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116-543: The Trexler Nature Preserve is an 1,108-acre county park (448 ha) owned and maintained by Lehigh County in the Lehigh Valley region of Pennsylvania . The preserve is situated in Lowhill Township and North Whitehall Township and the land that comprises the preserve was originally purchased between 1901 and 1911 by local industrialist General Harry Clay Trexler . It was originally Trexler's desire to stock

232-529: A reversion interest in the grantor if the condition fails; this is a fee simple conditional . The word "fee" is related to the term fief , meaning a feudal landholding. Feudal land tenures existed in several varieties, most of which involved the tenant having to supply some service to his overlord, such as knight-service (military service). If the tenant's overlord was the king, grand serjeanty , then this might require providing many different services, such as providing horses in time of war or acting as

348-574: A greenbelt . In some countries, especially the United Kingdom, country parks are areas designated for recreation, and managed by local authorities . They are often located near urban populations, but they provide recreational facilities typical of the countryside rather than the town. In 2021, following the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war , a Military Trophy Park was opened in Azerbaijan 's capital Baku , showcasing seized military equipment, as well as

464-458: A life estate , although this is uncommon. In the United States, life estates are most commonly used either to grant someone use of the property for the remainder of that person's life in a will, or by a grantor to reserve the right to continue using the property for the remainder of the grantor's life after it is sold. The right to ownership of the property after the death of the life estate owner

580-513: A mixed-use path that is dominated by fast-moving cyclists or horses. Different landscaping and infrastructure may even affect children's rates of park usage according to gender. Redesigns of two parks in Vienna suggested that the creation of multiple semi-enclosed play areas in a park could encourage equal use by boys and girls. Parks are part of the urban infrastructure: for physical activity, for families and communities to gather and socialize, or for

696-500: A park ranger . Large parks may have areas for canoeing and hiking in the warmer months and, in some northern hemisphere countries, cross-country skiing and snowshoeing in colder months. There are also amusement parks that have live shows, fairground rides, refreshments, and games of chance or skill. English deer parks were used by the aristocracy in medieval times for game hunting. They had walls or thick hedges around them to keep game animals (e.g., stags) in and people out. It

812-459: A tax deduction for the gift of their remainder interest in the property, and at the donor's death, the property passes to the organization without being subject to probate . Retained life estate gifts often involve agreements about acceptable uses of the property, payment of real estate taxes, property maintenance, etc. during the donor's lifetime. If previous grantors of a fee simple estate do not create any conditions for subsequent grantees, then

928-502: A "clear manifestation of fascism", saying that it is a "proof of Azerbaijani genocidal policy and state supported Armenophobia ". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan stated that such museums are a widely accepted international practice, and the country has a right to commemorate its victory through parades, parks, museums and other means. Azerbaijani authorities claimed that the helmets were left behind by retreating Armenian soldiers. When Azerbaijani historian Altay Goyushov, one of

1044-586: A beach or boat dock area. Urban parks often have benches for sitting and may contain picnic tables and barbecue grills. The largest parks can be vast natural areas of hundreds of thousands of square kilometers (or square miles), with abundant wildlife and natural features such as mountains and rivers. In many large parks, camping in tents is allowed with a permit. Many natural parks are protected by law, and users may have to follow restrictions (e.g. rules against open fires or bringing in glass bottles). Large national and sub-national parks are typically overseen by

1160-555: A confluence with Macintosh Run. Macintosh Run begins south of the composting center and drains much of the former orchard that used to occupy this location. It flows south, along Old Packhouse Road and mixes with the Jordan before the latter crosses under the Geiger Covered Bridge . After the bridge, the Jordan maintains its southerly course through thickets of conifer , Eastern Hemlock , and wildflowers . Just before passing under

1276-509: A difference. Regular park maintenance, as well as programming and community involvement, can also contribute to a feeling of safety. While Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) has been widely used in facility design, the use of CPTED in parks has not been. Iqbal and Ceccato performed a study in Stockholm, Sweden to determine if it would be useful to apply to parks. Their study indicated that while CPTED could be useful, due to

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1392-543: A game reservation. At its inception, this reservation was known as the "Trexler Deer Reservation". A contemporary source described the project as follows: In 1901, General Harry C. Trexler embarked in a great agricultural enterprise which has attracted marked attention, not only in Lehigh County but throughout the entire State of Pennsylvania. He then began to purchase farms in North Whitehall and Lowhill townships along

1508-555: A grant from the Voluntary Public Access and Habitat Incentive Program. The preserve has also started a project to reintroduce American chestnut - a native tree that was nearly destroyed by blight at the end of the nineteenth century. An account of the preserve in 1914 when still privately owned by Trexler as the "Trexler Deer Preserve" noted that "[the animals] have become a great curiosity, and many persons are seen almost daily, especially on Sundays, driving or walking along

1624-465: A half-mile of a park indicated that in addition to safety park facilities also played a significant role in park use and that increasing facilities instead of creating an image of a safe park would increase use of the park. There are a number of features that contribute to whether a park feels safe. Elements in the physical design of a park, such as an open and welcoming entry, good visibility (sight lines), and appropriate lighting and signage can all make

1740-504: A new system of trails in the interior of the preserve. These trails sought to open large swaths of the preserve that were previously closed to the public. After construction, these trails were mapped by GPS and an interactive map is available as part of Google Maps . Nearly all the hiking trails can also be utilized for mountain biking and horse riding . In October 2015, the Trexler Nature Preserve finished construction of

1856-425: A park), the estate will automatically terminate and revert to the grantor or the grantor's estate; this is called a fee simple determinable. If the grantor uses language such as "but if alcohol is served", then the grantor or the heirs have a right of entry if the condition occurs, but the estate does not automatically revert to the grantor; this is a fee simple subject to a condition subsequent. In most jurisdictions in

1972-543: A pedestrian footbridge, the Jordan Creek makes a hairpin curve, ultimately turning to flow straight south. To the east of the creek, in this section, arises Elk Ridge, which is the last and easterly most rise of the Schochary Ridge. The elevation rise from Jordan Creek to Elk Ridge is the steepest gradient and largest elevation gain in the park. The Jordan continues under a second pedestrian bridge—erected in 1997—and over

2088-446: A portion of the park's area eliminates or reduces the burden of managing active recreation facilities and developed infrastructure. Passive recreation amenities require routine upkeep and maintenance to prevent degradation of the environment. The general principle of how parks and greenspaces assist in the conservation of biodiversity is by creating natural environments for animals in urban areas. Biological diversity, or biodiversity ,

2204-532: A settlement to litigation brought by the Trexler Trust , Lehigh County agreed to reopen the entire preserve for public use. An overwhelming majority of respondents to a survey indicated that the preserve should be used for passive recreation—activities including hiking , low-impact mountain biking and fishing . Starting in the late 2000s, Lehigh County, with the assistance of the Trexler Trust undertook to build

2320-482: A simple respite. Research reveals that people who exercise outdoors in green-space derive greater mental health benefits. Providing activities for all ages, abilities and income levels is important for the physical and mental well-being of the public. Parks can also benefit pollinators , and some parks (such as Saltdean Oval in East Sussex ) have been redesigned to accommodate them better. Some organizations, such as

2436-417: A specified event happens, the estate may become void or subject to annulment. There are two types of defeasible estates: fee simple determinable and the fee simple subject to a condition subsequent. If the grantor uses durational language in the condition such as "to A. as long as the land is used for a park", then upon the happening of the specified event (in this case if the land is used for anything other than

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2552-525: A specified term, such as in an estate for years . A fee also could be limited through the method of its inheritance, such as by an "entailment", which created a fee tail . Traditionally, fee tail was created by words of grant such as "to N. and the male heirs of his body", which would restrict those who could inherit the property. If no heirs could be found, then the property would revert to the original grantor's heirs. Most common law countries have abolished entailment by statute. An estate in fee simple denotes

2668-500: A steep northerly ascent up Mill Hill. Once on top of the ridge, there are sweeping views of the entire Lehigh Valley and, particularly, the Kittatinny Ridge . During summer, there can be some agriculture development of the uplands. In the early 2010s, the preserve attempted to grow both corn and turnips in its rocky and eroded soil. When the land is not under agricultural development, it consists mostly of grass lands whose territory

2784-521: Is a consequence of water erosion by Jordan Creek and its tributaries through the uplands of the Schochary Ridge. The park's boundaries are on the far-east terminus of the Schochary Ridge; It marks the boundary of the "Game Preserve" fault line which separates the New Tripoli formation of the Schochary Ridge and the Martinsburg formations. The Schochary Ridge is an outcropping of rock which formed during

2900-473: Is a reserve of land, usually, but not always declared and owned by a national government , protected from most human development and pollution. Although this may be so, it is not likely that the government of a specific area owns it, rather the community itself. National parks are a protected area of International Union for Conservation of Nature Category II . This implies that they are wilderness areas, but unlike pure nature reserves, they are established with

3016-441: Is an area of open space provided for recreational use, usually owned and maintained by a local government. Parks commonly resemble savannas or open woodlands , the types of landscape that human beings find most relaxing. Grass is typically kept short to discourage insect pests and to allow for the enjoyment of picnics and sporting activities. Trees are chosen for their beauty and to provide shade . Some early parks include

3132-413: Is called the remainder estate . In England and Wales fee simple is the only freehold estate that remains; a life estate can only be created in equity and is not a right in property. In the United States, retained life estates are often used by donors who intend to leave property as bequests to charitable organizations while retaining the use of the property during their lifetimes. The donor receives

3248-442: Is highly erodible, resulting in gentle slopes. Jordan Creek and its minor tributaries, including Mill Creek, Hegel's Run, Elk Ridge Run, Macintosh Run, and Thicket Run, give the preserve a distinctive hill and valley character. The preserve is the easternmost extent of Schochary Ridge, which arises from the relatively flat surfaces of the Lehigh Valley . Over eons this elevation gave rise to gradients, allowing water flow to erode

3364-446: Is influenced by the intended purpose and audience, as well as by the available land features. A park intended to provide recreation for children may include a playground . A park primarily intended for adults may feature walking paths and decorative landscaping. Specific features, such as riding trails, may be included to support specific activities. The design of a park may determine who is willing to use it. Walkers might feel unsafe on

3480-609: Is perpetually threatened by encroachment of autumn-olive. Since the early 2010s, the Northern Range has also been developed by the Valley Mountain Bikers. They have developed mountain biking trails through dense thickets of autumn-olive. The trails are open to the public and can be accessed via the North Range Utility Road and parking lot. The central Range is the largest of the three ranges; it also contains

3596-402: Is the highest point in the preserve and also forms the extreme easterly extent of the Schochary Ridge. Elk Ridge is home to the preserve's bison and elk herds. The extreme eastern boundary which borders Lehigh Carbon County Community College is marked by a deciduous tree-line of walnut , oak, and maple receding into grasslands interspersed with autumn-olive. Atop a grassland ridge line in

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3712-485: Is the variety of life on Earth in all its forms. Fauna and flora are principal biotic components. They include all living species, which consist of plants, animals, and bacteria. Around half of the greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere get absorbed by the floral components of the biodiversity , providing nature-based aid in the fight against the climate change and habitat for the fauna . When processes such as

3828-465: Is unnatural to eastern Pennsylvania and is dominated by non-native plant species. This is a consequence of the early history of the preserve as poorly managed reservation for large ruminant animals and as an experimental apple orchard. This landscape is not native to the humid temperate climate of eastern Pennsylvania. Such grassland in eastern Pennsylvania are typically only found in dairy and beef farming operations. These animal's feeding habits control

3944-523: The Lehigh Valley Zoo . Because of the presence of the zoo, and the road connectivity, including the Jordan Ford, it is the most visited section of the preserve. This section has views of west-facing Lowhill Township grasslands. The lowland sections provide views of eastern Pennsylvania river valleys, and fishing opportunities. The Trexler Border Trail, as it descends off the western veld and down into

4060-584: The Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission began to stock Jordan Creek with trout. Several hundred yards of easily accessible river front was set aside for children and the disabled. Park A park is an area of natural, semi-natural or planted space set aside for human enjoyment and recreation or for the protection of wildlife or natural habitats. Urban parks are green spaces set aside for recreation inside towns and cities. National parks and country parks are green spaces used for recreation in

4176-617: The Xerces Society are also promoting this idea. City parks play a role in improving cities and improving the futures for residents and visitors - for example, Millennium Park in Chicago, Illinois or the Mill River Park and Green way in Stamford, CT. One group that is a strong proponent of parks for cities is The American Society of Landscape Architects. They argue that parks are important to

4292-583: The allodium of all land in England, meaning that it was the ultimate "owner" of all land in the past feudal era. Allodial title is reserved to governments under a civil law structure. However, the Crown can grant ownership in an abstract entity – called an estate in land – which is what is owned rather than the land it represents. The fee simple estate is also called "estate in fee simple" or "fee-simple title", or sometimes simply "freehold" in England and Wales. From

4408-608: The la Alameda de Hércules , in Seville , a promenaded public mall, urban garden and park built in 1574, within the historic center of Seville; the City Park , in Budapest, Hungary, which was property of the Batthyány family and was later made public. An early purpose built public park was Derby Arboretum which was opened in 1840 by Joseph Strutt for the mill workers and people of the city. This

4524-399: The 18th century have often been landscaped for aesthetic effect. They are usually a mixture of open grassland with scattered trees and sections of woodland, and are often enclosed by a high wall. The area immediately around the house is the garden. In some cases this will also feature sweeping lawns and scattered trees; the basic difference between a country house's park and its garden is that

4640-615: The 9-mile Trexler Border Trail by erecting a concrete and steel bridge across the Jordan Creek . The Valley Mountain Bikers Association has teamed with the preserve to open large areas of the Northern Range to mountain biking. To date, 6.00 miles (9.66 km) of dedicated use mountain biking trails have been constructed in the Northern range. Much of this construction has occurred within dense thickets of autumn-olive. Public access to

4756-592: The Eastern Central Range is the post-modern Prairie School styled environmental education center. Opened in 2010, the Trexler Environmental Center is located in a 2,700-square-foot building that has been Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certified. The center is on one of the highest parts of the preserve and features straight lines, a low profile, and muted colors which merge

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4872-488: The Jordan Creek Valley, is surrounded in spring and summer by fecund native wildflower, which draw abundant native butterfly and birds. The Trexler nature trail, which follows Jordan Creek from the ford has views of the river, as well as mixed deciduous and conifer forest and exposed shale formations which are often covered in damp mosses. There are bird blinds in this area for ornithologists. The Northern boundary of

4988-565: The Jordan and Mill creeks in the vicinity of Schnecksville, ten miles northwest from Allentown, and until this year he has secured altogether twenty-four farms, which cover a total area, in contiguous tracts, amounting to 2,500 acres. He immediately began to turn up the soil of the hilly, unprofitable land and sow seeds in order to secure permanent pasture, and when these made their appearance he set apart about 1,000 acres, enclosed with an 8-foot wire fence, and placed there seventy deer and several buffaloes and elk. The deer reservation continued under

5104-473: The Ordovician period (490 to 443 million years ago), and is characterized by dark grey shale and thin beds of siltstone and sandstone , with depths up to 12,000 feet. The New Tripoli group, the dominant geologic member in the preserve, is composed of shale and calcareous turbidites with sedimentary characteristics. Shale is largely impervious to water producing high surface runoff, but its weak structure

5220-767: The Ruheton bridge (and out of the park), the Jordan is joined by Thicket Run. Thicket Run drains two small ponds in the South Range before flowing to the Jordan under a makeshift metal bridge which carries the Trexler Border Trail. The Jordan subsequently continues on its course and eventually joins the waters of the Little Lehigh River, the Lehigh River, and the Delaware River, before proceeding out to sea. Since 2006,

5336-517: The Southern Range is Old Packhouse Road and its Southern the boundary of a commercial orchard. This range is the least visited and most ecologically precarious of the three with only a single trail leading into this area—the Trexler border trail. At one time, large parts of this range were in production as an apple orchard. Stands of old apple trees interspersed with autumn-olive dot this landscape. At

5452-600: The Trexler Trust, acceded to a settlement in 2006. As part of this settlement, Lehigh County agreed to open the entire preserve to public use and to rename the non-zoo portion of the park from the "Trexler Game Preserve" to the "Trexler Nature Preserve". Since re-opening the entire preserve to public use, extensive efforts have been made to increase passive recreational activities, such as hiking and mountain biking , by building an extensive trail system and archery hunting and fishing by changing cull policies and stocking Jordan Creek . Invasive plants, which colonized large parts of

5568-423: The United States these concepts have been modified by statute. Fee simple determinable was generally preferred by courts in the common law of the early United States. Recently, that trend has reversed, and most courts in the United States will find a fee simple subject to condition subsequent in situations where the conveying document's language is unclear. The claim that no rent or similar obligations are due from

5684-463: The Zoo's ford. Elk Ridge Run, Macintosh Run and Thicket Run are all seasonally intermittent minor tributaries of the Jordan. Just before the ford, the Jordan is joined by Elk Ridge Run. This south flowing watercourse begins near the bison paddocks and drains the eastern slope of Elk Ridge and the western slope of the environmental center grasslands. After the ford, the Jordan Creek continues south until forming

5800-407: The animals co-existing together in a regulated environment generates a natural cycle of life where decaying bodies assist in the fertilization of the ground. [1] Alongside the preservation of native species parks with exotic fauna and flora drive diversity in natural ecosystems , aiding in the adaptation to urban environment. Richness of a park’s nature is associated with its age and size, with

5916-550: The appearance of London's West End. With the establishment of Princes Park in 1842, Joseph Paxton did something similar for the benefit of a provincial town, albeit one of international stature by virtue of its flourishing mercantile contingent. Liverpool had a burgeoning presence on the scene of global maritime trade before 1800 and during the Victorian era its wealth rivaled that of London itself. The form and layout of Paxton's ornamental grounds, structured about an informal lake within

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6032-542: The building into dramatically rolling grasslands. It also has a rooftop observation area, a community room for environmental education programs and meetings, and restroom facilities for park visitors. The building also houses satellite offices for the Lehigh County Parks Department and the Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry . The Western Central Range begins south of Jordan Creek and is centered around

6148-411: The confines of a serpentine carriageway, put in place the essential elements of his much imitated design for Birkenhead Park . The latter was commenced in 1843 with the help of public finance and deployed the ideas he pioneered at Princes Park on a more expansive scale. Frederick Law Olmsted visited Birkenhead Park in 1850 and praised its qualities. Indeed, Paxton is widely credited as having been one of

6264-564: The countryside. State parks and provincial parks are administered by sub-national government states and agencies. Parks may consist of grassy areas, rocks, soil and trees, but may also contain buildings and other artifacts such as monuments , fountains or playground structures. Many parks have fields for playing sports such as baseball and football , and paved areas for games such as basketball . Many parks have trails for walking , biking and other activities. Some parks are built adjacent to bodies of water or watercourses and may comprise

6380-405: The county owning the renamed "Trexler Game Preserve". For the next forty years, the preserve was open only on Sundays, with informal petting and feeding exhibits. In 1969, the game preserve commission engaged McFadzean, Everly & Associates to plan and develop a children's zoo at the site. This twenty-nine-acre zoo opened May 18, 1975. The exhibits became more formalized, and the animal collection

6496-465: The decay of wood, winter dieback or succession are allowed to happen the natural cycle helps with biodiversity conservation. The amount of habitat can be increased more vegetation to parks – wildflowers , long grass areas, shrubs , and trees. In parks located in urban areas the conservation of native vegetation is tied to preservation of insects and mammals in the area. Tall trees and bushes create shadow for bodies of water with fish. Having all

6612-402: The deed or will must state "to B and his heirs". Anything short of those words transferred a smaller estate. Modern deeds usually follow a standardized form. There is a presumption that the testator intends to convey his or her property in fee simple unless the will indicates an intention to transfer a smaller estate, such as a life estate. Many jurisdictions retain the possibility of creating

6728-563: The deer population to acceptable ecological limits, the preserve permitted archery hunting for the first time during the 2007 deer season. The hunt yielded a substantial number of deer, including large bucks. Archery hunting is still permitted in some parts of the preserve, provided that the hunter is properly licensed by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, that the hunt occurs during the normal archery season, and subject to all other Commonwealth hunting statutes and regulations. Beginning in 2008,

6844-589: The deer population. Despite the unchecked growth of non-native species in many areas of the preserve, some areas of the park remain somewhat unaffected. This is particularly true of the Southern range, the well-maintained and mowed grasslands of the central range, and places where thick deciduous or conifer forest prevented the growth of autumn-olive in the forest under story. In these areas large stands of oak, maple, walnut, hemlock , and pine still exist along with native wildflowers, mosses, and where moist, ferns. By far,

6960-415: The early 2000s, Lehigh County floated the idea of closing the zoo. In 2004, the private Lehigh Valley Zoological Society was formed and brokered a lease with the county whereby the zoo would be maintained, but under private control. Concurrent with the transfer and lease of zoo operations, the Trexler Trust brought civil suit against the county claiming that the county was obliged to open the preserve land to

7076-540: The emergence of invasive plants preventing reclamation of the land by forests. Natural grasslands are typically limited to semi-arid areas of the world which have long periods of low humidity, intermittent rainfall, and large herds of wild ruminants. Such semi-arid, intermittent humidity climate is characteristic of the American Great Plains , home of the American bison which Trexler sought to protect by establishing

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7192-414: The expectation of a certain degree of human visitation and supporting infrastructure. While this type of national park had been proposed previously, the United States established the first "public park or pleasuring-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people", Yellowstone National Park , in 1872, although Yellowstone was not gazetted as a national park. The first officially designated national park

7308-546: The fabric of the community on an individual scale and broader scales such as entire neighborhoods, city districts or city park systems. Parks need to feel safe for people to use them. Research shows that perception of safety can be more significant in influencing human behavior than actual crime statistics. If citizens perceive a park as unsafe, they might not make use of it at all. A study done in four cities; Albuquerque, NM, Chapel Hill/Durham, NC, Columbus, OH, and Philadelphia, PA, with 3815 survey participants who lived within

7424-404: The far south of the park is a large glade of Eastern Hemlock and other conifers which provides a distinctly different forest environment from elsewhere in the preserve. The confluence of Thicket Run and the Jordan Creek also create a moist lowland ideal for the growth of wildflowers and cattails . Much of the preserve consists of rolling expanses of grassland, is characterized by landscape that

7540-576: The first in Lowhill Township. In 1800, John Hollenbach started a competing mill on the creek's east side. These mills carried on throughout the nineteenth century and into the twentieth. In 1901 local industrialist General Harry Clay Trexler , began purchasing much of the surrounding farmland in order to form a "deer reservation". Trexler was native to the Lehigh Valley ; he was born in Easton in 1854. He made his fortune in timber and concrete and by

7656-477: The greatest variation of topography. It is bounded on the north by the Jordan Creek and Hegel's Run and on the south by Old Packhouse Road—a portion of the southern end is occupied by the Lehigh County composting facility. The Central Range is subdivided into eastern and western sections by the Jordan Creek. The Eastern Central Range begins south of Hegel's Run and is centered around the dramatic Elk Ridge, which

7772-431: The helmets and wax mannequins of Armenian troops. The helmets were reported by international media to belong to dead Armenian soldiers. Several international journalists have called the park "barbaric". Armenia strongly condemned it, accusing Baku of "dishonoring the memory of victims of the war, missing persons and prisoners of war and violating the rights and dignity of their families". Armenia's ombudsman called it

7888-488: The importance of the preserve, Trexler devised the property to the County of Lehigh in fee simple with instructions that it should forever be maintained for the benefit of the citizens of Lehigh County. Through the 1960s, passive recreation in the preserve dwindled. It was only open on Sundays, and then only for informal petting and animal watching. The Lehigh Valley Zoo opened in 1975 after six years of planning. In 2006, as

8004-490: The imposing Mill Hill (along which the Theyken Ridge Trail runs). Further downstream, Mill Hill recedes straight north as the Jordan turns east—Mill Hill's proximity to the Jordan is further distanced by a valley cut by Hegel's Run. Hegel's Run is a perennial minor tributary of Jordan Creek, originating within skunk cabbage wetlands in the interior of the preserve. Flowing north to south, Hegel's Run continues out of

8120-474: The king's ceremonial butler. These fiefs gave rise to a complex relationship between landlord and tenant, involving duties on both sides. For example, in return for receiving his tenant's fealty or homage , the overlord had a duty to protect his tenant. When feudal land tenure was abolished, all fiefs became "simple", without conditions attached to the tenancy. In English common law, the Crown had radical title or

8236-482: The land should be brought back to its natural state (much harmed after years of inartful range management) and that passive recreational facilities (such as hiking trails) should be constructed. In response to this input, Lehigh County commissioned and built a new trail system and, as of 2013, continues efforts to reclaim the land from damage caused by inartful range management. Most of the Preserve's distinctive topography

8352-573: The last stages of the Taconic orogeny . The long east–west-oriented ridge is several miles south of Kittatinny Ridge (within the otherwise flat and fertile Lehigh Valley ) and is bisected, within the park, by Jordan Creek . The non-Schochary geology of the Nature Preserve is of the Martinsburg Formation, predominately made up of New Tripoli Member. The Martinsburg Formation developed during

8468-556: The leaders of liberal democratic opposition, criticized the helmets corridor, he was rebuffed by local journalists and bloggers who justified demonstrating the helmets, one of them going as far as inviting "all who does not feel well looking at them to go and drown in Caspian sea". Private parks are owned by individuals or businesses and are used at the discretion of the owner. There are a few types of private parks, and some which once were privately maintained and used have now been made open to

8584-449: The maximum ownership in land that can be legally granted; it is the greatest possible aggregate of rights, powers, privileges and immunities available in land. The three hallmarks of the fee simple estate are that it is alienable , devisable and descendible . Rules requiring words of general inheritance to create fee simple by conveyance have been abolished by statute in the United States. To convey an estate in fee simple at common law,

8700-641: The mountain biking trails is available via the Northern Range Utility Road and parking lot. The Lehigh Valley Zoo , established in 1975, is now a privately run enterprise which leases its land and buildings from Lehigh County . For nearly a century, the preserve operated with a philosophy not to cull its deer population. This, combined with the bison and elk herds led to animal populations in excess of 250 animals per square mile. Modern game management aims to prevent populations from rising to above twenty animals per square mile. In an effort to reduce

8816-402: The native plant ecology and grassland was catastrophic. With no natural competition, autumn-olive , stilt grass , garlic mustard , ailanthus , Japanese barberry , and oriental bittersweet grew without control. The preserve has taken efforts to restore native species since 2006. Efforts have included the mechanized destruction of autumn-olive thickets and the controlled archery hunting of

8932-640: The nature of a park, increasing the look of safety can also have unintended consequences on the aesthetics of the park. Creating secure areas with bars and locks lowers the beauty of the park, as well as the nature of who is in charge of observing the public space and the feeling of being observed. Parks can be divided into active and passive recreation areas. Active recreation is that which has an urban character and requires intensive development. It often involves cooperative or team activity, including playgrounds , ball fields, swimming pools, gymnasiums, and skateparks . Active recreation such as team sports, due to

9048-586: The need to provide substantial space to congregate, typically involves intensive management, maintenance, and high costs. Passive recreation, also called "low-intensity recreation" is that which emphasizes the open-space aspect of a park and allows for the preservation of natural habitat. It usually involves a low level of development, such as rustic picnic areas, benches, and trails. Many smaller neighborhood parks are receiving increased attention and valuation as significant community assets and places of refuge in heavily populated urban areas. Neighborhood groups around

9164-405: The older ones having a larder variety of breeds and greenery. Vegetation in parks can indirectly reduce air temperature and directly reduce levels of carbon dioxide by storing it as a biomass and due to the trees’ ability to absorb over 95% of ultraviolet radiation the aid in the reduction of skin cancer is a factor that is largely considered when new greenspaces are build. A national park

9280-457: The owner of property in fee simple is only partially true. For example, a rentcharge may exist requiring a freeholder to pay a fixed sum of money closely resembling rent, and many jurisdictions have created financial obligations that may be imposed on a freehold estate. England and Wales impose an estate charge . In the United States , fee simple owners are usually subject to property tax and

9396-406: The park is grazed by animals, but they are excluded from the garden. Fee simple The rights of the fee-simple owner are limited by government powers of taxation , compulsory purchase , police power , and escheat , and may also be limited further by certain encumbrances or conditions in the deed , such as, for example, a condition that required the land to be used as a public park, with

9512-613: The past hundred and seventy years, but these authorities have no statutory duty to fund or maintain these public parks. In 2016 the Heritage Lottery Fund 's State of UK Public Parks reported that "92 per cent of park managers report their maintenance budgets have reduced in the past three years and 95 per cent expect their funding will continue to reduce". Another early public park is the Peel Park, Salford , England opened on August 22, 1846. Another possible claimant for status as

9628-467: The preserve after nearly a century of range practices, were largely removed. European settlers have used the land that is now the Trexler Nature preserve since at least the 1760s when Micheal Mosser purchased a large tract of land in Lowhill Township and erected a gristmill on Mill Creek, which was the source of the creek's name. This mill was one of the first of its kind in the county, and certainly

9744-411: The preserve from the more westerly State Game Lands 205. Mill Creek also provides a perennial source of water which helps to maintain the thicket of deciduous trees, which are principally oak and maple and grow on the preserve's north-western boundary. After the confluence of the Jordan and Mill Creeks, the Jordan enters the preserve and heads north-north-east. To its west, the Jordan is bounded by

9860-521: The preserve has been split into three areas, known as ranges: the Northern, the Central, and the Southern Range. Each range is marked by its own distinctive topography and flora. The Northern Range begins in Schnecksville and is bounded in the east by Hegel's Run and in the south by Jordan Creek. It is best described as the "uplands" of the preserve. Starting from either Jordan Creek or Hegel's Run requires

9976-530: The preserve with big game animals such as bison , elk , and deer with the express goal of saving the North American bison . When Trexler died in 1933, the preserve, in accordance with his will, passed to the care of Lehigh County. Lehigh County assumed title in 1935 and has been in control of the site ever since. In May 1975, the county opened the Lehigh Valley Zoo on the grounds of the preserve. In 2004, Lehigh County reduced its budgets and proposed closing

10092-524: The preserve. To establish grassland in his reservation, Trexler ordered marginal rocky lands plowed and the planting of grasses. In consequence large swaths of land were converted to grassland. The passive management of animals upon this new grassland was poor. Far too many animals were allowed to graze. By one count, in 1935, over 250 deer, elk, and bison occupied each square mile of the preserve. Modern game management aims for no more than twenty such animals per square mile. The result of this overgrazing on

10208-468: The principal influences on Olmsted and Calvert's design for New York's Central Park of 1857. There are around an estimated 27,000 public parks in the United Kingdom , with around 2.6 billion visits to parks each year. Many are of cultural and historical interest, with 300 registered by Historic England as of national importance. Most public parks have been provided and run by local authorities over

10324-402: The property during their lifetime and typically have a say in determining who gets to own an interest in the property after their death. Historically, estates could be limited in time. Common temporal limitations include life estate , a land ownership that terminates upon the grantee's (or another person's) death even if the land had been granted to a third party, or a term of years, a lease for

10440-408: The property's common areas; however, these are generally treated legally as covenants running with the land (contracts binding on the possessors of real property) imposing an affirmative duty to pay money rather than as rent for property held in fee simple. Fee – A right in law to the use of land; i.e. a fief . Simple – in the unconstrained sense: The English word fee ultimately goes back to

10556-480: The public. Hunting parks were originally areas maintained as open space where residences, industry and farming were not allowed, often originally so that nobility might have a place to hunt – see medieval deer park . These were known for instance, as deer parks (deer being originally a term meaning any wild animal). Many country houses in Great Britain and Ireland still have parks of this sort, which since

10672-402: The public. Lehigh County acceded to a $ 1.9 million settlement and the Trexler Trust committed to provide another $ 850,000. These monies were to be used to reopen the entire preserve to the general public. In the winter and spring of 2005 and 2006, respectively, interviews and public meetings were conducted to determine how to return the preserve to public use. The overwhelming response was that

10788-435: The reality). A linear park is a park that has a much greater length than width. A typical example of a linear park is a section of a former railway that has been converted into a park called a rail trail or greenway (i.e. the tracks removed, vegetation allowed to grow back). Parks are sometimes made out of oddly shaped areas of land, much like the vacant lots that often become city neighborhood parks. Linked parks may form

10904-477: The revenue generated is directed to the municipality's general fund. Other local tax assessments called "special purpose taxes" may be assessed in addition to the property taxes for specific purposes such as infrastructure improvements. Real estate owned as a condominium is usually similarly owned in fee simple, but typically subject to rules in the declaration of condominium or created by the condominium association, such as paying required monthly fees for maintaining

11020-438: The ridge into its current topography. Mill Creek is a major perennial tributary; its watershed drains large portions of agricultural land in the Lowhill Township , southern Heidelberg , and Washington Townships. Mill Creek does not enter the preserve but forms its geographic western boundary and joins with the Jordan Creek just short of the preserve. The creek, whose swift waters eroded the valley in which it flows, separates

11136-475: The road from Schnecksville through the park for several miles, to see the wild animals grazing on the hill-sides." Trexler was aware of the importance of the preserve to valley residents, he noted: [i]f a trip through my preserve has opened to you a little wider the great outdoors, and nature has revealed something you may not before have seen or known, I shall feel repaid in my efforts to help conserve in its proper setting some of our wildlife. In contemplation of

11252-695: The safe confines of villages and towns. The most famous US example of a city park that evolved from this practice is the Boston Common in Boston, Massachusetts (1634). With the Industrial Revolution parks took on a new meaning as areas set aside to preserve a sense of nature in the cities and towns. Sporting activity came to be a major use for these urban parks. Areas of outstanding natural beauty were also set aside as national parks to prevent them from being spoiled by uncontrolled development. Park design

11368-414: The sale of fee simple estates. William Blackstone defined fee simple as the estate in land that a person has when the lands are given to him and his heirs absolutely, without any end or limit put to his estate. Land held in fee simple can be conveyed to whomsoever its owner pleases; it can also be mortgaged or put up as security. Owners of real property in fee simple have the privilege of interest in

11484-452: The sometimes extremely steep topography on which it grows. Despite the difficulties, in October and November 2015, the Trexler Nature Preserve has stepped up efforts to mechanically clear hundreds of acres of autumn-olive from the northern range. This effort requires a pair bulldozers equipped with a mechanical grinder that slowly make their way up and down the steep hills grinding and pulverizing

11600-480: The start of the Norman period, when feudalism was introduced to England, the tenant or "holder" of a fief could not alienate (sell) it from the possession of his overlord. However, a tenant could separate a parcel of the land and grant it as a subordinate fief to his own sub-tenant, a process known as sub-enfeoffing or " subinfeudation ". The 1290 Statute of Quia Emptores abolished subinfeudation and instead allowed

11716-562: The sub-national levels of government. In Brazil , the United States , and some states in Mexico , as well as in the Australian state of Victoria , these are known as state parks, whereas in Argentina , Canada and South Korea , they are known as provincial or territorial parks. In the United States, it is also common for individual counties to run parks, these are known as county parks . A park

11832-402: The supervision of P.S. Fenstermacher, a prominent and politically connected Allentown farmer, until Trexler's untimely death in 1933. Trexler's will provided that the deer reservation be devised in fee simple to Lehigh County . The will also made provision that the land be "for use as a public park, by the citizens of [Lehigh] County[.]" Probate of Trexler's will was settled in 1935 and left

11948-444: The thorny, bush like autumn-olive into rough mulch. The result is large swaths of the northern range that, as of, November 2015 are entirely denuded of vegetation. In spring 2016, the Preserve intends to use chemical herbicides to ensure that the autumn-olive has been eradicated and then replant native grasses and wildflowers to reestablish the unique rolling grasslands characteristic of the Preserve. The eradication efforts were funded by

12064-415: The title is called fee simple absolute . A fee simple absolute is the highest estate permitted by law, and it gives the holder full possessory rights and obligations now and in the future. Other fee simple estates in real property include fee simple defeasible (or fee simple determinable ) estates. A defeasible estate is created when a grantor places a condition on a fee simple estate (in the deed ). When

12180-474: The turn of the 20th century was a wealthy man. Like many wealthy men his age at the time, Trexler enjoyed hunting and the wilderness. An early environmentalist, Trexler believed that much of the large wild game in the United States had been hunted to the brink of extinction and that efforts were needed to protect those that remained. Acting on this belief, he began to buy dozens of farmsteads in Lowhill Township and North Whitehall Township beginning in 1901 to create

12296-584: The wetlands and parallel to the Fireman's trail where, along its course, it is fed by two smaller unnamed tributaries originating from springs on the sloping Mill Hill which are blanketed by a heavy canopy of autumn-olive and by a minor tributary originating to the northeast in the grassy Schantz valley. Hegel's Run flows further south where, after being crossed by the firemen's trail forms a confluence with Jordan Creek immediately upstream of Schlicher's Covered Bridge . After passing under Schlicher's Covered Bridge and

12412-546: The world are joining to support local parks that have suffered from urban decay and government neglect. Passive recreation typically requires less management which can be provided at lower costs than active recreation. Some open space managers provide trails for physical activity in the form of walking, running, horse riding, mountain biking, snowshoeing, or cross-country skiing; or activities such as observing nature, bird watching, painting, photography, or picnicking. Limiting park or open space use to passive recreation over all or

12528-466: The world's first public park is Boston Common (Boston, Massachusetts, US), set aside in 1634, whose first recreational promenade, Tremont Mall, dates from 1728. True park status for the entire common seems to have emerged no later than 1830, when the grazing of cows was ended and renaming the Common as Washington Park was proposed (renaming the bordering Sentry Street to Park Street in 1808 already acknowledged

12644-400: The worst disruption to the park has been caused by autumn-olive which easily colonized the grasslands and deciduous under-story of all parts of the preserve—and particularly the steep hillsides of the Northern Range. Eradication of this autumn-olive is difficult because of the extremely dense thickets in which autumn-olive grows, the countless blunt thorns found on all areas of the plant, and

12760-561: The zoo portion of the preserve. A local group, the Lehigh Valley Zoological Society, formed to assume private control of the zoo under a lease arrangement with Lehigh County. Concurrent with the transfer of the zoo to private control, the Trexler Trust brought civil suit against the County of Lehigh demanding, under the terms of Trexler's will, that the entire preserve be opened to public use and that public funds be devoted to that public use. The county, under pressure from

12876-474: Was Mackinac Island , gazetted in 1875. Australia 's Royal National Park , established in 1879, was the world's second officially established national park. The largest national park in the world is the Northeast Greenland National Park , which was established in 1974 and currently protects 972,001 km (375,000 sq mi). In some Federal systems , many parks are managed by

12992-519: Was closely followed by Princes Park in the Liverpool suburb of Toxteth , laid out to the designs of Joseph Paxton from 1842 and opened in 1843. The land on which the Princes park was built was purchased by Richard Vaughan Yates, an iron merchant and philanthropist, in 1841 for £50,000. The creation of Princes Park showed great foresight and introduced a number of highly influential ideas. First and foremost

13108-436: Was enhanced by landscape architects such as Capability Brown and Humphry Repton . The French formal garden such as designed by André Le Nôtre at Versailles is an earlier and elaborate example. As cities became crowded, private hunting grounds became places for the public. Early opportunities for the creation of urban parks in both Europe and the United States grew out of medieval practice to secure pasture lands within

13224-401: Was expanded to include exotic animals from Africa, Asia, and Australia. Construction costs for the zoo originally estimated at $ 400,000 quickly increased to more than $ 2,000,000. Admission projections, originally estimated to reach 650,000 by 1977, only reached 112,342 that year. As the legacy cost of construction increased and admissions stayed languid, budgets became increasingly stretched. In

13340-400: Was strictly forbidden for commoners to hunt animals in these deer parks. These game preserves evolved into landscaped parks set around mansions and country houses from the sixteenth century onwards. These may have served as hunting grounds but they also proclaimed the owner's wealth and status. An aesthetic of landscape design began in these stately home parks where the natural landscape

13456-503: Was the provision of open space for the benefit of townspeople and local residents within an area that was being rapidly built up. Secondly it took the concept of the designed landscape as a setting for the suburban domicile, an idea pioneered by John Nash at Regent's Park , and re-fashioned it for the provincial town in a most original way. Nash's remodeling of St James's Park from 1827 and the sequence of processional routes he created to link The Mall with Regent's Park completely transformed

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