily excluded politics from their heirs' education with the expectation that they would learn about the art of politics when they inherited

43780-412: Was expected. Croce advised him to make a break with his father by choosing his advisers from the democratic parties, and it was due to Croce's influence that Umberto appointed Falcone Lucifero , a socialist lawyer, as Minister of the Royal House. Lucifero suggested reforms, which were implemented, such as reducing the number of aristocrats and generals at the Royal Court, while bringing in people from all

44000-404: Was far more open, affable and ready to learn". As Regent, Umberto initially made a poor impression on almost everyone as he surrounded himself with Fascist-era generals as his advisers, spoke of the military as the basis of his power, frequently threatened to sue for libel anyone who made even the slightest critical remarks about the House of Savoy, and asked the ACC to censor the press to prevent

44220-425: Was formed. This empire had the second largest area in Europe (after the Russian Empire ), and it was the third most populous (after Russia and the German Empire ). The two realms were governed separately by two parliaments from two capital cities, with a common monarch and common external and military policies. Economically, the empire was a customs union. The old Hungarian Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph I

44440-406: Was married in the city of Rome on 8 January 1930 to Princess Marie José of Belgium (1906–2001), the daughter of King Albert I of the Belgians and his wife, Queen Elisabeth ( née Duchess Elisabeth in Bavaria ). They had four children: Following the Savoyards' tradition ("Only one Savoy reigns at a time"), Umberto was kept apart from active politics until he was named Lieutenant General of

44660-414: Was no sign that the nation wanted it otherwise. No single voice was raised in protest. No demand was made for summoning parliament". The interview with The Times caused a storm of controversy in Italy, with many Italians objecting to Umberto's claim that the responsibility for Italy entering the war rested with ordinary Italians and his apparent ignorance of the difficulties of holding public protests under

44880-465: Was now moving closer towards democracy". In the part of Italy under the control of the ACC, which issued orders to the Italian civil servants, freedom of the press, association and expression were restored along with other civil rights and liberties. During 1943–45, the Italian economy collapsed with much of the infrastructure destroyed, inflation rampant, the black market becoming the dominant form of economic activity, and food shortages reducing much of

45100-423: Was part of the political plan of Fascism to link the Italian people living outside of Italy with their mother country and the interests of the regime. In Brazil, visits were scheduled to the national capital Rio de Janeiro and the State of São Paulo , where the largest Italian colony in the country lived. However, a major rebellion broke out on 5 July 1924, when Umberto had already departed from Europe, imposing

45320-411: Was partitioned between the south of Italy, administered by the Italian government with an Allied Control Commission (ACC) having supervisory powers, while Germany occupied northern and central Italy with a puppet Italian Social Republic (popularly called the Salò Republic), headed by Mussolini holding nominal power. By 16 September 1943, a line had formed across Italy with everything to the north held by

45540-426: Was peaceful and prompted by economic stagnation, domestic political pressure, and changing relations with other Warsaw Pact countries. Although the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party began Round Table Talks with various opposition groups in March 1989, the reburial of Imre Nagy as a revolutionary martyr that June is widely considered the symbolic end of communism in Hungary. Free elections were held in May 1990 , and

45760-576: Was proclaimed regent of the reestablished Kingdom of Hungary , inaugurating the so-called "Horthy era" ( Horthy-kor ). The new government worked quickly to normalise foreign relations while turning a blind eye to a White Terror that swept through the countryside; extrajudicial killings of suspected communists and Jews lasted well into 1920. On 4 June 1920, the Treaty of Trianon established new borders for Hungary. The country lost 71% of its territory and 66% of its pre-war population, as well as many sources of raw materials and its sole port at Fiume . Though

45980-434: Was recognised as a Catholic Apostolic Kingdom . Applying to Pope Sylvester II , Stephen received the insignia of royalty (including probably a part of the Holy Crown of Hungary ) from the papacy. By 1006, Stephen consolidated his power and started sweeping reforms to convert Hungary into a Western-style feudal state . The country switched to using Latin for administration purposes, and until as late as 1844, Latin remained

46200-450: Was recorded on February 22, 1936, with the EIAR orchestra directed by Cinico Angelini , and it was published in March. The years between 1937 and 1941 were fundamental for them: they joined the Orchestra Cetra as singers, directed by Pippo Barzizza . This event gave them a sudden and extraordinary popularity and they were chosen to open the experimental broadcasting of the "radiovision", the future Italian television. In 1940 they performed

46420-403: Was reduced to one-tenth of prerevolutionary levels. In 1968, the New Economic Mechanism introduced free-market elements into the socialist command economy. From the 1960s through the late 1980s, Hungary was often referred to as "the happiest barrack" within the Eastern bloc. During the latter part of the Cold War Hungary's GDP per capita was fourth only to East Germany , Czechoslovakia , and

46640-408: Was rejected as Admiral Ellery W. Stone of the ACC was opposed to Umberto's plans to have Bonomi share power with Badoglio and Orlando, seeing this as upsetting the delicately achieved political consensus for no other reason than to increase the Crown's power. In October 1944, Umberto, in an interview with The New York Times , stated that he favoured a referendum to decide whether Italy was to be

46860-444: Was removed from Ottoman rule by 1718. The last raid into Hungary by the Ottoman vassals Tatars from Crimea took place in 1717. The constrained Habsburg Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Catholicism. The ethnic composition of Hungary was fundamentally changed as a consequence of the prolonged warfare with the Turks. A large part of the country became devastated, population growth

47080-430: Was stunted, and many smaller settlements perished. The Austrian-Habsburg government settled large groups of Serbs and other Slavs in the depopulated south, and settled Germans (called Danube Swabians ) in various areas, but Hungarians were not allowed to settle or re-settle in the south of the Carpathian Basin. Between 1703 and 1711, there was a large-scale war of independence led by Francis II Rákóczi , who after

47300-405: Was the collective name for the tribes who later joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars. Peter B. Golden also considers the suggestion of Árpád Berta that the name derives from Khazar Turkic ongar (oŋ "right", oŋar- "to make something better, to put (it) right", oŋgar-  "to make something better, to put (it) right", oŋaru "towards

47520-422: Was the first constitution in Continental Europe . The lesser nobles also began to present Andrew with grievances, a practice that evolved into the institution of the parliament ( parlamentum publicum ). In 1241–1242, the kingdom received a major blow with the Mongol (Tatar) invasion . Up to half of Hungary's population of 2 million were victims of the invasion. King Béla IV let Cumans and Jassic people into

47740-425: Was the last King of Italy . Umberto's reign lasted for 34 days, from 9 May 1946 until his formal deposition on 12 June 1946, although he had been the de facto head of state since 1944. Due to his short reign, he was nicknamed the May King ( Italian : Re di maggio ). Umberto was the third child and only son among the five children of Victor Emmanuel III of Italy and Elena of Montenegro . As heir apparent to

47960-402: Was the younger sister, left Turin to join them back. She was the first of the three to die, of cancer at the age of 46 on October 3, 1965, in Caracas. Alexandrina, the eldest, went back to Italy and died in Fidenza in 1987. At the time, nothing was known about the third sister, who had presumably died in Venezuela in the Seventies, though there are news on the Internet that she died in 2007. In

48180-423: Was unfit to be monarch. On 17 August 1943, Sicily was taken and the last Axis forces crossed over to the Italian mainland. On 3 September 1943, the British Eighth Army landed on the Italian mainland at Reggio Calabria while the U.S. 5th Army landed at Salerno on 9 September 1943, a few hours after it was announced that Italy had signed an armistice. Adolf Hitler had other plans for Italy, and in response to

48400-434: Was unfit to succeed him as part of a bid to take back his lost powers. After Togliatti and the Communists entered Badoglio's cabinet, taking the oaths of loyalty to Umberto in the so-called Svolta di Salerno ("Salerno turn"), the leaders of the other anti-Fascist parties felt they had no choice but to join the cabinet as to continue to boycott it might lead Italy to be open to Communist domination. The other parties entered

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