170-715: The Toxic Substances Control Act ( TSCA ) is a United States law, passed by the 94th United States Congress in 1976 and administered by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), that regulates chemicals not regulated by other U.S. federal statutes, including chemicals already in commerce and the introduction of new chemicals . When the TSCA was put into place, all existing chemicals were considered to be safe for use and subsequently grandfathered in. Its three main objectives are to assess and regulate new commercial chemicals before they enter
340-566: A lower house based on population; and the Senate , an upper house based on equal representation for each state. Federalism provides substantial autonomy to the 50 states, while the country's political culture promotes liberty , equality , individualism , personal autonomy , and limited government . One of the world's most developed countries , the United States has had the largest nominal GDP since about 1890 and accounted for over 15% of
510-562: A " Special Relationship " with the United Kingdom and strong ties with Canada , Australia , New Zealand , the Philippines , Japan , South Korea , Israel , and several European Union countries ( France , Italy , Germany , Spain , and Poland ). The U.S. works closely with its NATO allies on military and national security issues, and with countries in the Americas through
680-667: A 1971 report, the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) urged the Federal government to regulate toxic substances in the U.S. CEQ explained that existing regulations were insufficient to protect human health and the environment. For example, the existing law only took effect after the damages were done and did nothing to prevent future damage. As John R. Quarles Jr. , the EPA Deputy Administrator, later explained during congressional testimony in 1975, "While some authority exists to control
850-418: A PMN to act before the new chemical may be legally marketed and included in products. In consequence, only 40 percent of acute toxicity and mutagenicity testing is ever completed, even less data on long-term effects or specific endpoints (including subchronic, neurotoxicological, developmental, reproductive, and chronic) is ever generated. Additionally, less than 5 percent of data on toxicity to aquatic organisms
1020-785: A TSCA reform bill, co-sponsored by a number of other senators at the United States House Energy Subcommittee on Environment and Economy . The main focus of this effort was to amend TSCA's subsection S.1009, the Chemical Safety Improvement Act (CSIA). The Environmental Defense Fund , felt it would have given the EPA many critical tools to strengthen the provisions on public health protection and improved TSCA. The bill's key revision included "mandating safety evaluations for all chemicals in active commerce, requiring new chemicals to be deemed likely safe before entering
1190-423: A chemical reaction or occurring in nature, and any element or uncombined radical" although TSCA excludes chemicals regulated by other federal statutes from the definition of a chemical substance. Generally, manufacturers must submit premanufacturing notification to EPA prior to manufacturing or importing new chemicals for commerce. Exceptions include foods, food additives, drugs, cosmetics or devices regulated under
1360-533: A coordinated, continent-wide military effort. Finally, deteriorating relations between the British military establishment and the colonists, relations that were already less than positive, set the stage for further distrust and dislike of British troops. Following their victory in the French and Indian War, Britain began to assert greater control over local colonial affairs, resulting in colonial political resistance ; one of
1530-522: A decentralized government that operated until 1789. After the British surrender at the siege of Yorktown in 1781 American sovereignty was internationally recognized by the Treaty of Paris (1783), through which the U.S. gained territory stretching west to the Mississippi River, north to present-day Canada, and south to Spanish Florida . The Northwest Ordinance (1787) established the precedent by which
1700-407: A few prominent industrialists , largely by their formation of trusts and monopolies to prevent competition. Tycoons led the nation's expansion in the railroad , petroleum , and steel industries. The United States emerged as a pioneer of the automotive industry . These changes were accompanied by significant increases in economic inequality , slum conditions , and social unrest , creating
1870-616: A founding member of the World Bank , Organization of American States , NATO , and the United Nations , as well as a permanent member of the UN Security Council . The first documented use of the phrase "United States of America" is a letter from January 2, 1776. Stephen Moylan , a Continental Army aide to General George Washington , wrote to Joseph Reed , Washington's aide-de-camp , seeking to go "with full and ample powers from
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#17328334757992040-475: A myriad of individual state regulations. Yet, environmental groups and state agencies argue that TSCA provisions "protect confidential business information" (CBI) preventing them from accessing information relevant to their task. However, chemical manufacturers and their trade associations would prefer a weaker version of TSCA that pre-empts state law, due to the more than 40 different state government regulations on toxic chemicals. In addition, businesses would like
2210-428: A negative longtime effect in their health. If the rate of exposure exceeds the capacity of the body to detoxify and eliminate them, it can accumulate in the body and potentially harm it. Male and female fertility can be compromised from exposure to toxic chemicals. Concerns for exposure to workers is reflected in the explicit inclusion of workers with the definition of "potentially exposed and susceptible subpopulations" in
2380-613: A nicer area. Environmental justice groups can engage the community to impact local state and federal policy. TSCA regulation can protect public health by "limiting the market for hazardous chemicals and promote safe chemical production." Vulnerable population such as infants, pregnant women, the elderly and certain occupational workers bear a higher risk to diseases from exposure to toxic chemicals. The elderly are vulnerable from exposure to chemicals that may impair their weak immune system, and cause heart disease among other health issues from interactions with medication. Children are vulnerable to
2550-502: A particular molecular identity," and "any combination of such substances occurring in whole or in part as a result of a chemical reaction or occurring in nature" as well as "any element or uncombined radical." These chemicals are found in children's products (e.g., toys) cleaning products, furniture, electronics, building materials, and car interiors. The law attempts to oversee the manufacture (including import), processing, distribution, use and or disposal of such chemical substances. Prior to
2720-899: A patchwork of state policies as state lawmakers in 18 states have collectively passed 71 chemical laws since 2003. In states such as California, Connecticut, and Michigan diverse chemical policy actions were introduced favoring tighter regulation to protect vulnerable populations and the environment from exposure to dangerous chemicals. Critics favoring a federal reform of TSCA argue that the patchwork of state chemical management laws create "tensions between federal and state powers." Moreover, state law initiatives and rules to target chemicals have significant support from "the public demanding stricter chemical control." Stringent state laws have successfully implemented more regulation on "BPA in plastic products and food beverage containers or flame retardants in furniture." Campaigns focusing on increasing consumer awareness of chemicals in products have been able to educate
2890-583: A period of heightened, overt racism following Reconstruction, a time often called the nadir of American race relations . A series of Supreme Court decisions, including Plessy v. Ferguson , emptied the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments of their force, allowing Jim Crow laws in the South to remain unchecked, sundown towns in the Midwest, and segregation in communities across the country , which would be reinforced by
3060-450: A polluting industrial facility." The market dynamics responds to "the industry seeking to build their facilities where land is cheap and where industrial labor pools and sources of materials are nearby." Eventually, industrial facilities may contribute to the depreciation of property in the neighboring areas affecting the value of housing because of noise, release of pollutants, and fear of health impact. Wealthy communities will actively oppose
3230-488: A prominent leader in the early 1960s. The Great Society plan of President Lyndon Johnson 's administration resulted in groundbreaking and broad-reaching laws, policies and a constitutional amendment to counteract some of the worst effects of lingering institutional racism . The counterculture movement in the U.S. brought significant social changes, including the liberalization of attitudes toward recreational drug use and sexuality . It also encouraged open defiance of
3400-472: A rapid rate is incorporated into consumer products without testing the toxicity risk of exposure to human health and the environment. Technological creation of new chemicals is ahead of TSCA regulation for new chemicals. The U.S. chemical industry claims having tight regulations can interfere with their ability to compete. Nevertheless, in Europe new regulation motivated the chemical industry to innovate. For instance,
3570-427: A reform of TSCA, agreeing that it is necessary to avoid ambiguities. The chemical producers support implementation of more uniform and consistent regulations at the federal level that pre-empt state law. The modernization of TSCA can give the chemical industry a standard to follow and allow them to market their products for domestic consumption or international sales without having to spend more money trying to comply with
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#17328334757993740-518: A sense of manifest destiny . The Missouri Compromise attempted to balance the desire of northern states to prevent the expansion of slavery into new territories with that of southern states to extend it, admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. It further prohibited slavery in all other lands of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 36°30′ parallel . As Americans expanded further into land inhabited by Native Americans,
3910-603: A sense of American identity as well. Men who otherwise never left their own colony now traveled across the continent to fight alongside men from decidedly different backgrounds but who were no less "American". British officers trained American officers for battle, most notably George Washington ; these officers would lend their skills and expertise to the colonists' cause during the American Revolutionary War to come. In addition, colonial legislatures and officials found it necessary to cooperate intensively in pursuit of
4080-627: A series of legal, organizational, and political challenges." According to Wilson and Schwarzman, there are three gaps in US chemicals policy: The EPA Office of the Inspector General said in 2010 that implementation has been "inconsistent and presents a minimal presence." The report criticized the process by which the EPA handles new TSCA cases, claiming it is "predisposed to protect industry information rather than to provide public access to health and safety studies." GAO suggests that concern for trade secrets
4250-484: A standard that can be applied uniformly, rather than having to report many different and overlapping sets of requirements to the individual states where the companies do business. Chemical manufacturers have also automated quality processes by incorporating a quality management system in efforts to foster a better, safer industry. Growing public concern about exposure to dangerous chemicals in their everyday life has received attention from state and local agencies. Redefining
4420-611: A status solidified after its involvement in World War I . After Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the U.S. entered World War II . Its aftermath left the U.S. and the Soviet Union as the world's two superpowers and led to the Cold War , during which both countries struggled for ideological dominance and international influence . Following the Soviet Union's collapse and
4590-613: A team of expert scientists and specialists who evaluate the potential environmental fate, and health and environmental hazards of new chemicals Since there is little to no data received with the PMNs, hazard assessments for chemicals depend heavily on models, SARs based on analogous chemicals, or, in some cases, data on the subject chemical retrieved from public databases or reference material such as Beilstein. However, it has been argued that SARs and SAT's review process do not adequately evaluate risks associated with new chemicals. For instance, there
4760-599: A totally enclosed manner." It also authorizes the EPA to regulate PCBs disposal. Acting under the TSCA and other laws, the EPA has set limits for PCB contamination of the environment. It has engaged in protracted negotiations with the U.S. General Electric company and other firms for remediation of sites contaminated with PCBs such as the upper Hudson River . The TSCA was passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by President Gerald Ford on October 11, 1976 after years of negotiation between factions of
4930-401: A year). Juvenile correctional facilities are operated by local or state governments and serve as longer-term placements for any minor adjudicated as delinquent and ordered by a judge to be confined. As of January 2023, the United States has the sixth-highest per capita incarceration rate in the world—531 people per 100,000 inhabitants—and the largest prison and jail population in
5100-456: Is a serious issue. In 2009, chemical manufacturers stated that TSCA needs "modernizing" to offer better regulation of current and future chemical products available in the market. The chemical industry is frustrated with state-level restrictions because state policies on chemical products create "market disruption and impose unnecessary regulatory burdens, without necessarily improving public health." The chemical manufacturers "reluctantly" support
5270-409: Is also found in "air, food, water, homes, schools, and communities." Communities living near hot spots present health problems "associated with both social and environmental stressors," this can put a disproportionately burden on families. Therefore, "information on potential toxicity" can help parents to make better decisions about the products they purchase for the use of the children. Information about
Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 - Misplaced Pages Continue
5440-581: Is an innovative way to design chemicals to be less hazardous, with the goal of making chemicals and products "benign by design." see CGCI According to the Safer Chemicals, Healthy Families Coalition, "18 states have collectively passed 71 chemical laws since 2003." Similarly, the state of California implemented the Green Chemistry Initiative (CGCI) in an effort to increase innovation and reduce or eliminate hazardous substances to human health and
5610-478: Is another challenge for TSCA, "there are no specific regulations on nanoparticles except existing regulations covering the same material in bulk form." However, if the bulk form of the nanomaterial is not listed on the TSCA Inventory, the nanomaterial is a new chemical substance that is subject to pre-market review. There is not enough knowledge about the potential risk of exposure while new nano material created at
5780-571: Is believed to be the first widespread culture in the Americas. Over time, indigenous North American cultures grew increasingly sophisticated, and some, such as the Mississippian culture , developed agriculture , architecture , and complex societies . In the post-archaic period , the Mississippian cultures were located in the midwestern , eastern , and southern regions, and the Algonquian in
5950-1063: Is calling for greater oversight and reporting of health hazards of chemicals contained in everyday products. TSCA can promote environmental justice in communities where minorities and low-income residents disproportionately bear great exposure to toxic chemicals increasing their risk to suffer from "chronic diseases and conditions such as prostate cancer, learning disabilities, asthma, infertility, and obesity." Public policy can transform and empower communities "fighting environmental racism " associated with industrial facilities built near low-income neighborhoods. Communities from minority groups are disproportionately affected by "environmental threats from toxic contamination, locally unwanted land use (LULUs) to unsafe and substandard housing and natural-resource extractions" cannot wait for years until bureaucratic processes demonstrate their health has been at risk from living under these conditions. Studies have shown that "lower-income people were found to be significantly more likely than were higher income people to live near
6120-514: Is estimated that "the annual costs of environmentally attributable diseases in American children due to lead poisoning amounts to $ 43.4 billion." Toxic chemicals "threaten the health of the developing fetus, babies, young children and teens." It is important to protect children from chemical exposures as they "are less able than adults to break down and excrete toxic compounds." Children are exposed to newly invented chemicals used for consumer products, and
6290-519: Is found in United States law at Title 15 of the United States Code , Chapter 53, and administered by EPA. U.S. regulations implementing the TSCA are in 40 CFR Part 195 for radon, and in 40 CFR Parts 700 through 766 for other matters. Under 15 USC 2605(e) the TSCA specifically regulates PCBs. Subsection (2)(A) provides that after January 1, 1978, "no person may manufacture, process or distribute in commerce or use any PCB in any manner other than in
6460-492: Is known as the presidential system , in contrast to the parliamentary system , where the executive is part of the legislative body. Many countries around the world imitated this aspect of the 1789 Constitution of the United States , especially in the Americas. The Constitution is silent on political parties. However, they developed independently in the 18th century with the Federalist and Anti-Federalist parties. Since then,
6630-492: Is media focused without addressing how to control pollution within communities. Second, TSCA implementation is difficult because of the number of chemicals in the US market and high costs associated with fully assessing the toxic impacts of so many chemicals on human health and the environment. 62,000 chemicals on the market at the time were listed on the original TSCA Inventory of Chemical Substances. TSCA "grandfathered" these 62,000 chemicals, allowing these substances to remain on
6800-447: Is needed to respond to the consumer demand: "public policies governing chemical design, production, and use need deep restructuring in light of new science on the health and environmental effects of anthropogenic chemicals" For better management and control of chemicals "a string of high-profile campaigns focusing on chemicals in consumer products" has made consumers aware of "chemical exposures to everyday life" by releasing information on
6970-472: Is no minimum data set beyond information already in possession at the time they file the PMN. The EPA may regulate chemicals that enter the market only under the standards of TSCA and also carries the burden of proving the safety of existing chemicals The TSCA Chemical Substance Inventory (TSCA Inventory) is EPA's comprehensive list of confidential and non-confidential chemical substances. The non-confidential inventory
Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 - Misplaced Pages Continue
7140-438: Is now the United States experienced conflicts with Native Americans, they also engaged in trade, exchanging European tools for food and animal pelts. Relations ranged from close cooperation to warfare and massacres. The colonial authorities often pursued policies that forced Native Americans to adopt European lifestyles, including conversion to Christianity. Along the eastern seaboard, settlers trafficked African slaves through
7310-1554: Is part of a series on the United States Code [REDACTED] United States Code Title 1 - General Provisions Title 2 - The Congress Title 3 - The President Title 4 - Flag and Seal, Seat of Government, and the States Title 5 - Government Organization and Employees Title 6 - Domestic Security Title 7 - Agriculture Title 8 - Aliens and Nationality Title 9 - Arbitration Title 10 - Armed Forces Title 11 - Bankruptcy Title 12 - Banks and Banking Title 13 - Census Title 14 - Coast Guard Title 15 - Commerce and Trade Title 16 - Conservation Title 17 - Copyrights Title 18 - Crimes and Criminal Procedure Title 19 - Customs Duties Title 20 - Education Title 21 - Food and Drugs Title 22 - Foreign Relations and Intercourse Title 23 - Highways Title 24 - Hospitals and Asylums Title 25 - Indians Title 26 - Internal Revenue Code Title 27 - Intoxicating Liquors Title 28 - Judiciary and Judicial Procedure Title 29 - Labor Title 30 - Mineral Lands and Mining Title 31 - Money and Finance Title 32 - National Guard Title 33 - Navigation and Navigable Waters Title 34 - Crime Control and Law Enforcement Title 35 - Patents Title 36 - Patriotic Societies and Observances Title 37 - Pay and Allowances of
7480-517: Is preventing effective testing. In come cases, toxicity studies do not include the specific identity of the test substance and cannot report any problems because "health and safety data are of limited value if the chemical the data pertain to is unknown." Certain state governments have implemented "comprehensive regulatory programs" for stricter control on toxic chemicals as a response to the failure of Congress to modernize TSCA. Some critics of TSCA note its inability to support meaningful action to prevent
7650-808: Is provided in Microsoft Access and CSV formats within ZIP files . Inventory notification reporting is through an updated user interface in the Central Data Exchange (CDX) Chemical Safety and Pesticide Programs (CSPP) web application for company-authorized officials and their support; there is no role for the public to access the CDX CSPP web app. The Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) is a different inventory for Superfund reporting. TSCA had been severely criticized by non-governmental organizations, academics, scientists, and even government agencies for failing to regulate
7820-588: Is regulated through the Clean Air Act , Clean Water Act and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act . Instead, like FIFRA (the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act ), TSCA regulates commercial products. The act gave the EPA the authority to gather information on and require manufacturers (and importers) to test products, required the EPA to create a listing of existing chemicals and
7990-427: Is subject to judicial review under the "substantial evidence" standard. In particular, the requirement that the EPA determine that the chemical "may present an unreasonable risk" creates a regulatory " Catch-22 " as such a determination requires much of the very data that the EPA cannot access or cause to be generated without first making the determination. This burden was one of the drivers for changes to Section 4 during
8160-702: Is submitted with a PMN. " From 1979 to 1994 the EPA OPPT's new chemical program received over 24000 PMNs and sought to delay manufacture and require additional data for only 5000 of those submissions. Half of these nonetheless ultimately entered and are still on the market. EPA evaluation found that 85 percent of PMN data on health effects is deficient, and 67 percent of PMNs contain deficiencies on health or environmental effects of any kind. In order to compensate for this deficiency of data, Section 5 of TSCA created The Structure Activity Team (SAT) along with structural-activity relations (SARs) to review PMN chemicals. SAT consists of
8330-9500: Is the Robinson Patman Act 15 U.S.C. ch. 2 — Federal Trade Commission ; Promotion Of Export Trade And Prevention Of Unfair Methods uk Competition 15 U.S.C. ch. 2A — Securities Act , Trust Indentures Act 15 U.S.C. ch. 2B — Securities Exchanges 15 U.S.C. ch. 2B-1 — Securities Investor Protection 15 U.S.C. ch. 2C — Public Utility Holding Companies 15 U.S.C. ch. 2D — Investment Company Act , Investment Advisers Act 15 U.S.C. ch. 2E — Omnibus Small Business Capital Formation 15 U.S.C. ch. 3 —Trade-Marks 15 U.S.C. ch. 4 — China Trade 15 U.S.C. ch. 5 —Statistical and Commercial Information 15 U.S.C. ch. 6 —Weights and Measures and Standard Time Subchapter I—Weights, Measures, and Standards Generally Subchapter II— Metric Conversion Subchapter III—Standard Gauge for Iron and Steel Subchapter IV—Screw Threads Subchapter V—Standard of Electricity Subchapter VI—Standard Barrels Subchapter VII—Standard Baskets and Containers Subchapter VIII— Standard Hampers, Round Stave Baskets, and Splint Baskets for Fruits and Vegetables Subchapter IX— Standard Time 15 U.S.C. ch. 7 — National Institute of Standards and Technology 15 U.S.C. ch. 7A —Standard Reference Data Program 15 U.S.C. ch. 8 — Falsely Stamped Gold or Silver or Goods Manufactured Therefrom 15 U.S.C. ch. 9 — National Weather Service 15 U.S.C. ch. 9A — Weather Modification Activities Or Attempts; Reporting Requirement 15 U.S.C. ch. 10 — War Finance Corporation 15 U.S.C. ch. 10A — Collection of State Cigarette Taxes 15 U.S.C. ch. 10B —State Taxation of Income from Interstate Commerce 15 U.S.C. ch. 11 — Caustic Poisons (repealed) 15 U.S.C. ch. 12 —Discrimination Against Farmers Cooperative Associations by Boards Of Trade 15 U.S.C. ch. 13 — Textile Foundation 15 U.S.C. ch. 13A — Fishing Industry 15 U.S.C. ch. 14 — Reconstruction Finance Corporation 15 U.S.C. ch. 14A — Aid to Small Business 15 U.S.C. ch. 14B — Small Business Investment Program 15 U.S.C. ch. 15 —Economic Recovery 15 U.S.C. ch. 15A —Interstate Transportation Of Petroleum Products 15 U.S.C. ch. 15B — Natural Gas 15 U.S.C. ch. 15C — Alaska Natural Gas Transportation 15 U.S.C. ch. 16 — Emergency Relief 15 U.S.C. ch. 16A — Emergency Petroleum Allocation 15 U.S.C. ch. 16B — Federal Energy Administration 15 U.S.C. ch. 16C - Energy Supply and Environmental Coordination 15 U.S.C. ch. 17 - Production, Marketing, and Use of Bituminous Coal 15 U.S.C. ch. 18 - Transportation of Firearms 15 U.S.C. ch. 19 - Miscellaneous 15 U.S.C. ch. 20 - Regulation of Insurance, McCarran–Ferguson Act 15 U.S.C. ch. 21 - National Policy on Employment and Productivity 15 U.S.C. ch. 22 - Trademarks ( Lanham Act ) 15 U.S.C. ch. 23 - Dissemination of Technical, Scientific and Engineering Information 15 U.S.C. ch. 24 - Transportation of Gambling Devices 15 U.S.C. ch. 25 - Flammable Fabrics 15 U.S.C. ch. 26 - Household Refrigerators 15 U.S.C. ch. 27 - Automobile Dealer Suits Against Manufacturers 15 U.S.C. ch. 28 - Disclosure of Automobile Information 15 U.S.C. ch. 29 - Manufacture, Transportation, or Distribution of Switchblade Knives 15 U.S.C. ch. 30 - Hazardous Substances 15 U.S.C. ch. 31 - Destruction of Property Moving in Commerce 15 U.S.C. ch. 32 - Telecasting of Professional Sports Contests 15 U.S.C. ch. 33 - Brake Fluid Regulation 15 U.S.C. ch. 34 - Antitrust Civil Process 15 U.S.C. ch. 35 - Seat Belt Regulation 15 U.S.C. ch. 36 - Cigarette Labeling and Advertising 15 U.S.C. ch. 37 - State Technical Services 15 U.S.C. ch. 38 - Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety 15 U.S.C. ch. 39 - Fair Packaging and Labeling Program 15 U.S.C. ch. 39A - Special Packaging of Household Substances for Protection of Children 15 U.S.C. ch. 40 - Department of Commerce 15 U.S.C. ch. 41 - Consumer Credit Protection Subchapter I — Consumer Credit Cost Disclosure Subchapter II — Restrictions on Garnishment Subchapter IIA — Credit Repair Organizations Subchapter III — Fair Credit Reporting Act Subchapter IV — Equal Credit Opportunity Subchapter V — Debt Collection Practices Subchapter VI — Electronic Funds Transfer 15 U.S.C. ch. 42 — Interstate Land Sales 15 U.S.C. ch. 43 — Newspaper Preservation 15 U.S.C. ch. 44 — Protection of Horses 15 U.S.C. ch. 45 —Emergency Loan Guarantees to Business Enterprises 15 U.S.C. ch. 45A — Chrysler Corporation Loan Guarantee 15 U.S.C. ch. 46 —Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Savings Subchapter I: Bumper Standards Subchapter II: Automobile Consumer Information Study Subchapter III: Diagnostic Inspection Demonstration Projects Subchapter IV: Odometer Requirements Subchapter V: Improving Automotive Efficiency Subchapter VI: Theft Prevention 15 U.S.C. ch. 46A —Automobile Title Fraud 15 U.S.C. ch. 47 — Consumer Product Safety 15 U.S.C. ch. 48 — Hobby Protection 15 U.S.C. ch. 49 — Fire Prevention and Control 15 U.S.C. ch. 50 — Consumer Product Warranties 15 U.S.C. ch. 51 — National Productivity and Quality of Working Life 15 U.S.C. ch. 52 — Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration 15 U.S.C. ch. 53 — Toxic Substances Control Subchapter I—Control of Toxic Substances Subchapter II— Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Subchapter III— Indoor Radon Abatement Subchapter IV— Lead Exposure Reduction Subchapter V— Healthy High Performance Schools 15 U.S.C. ch. 54 — Automotive Propulsion Research and Development 15 U.S.C. ch. 55 — Petroleum Marketing Practices 15 U.S.C. ch. 56 — National Climate Program 15 U.S.C. ch. 56A — Global Change Research 15 U.S.C. ch. 57 — Interstate Horseracing 15 U.S.C. ch. 58 — Full Employment and Balanced Growth 15 U.S.C. ch. 59 —Retail Policies for Natural Gas Utilities 15 U.S.C. ch. 60 — Natural Gas Policy 15 U.S.C. ch. 61 — Soft Drink Interbrand Competition 15 U.S.C. ch. 62 —Condominium and Cooperative Conversion Protection and Abuse Relief 15 U.S.C. ch. 63 — Technology Innovation 15 U.S.C. ch. 64 — Methane Transportation Research, Development, and Demonstration 15 U.S.C. ch. 65 — Liability Risk Retention 15 U.S.C. ch. 66 —Promotion of Export Trade 15 U.S.C. ch. 67 — Arctic Research and Policy 15 U.S.C. ch. 68 — Land Remote-Sensing Commercialization 15 U.S.C. ch. 69 — Cooperative Research 15 U.S.C. ch. 70 — Comprehensive Smokeless Tobacco Health Education 15 U.S.C. ch. 71 — Petroleum Overcharge Distribution and Restitution 15 U.S.C. ch. 72 — Semiconductor Research 15 U.S.C. ch. 73 — Export Enhancement 15 U.S.C. ch. 74 — Competitiveness Policy Council 15 U.S.C. ch. 75 — National Trade Data Bank 15 U.S.C. ch. 76 — Imitation Firearms 15 U.S.C. ch. 77 — Steel and Aluminum Energy Conservation and Technology Competitiveness 15 U.S.C. ch. 78 — Superconductivity and Competitiveness 15 U.S.C. ch. 79 — Metal Casting Competitiveness Research Program 15 U.S.C. ch. 80 — Fasteners 15 U.S.C. ch. 81 — High-Performance Computing 15 U.S.C. ch. 82 — Land Remote Sensing Policy 15 U.S.C. ch. 83 — Telephone Disclosure and Dispute Resolution 15 U.S.C. ch. 84 — Commercial Space Competitiveness 15 U.S.C. ch. 85 — Armored Car Industry Reciprocity 15 U.S.C. ch. 86 — Children's Bicycle Helmet Safety 15 U.S.C. ch. 87 — Telemarketing and Consumer Fraud and Abuse Prevention 15 U.S.C. ch. 88 — International Antitrust Enforcement Assistance 15 U.S.C. ch. 89 — Professional Boxing Safety 15 U.S.C. ch. 90 — Propane Education and Research 15 U.S.C. ch. 91 — Children's Online Privacy Protection 15 U.S.C. ch. 92 — Year 2000 Computer Date Change 15 U.S.C. ch. 93 —Insurance, Title III of Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act 15 U.S.C. ch. 94 —Privacy 15 U.S.C. ch. 95 —Microenterprise Technical Assistance and Capacity Building Program 15 U.S.C. ch. 96 — Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce 15 U.S.C. ch. 97 —Women's Business Enterprise Development 15 U.S.C. ch. 98 — Public Company Accounting Reform and Corporate Responsibility , also known as
8500-542: Is the federal agency charged with addressing most environmental-related issues . The idea of wilderness has shaped the management of public lands since 1964, with the Wilderness Act . The Endangered Species Act of 1973 provides a way to protect threatened and endangered species and their habitats. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service implements and enforces the Act. In 2024, the U.S. ranked 34th among 180 countries in
8670-452: Is the moral obligation of the firm "to create success in ways that honors ethical values and respect to communities while promoting sustainability and a good reputation." Corporations can innovate and improve their image by responding to the increasing demand of green chemicals by consumers seeking better options to reduce their exposure to toxic chemicals. On May 23, 2013, Senators David Vitter (R-LA) and Frank Lautenberg (D-NJ), introduced
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#17328334757998840-657: Is too costly. The EPA is authorized to require industry to perform testing of chemicals being produced in substantial quantities or if the EPA finds that the manufacturing, production or use of a chemical "may present an unreasonable risk of injury to health or the environment." The only information required from chemical producers is chemical identities, names, and molecular structures, categories of use, amount manufactured and processed for each category of use, descriptions of byproducts resulting from manufacture, processing, use, and disposal, environmental and health effects, number of individuals exposed, number of employees exposed and
9010-584: The Allies of World War I , helping to turn the tide against the Central Powers . In 1920, a constitutional amendment granted nationwide women's suffrage . During the 1920s and '30s, radio for mass communication and the invention of early television transformed communications nationwide. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 triggered the Great Depression , which President Franklin D. Roosevelt responded to with
9180-548: The Atlantic slave trade . The original Thirteen Colonies that would later found the United States were administered as possessions of Great Britain , and had local governments with elections open to most white male property owners . The colonial population grew rapidly, eclipsing Native American populations; by the 1770s, the natural increase of the population was such that only a small minority of Americans had been born overseas. The colonies' distance from Britain allowed for
9350-531: The Center for Science in the Public Interest released a report entitled Seeing Red - Time for Action on Food Dyes which criticized the continued use of artificial food coloring in the United States. The report estimated that over half a million children in the United States suffer adverse behavioral reactions as a result of ingesting food dyes, with an estimated cost exceeding $ 5 billion per year, citing data from by
9520-679: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . The report urges the Food and Drug Administration to take action to ban or curtail the use of such dyes. Readers are reminded that baby bottles and artificial food coloring are not regulated under TSCA jurisdiction, rather they are regulated under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act . However, other toxic substances that may be found in baby food (e.g., bisphenol A), are under TSCA jurisdiction. Pregnant women exposure to toxic chemicals in daily basis "can impact
9690-529: The Environmental Performance Index . The country joined the Paris Agreement on climate change in 2016 and has many other environmental commitments. The United States is a federal republic of 50 states and a separate federal capital district, Washington, D.C. It also asserts sovereignty over five unincorporated territories and several uninhabited island possessions . The U.S. is
9860-493: The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the U.S. Marshals Service have national jurisdiction and specialized duties, such as protecting civil rights , national security and enforcing U.S. federal courts ' rulings and federal laws. State courts conduct most civil and criminal trials, and federal courts handle designated crimes and appeals of state court decisions . There is no unified "criminal justice system" in
10030-626: The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act , pesticides regulated by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act , tobacco and tobacco products regulated by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives , substances used only in small quantities for research and development under Section 5(h)(3), and radioactive materials and wastes regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission . EPA reviews new chemical notifications and if it finds an "unreasonable risk of injury to health or
10200-640: The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act . However, other toxic substances that can be transmitted through breast milk (e.g., per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)) are under TSCA jurisdiction. According to the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) workers have the right to a safe workplace that do not pose a risk of serious harm. Occupational exposure to chemicals can happen through direct skin contact, inhalation, ingestion or eye contact. People working under certain occupations are more exposed to toxic chemicals that can have
10370-480: The Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act . Corporations can show social responsibility by removing products from the market and introducing similar alternatives that can benefit vulnerable groups. For instance, "Kaiser Permanente, a major medical supply purchaser, has a policy to avoid chemicals associated with cancer, reproductive problems and genetic mutations." Corporation social responsibility (CSR)
SECTION 60
#173283347579910540-637: The Great Lakes , Mississippi River and Gulf of Mexico . British colonization of the East Coast began with the Virginia Colony (1607) and Plymouth Colony (1620). The Mayflower Compact and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut established precedents for representative self-governance and constitutionalism that would develop throughout the American colonies. While European settlers in what
10710-701: The Great Lakes region and along the Eastern Seaboard , while the Hohokam culture and Ancestral Puebloans inhabited the southwest . Native population estimates of what is now the United States before the arrival of European immigrants range from around 500,000 to nearly 10 million. Christopher Columbus began exploring the Caribbean for Spain in 1492, leading to Spanish-speaking settlements and missions from Puerto Rico and Florida to New Mexico and California . France established its own settlements along
10880-580: The Midwest . At the same time, about one million French Canadians migrated from Quebec to New England . During the Great Migration , millions of African Americans left the rural South for urban areas in the North. Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. The Compromise of 1877 effectively ended Reconstruction and white supremacists took local control of Southern politics . African Americans endured
11050-672: The National Park Service and other agencies. About 28% of the country's land is publicly owned and federally managed, primarily in the Western States . Most of this land is protected , though some is leased for commercial use, and less than one percent is used for military purposes. Environmental issues in the United States include debates on non-renewable resources and nuclear energy , air and water pollution , biodiversity , logging and deforestation , and climate change . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
11220-583: The New Deal , a series of sweeping programs and public works projects combined with financial reforms and regulations . All were intended to protect against future economic depressions. Initially neutral during World War II , the U.S. began supplying war materiel to the Allies of World War II in March 1941 and entered the war in December after the Empire of Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor . The U.S. developed
11390-759: The Organization of American States and the United States–Mexico–Canada Free Trade Agreement . In South America, Colombia is traditionally considered to be the closest ally of the United States. The U.S. exercises full international defense authority and responsibility for Micronesia , the Marshall Islands , and Palau through the Compact of Free Association . It has increasingly conducted strategic cooperation with India , but its ties with China have steadily deteriorated. Since 2014,
11560-638: The Pentium microprocessor in accordance with Moore's law , rechargeable lithium-ion batteries , the first gene therapy trial, and cloning either emerged in the U.S. or were improved upon there. The Human Genome Project was formally launched in 1990, while Nasdaq became the first stock market in the United States to trade online in 1998. In the Gulf War of 1991, an American-led international coalition of states expelled an Iraqi invasion force that had occupied neighboring Kuwait . The September 11 attacks on
11730-828: The Physicians for Social Responsibility , the U.S. Public Interest Research Group, the Environmental Defense Fund , the Lung Cancer Alliance and the Asbestos Disease Awareness Organization representing more than 11 million people nationwide. These diverse groups, under the umbrella of the National Resources Defense Council however are displeased with the new draft bill written by deceased Senator Lautenberg in May 2013. The group
11900-399: The Spanish–American War . (The Philippines was granted full independence from the U.S. on July 4, 1946, following World War II. Puerto Rico and Guam have remained U.S. territories.) American Samoa was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the Second Samoan Civil War . The U.S. Virgin Islands were purchased from Denmark in 1917. The United States entered World War I alongside
12070-499: The United States ( U.S. ) or America , is a country primarily located in North America . It is a federal union of 50 states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 contiguous states border Canada to the north and Mexico to the south, with the states of Alaska to the northwest and the archipelagic Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean . The United States also asserts sovereignty over five major island territories and various uninhabited islands . The country has
12240-670: The cotton gin made the institution increasingly profitable for Southern elites . This sectional conflict regarding slavery culminated in the American Civil War (1861–1865). Eleven slave states seceded and formed the Confederate States of America , while the other states remained in the Union . War broke out in April 1861 after the Confederates bombarded Fort Sumter . After
12410-514: The end of the Cold War in 1991, the U.S. emerged as the world's sole superpower , wielding significant geopolitical influence globally . The U.S. national government is a presidential constitutional federal republic and liberal democracy with three separate branches : legislative , executive , and judicial . It has a bicameral national legislature composed of the House of Representatives ,
12580-524: The fall of communism and the collapse of the Soviet Union , which marked the end of the Cold War and left the United States as the world's sole superpower . The 1990s saw the longest recorded economic expansion in American history , a dramatic decline in U.S. crime rates , and advances in technology . Throughout this decade, technological innovations such as the World Wide Web , the evolution of
12750-400: The global economy in 2023. It possesses by far the largest amount of wealth of any country and has the highest disposable household income per capita among OECD countries. The U.S. ranks among the world's highest in economic competitiveness , productivity , innovation , human rights , and higher education . Its hard power and cultural influence have a global reach. The U.S. is
12920-1893: The "Sarbanes–Oxley Act" 15 U.S.C. ch. 99 — National Construction Safety Team 15 U.S.C. ch. 100 — Cyber Security Research and Development 15 U.S.C. ch. 101 — Nanotechnology Research and Development 15 U.S.C. ch. 102 — Fairness to Contact Lens Consumers 15 U.S.C. ch. 103 — Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing 15 U.S.C. ch. 104 —Sports Agent Responsibility and Trust 15 U.S.C. ch. 105 —Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms 15 U.S.C. ch. 106 —Pool and Spa Safety 15 U.S.C. ch. 107 —Protection of Intellectual Property Rights 15 U.S.C. ch. 108 —State-Based Insurance Reform 15 U.S.C. ch. 109 —Wall Street Transparency and Accountability 15 U.S.C. ch. 110 —Online Shopper Protection 15 U.S.C. ch. 111 —Weather Research and Forecasting Innovation 15 U.S.C. ch. 112 —Sports Medicine Licensure 15 U.S.C. ch. 113 —Concrete Masonry Products Research, Education, and Promotion 15 U.S.C. ch. 114 —National Quantum Initiative 15 U.S.C. ch. 115 —Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Emerging Contaminants 15 U.S.C. ch. 116 —Coronavirus Economic Stabilization (CARES ACT) 15 U.S.C. ch. 117 —Identifying Outputs of Generative Adversarial Networks 15 U.S.C. ch. 118 —Sustainable Chemistry 15 U.S.C. ch. 119 —National Artificial Intelligence Initiative 15 U.S.C. ch. 120 —Minority Business Development 15 U.S.C. ch. 121 —Flood Level Observation, Operations, and Decision Support 15 U.S.C. ch. 122 —Travel and Tourism References [ edit ] ^ "United States Code" . Office of
13090-764: The 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord , igniting the American Revolutionary War . At the Second Continental Congress , the colonies appointed George Washington commander-in-chief of the Continental Army , and created a committee that named Thomas Jefferson to draft the Declaration of Independence . Two days after passing the Lee Resolution to create an independent nation the Declaration
13260-515: The 2010s, political polarization in the country increased between liberal and conservative factions. This polarization was capitalized upon in the January 2021 Capitol attack , when a mob of insurrectionists entered the U.S. Capitol and sought to prevent the peaceful transfer of power in an attempted self-coup d'état . The United States is the world's third-largest country by total area behind Russia and Canada. The 48 contiguous states and
13430-419: The 21st Century Act , which includes a requirement that EPA evaluate risk to "potentially exposed and susceptible subpopulations." Children are more susceptible to develop patterns of illness with longtime effect in their health for which chemical exposure can be contributing pediatric disease. The main health problems associated with environmental chemical pollutants are asthma, lead poisoning and obesity. It
13600-580: The American West have an alpine climate . The climate is arid in the Southwest, Mediterranean in coastal California , and oceanic in coastal Oregon , Washington , and southern Alaska . Most of Alaska is subarctic or polar . Hawaii , the southern tip of Florida and U.S. territories in the Caribbean and Pacific are tropical . States bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes, and most of
13770-470: The Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The term "United States" and the initialism "U.S.", used as nouns or as adjectives in English, are common short names for the country. The initialism "USA", a noun, is also common. "United States" and "U.S." are the established terms throughout the U.S. federal government , with prescribed rules. In English, the term "America" rarely refers to topics unrelated to
13940-557: The District of Columbia occupy a combined area of 3,119,885 square miles (8,080,470 km ). The coastal plain of the Atlantic seaboard gives way to inland forests and rolling hills in the Piedmont plateau region. The Appalachian Mountains and the Adirondack massif separate the East Coast from the Great Lakes and the grasslands of the Midwest . The Mississippi River System ,
14110-515: The EPA Also, if a substance is subject of a Significant New Use Rule (SNUR), a company would have to submit and receive approval of a Significant New Use Notice (SNUN) prior to undertaking the significant new use(s) defined in the SNUR. Under section 4, the EPA has the authority to require manufacturers to test existing chemicals, but in each case the EPA must make several formal findings, the first of which
14280-441: The EPA because they were "grandfathered in and statutorily not considered an "unreasonable risk." Without testing, TSCA grandfathered the use of these chemicals into TSCA's list of "existing" (as opposed to "new") chemicals. For existing chemicals, manufacturers need to generate and report data on risk, manufacturing and processing, adverse health effects, published and unpublished health and safety studies, and "substantial risks." to
14450-482: The EPA is nearly powerless to take regulatory action against dangerous chemicals, even those known to cause cancer or other serious health effects. The HPV program lead to the generation of new or release of existing data on over 2,200 chemicals. Companies must notify the EPA of their intention to manufacture (or import) a new chemical (one not listed on the TSCA Inventory) by submitting a PMN at least 90 days prior to
14620-402: The EPA on potential health and/or environmental impacts. Third, even though TSCA gives authority to the EPA to test the existing chemicals through the EPA's own rule making process, the EPA has difficulty obtaining the data needed to determine their risks. It is difficult to collect information from industries about the risks of chemicals and the EPA has concluded that conducting its own testing
14790-483: The EPA, i.e. to have funding and man-power to enforce all regulations that the EPA decided on, and causing a disconnect in partnerships between the state, federal government, and communities. The 2014 West Virginia Chemical Spill created many controversies regarding CSIA. no data on the spilled chemical were available, including data on repeated dose toxicity, carcinogenicity, reproductive toxicity, specific target organ toxicity, and repeated exposure. On February 4, 2014,
14960-506: The EPA. 140 of those chemicals were tested by regulatory order and 60 were tested after voluntary consent by the manufacturer. Additionally, there are 3,000 high production volume (HPV) chemicals, produced or imported in quantities exceeding one million pounds per year These HPV chemicals only constitute one third of existing chemicals, but their high volumes raise concern about the lack of basic hazard information. Many environmental groups, such as Natural Resources Defense Council , complain that
15130-562: The Elder concluded that major military resources needed to be devoted to North America to win the war against France. For the first time, the continent became one of the main theaters of what could be termed a " world war ". The British colonies' position as an integral part of the British Empire became more apparent during the war, with British military and civilian officials becoming a more significant presence in American life. The war increased
15300-502: The European parliament implemented a successful comprehensive reform of REACH by applying the "No data, no market" rule to pressure chemical manufacturers to submit safety data for both new and existing chemicals produced in or exported to Europe. This approach motivated the chemical industry in Europe to innovate, invest more in research & development and produce greener products. Other groups concerned with TSCA's lack of efficacy include
15470-664: The January 1863 Emancipation Proclamation , many freed slaves joined the Union army . The war began to turn in the Union's favor following the 1863 Siege of Vicksburg and Battle of Gettysburg , and the Confederacy surrendered in 1865 after the Union's victory in the Battle of Appomattox Court House . The Reconstruction era followed the war. After the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln , Reconstruction Amendments were passed to protect
15640-486: The Law Revision Counsel . Retrieved November 24, 2015 . External links [ edit ] U.S. Code Title 15 , via United States Government Printing Office U.S. Code Title 15 , via Cornell University v t e United States Code 1: General Provisions 2: The Congress 3: The President 4: Flag and Seal, Seat of Government, and
15810-595: The Rocky Mountains, the Yellowstone Caldera , is the continent's largest volcanic feature. In 2021, the United States had 8% of global permanent meadows and pastures and 10% of cropland. With its large size and geographic variety, the United States includes most climate types. East of the 100th meridian , the climate ranges from humid continental in the north to humid subtropical in the south. The western Great Plains are semi-arid . Many mountainous areas of
15980-604: The Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works held hearings on the CSIA right after the incident. In the aftermath of the spill, the House approved a bill 95-0 which provides safeguards for chemical storage tanks and public water supplies. It included new requirements on early detection technology and plans that protect against drinking water contamination. United States The United States of America ( USA ), commonly known as
16150-507: The State of Michigan" provided a clearer picture of the costs of weak regulation over toxic substances. Subsequently, the legislation passed in 1976. Congress designed TSCA to empower EPA to collect more information on chemicals and their potential dangerous effect on human health and the environment. As a result, TSCA's jurisdictional scope is extremely broad. Congress's definition of chemical substances includes "any organic or inorganic substance of
16320-1043: The States 5: Government Organization and Employees 6: Domestic Security (formerly titled Surety Bonds) 7: Agriculture 8: Aliens and Nationality 9: Arbitration 10: Armed Forces 11: Bankruptcy 12: Banks and Banking 13: Census 14: Coast Guard 15: Commerce and Trade 16: Conservation 17: Copyrights 18: Crimes and Criminal Procedure 19: Customs Duties 20: Education 21: Food and Drugs 22: Foreign Relations and Intercourse 23: Highways 24: Hospitals and Asylums 25: Indians 26: Internal Revenue Code 27: Intoxicating Liquors 28: Judiciary and Judicial Procedure 29: Labor 30: Mineral Lands and Mining 31: Money and Finance 32: National Guard 33: Navigable Waters 34: Crime Control and Law Enforcement (formerly titled Navy) 35: Patents 36: Patriotic and National Observances, Ceremonies, and Organizations 37: Pay and Allowances of
16490-410: The TSCA Inventory or subject to one of many exemptions. Chemicals listed on the TSCA inventory are referred to as "existing chemicals", while chemicals not listed are referred to as new chemicals. The TSCA defines the term "chemical substance" as "any organic or inorganic substance of a particular molecular identity, including any combination of these substances occurring in whole or in part as a result of
16660-458: The TSCA Inventory under TSCA section 8(b). New chemicals are defined as "any chemical substance which is not included in the chemical substance list compiled and published under section 8(b)." This list included all chemical substances manufactured or imported into the United States prior to December 1979, which covered 99% of the EPA's mandate in the bill, including some 8,800 chemicals imported or produced at quantities above 10,000 pounds. The TSCA
16830-625: The U.S. has become a key ally of Ukraine ; it has also provided the country with significant military equipment and other support in response to Russia's 2022 invasion . The president is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces and appoints its leaders, the secretary of defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff . The Department of Defense , which is headquartered at the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., administers five of
17000-661: The U.S. territories." Despite disparate systems of confinement, four main institutions dominate: federal prisons , state prisons , local jails, and juvenile correctional facilities . Federal prisons are run by the Federal Bureau of Prisons and hold people who have been convicted of federal crimes, including pretrial detainees. State prisons, run by the official department of correction of each state, hold sentenced people serving prison time (usually longer than one year) for felony offenses. Local jails are county or municipal facilities that incarcerate defendants prior to trial; they also hold those serving short sentences (typically under
17170-799: The Uniformed Services 38: Veterans' Benefits 39: Postal Service 40: Public Buildings, Properties, and Public Works 41: Public Contracts 42: The Public Health and Welfare 43: Public Lands 44: Public Printing and Documents 45: Railroads 46: Shipping 47: Telecommunications 48: Territories and Insular Possessions 49: Transportation 50: War and National Defense 51: National and Commercial Space Programs 52: Voting and Elections 54: National Parks Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Title_15_of_the_United_States_Code&oldid=1165916141 " Categories : United States federal commerce legislation Titles of
17340-888: The Uniformed Services Title 38 - Veterans' Benefits Title 39 - Postal Service Title 40 - Public Buildings, Properties, and Works Title 41 - Public Contracts Title 42 - The Public Health and Welfare Title 43 - Public Lands Title 44 - Public Printing and Documents Title 45 - Railroads Title 46 - Shipping Title 47 - Telecommunications Title 48 - Territories and Insular Possessions Title 49 - Transportation Title 50 - War and National Defense Title 51 - National and Commercial Space Programs Title 52 - Voting and Elections Title 53 - [Reserved] Title 54 - National Park Service and Related Programs [REDACTED] United States portal v t e Title 15 of
17510-934: The United States Code outlines the role of commerce and trade in the United States Code . Notable legislation in the title includes the Federal Trade Commission Act , the Clayton Antitrust Act , the Sherman Antitrust Act , the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 , the Consumer Product Safety Act , and the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 . 15 U.S.C. ch. 1 — Monopolies and Combinations in Restraint of Trade ; 15 U.S. Code § 13a
17680-461: The United States and the peaceful transfer of power , respectively. The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 from France nearly doubled the territory of the United States. Lingering issues with Britain remained , leading to the War of 1812 , which was fought to a draw. Spain ceded Florida and its Gulf Coast territory in 1819. In the late 18th century, American settlers began to expand westward , many with
17850-697: The United States entered the Cold War, where geopolitical tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union led the two countries to dominate world affairs . The U.S. utilized the policy of containment to limit the USSR's sphere of influence, and prevailed in the Space Race , which culminated with the first crewed Moon landing in 1969. Domestically, the U.S. experienced economic growth , urbanization , and population growth following World War II . The civil rights movement emerged, with Martin Luther King Jr. becoming
18020-649: The United States has operated as a de facto two-party system , though the parties in that system have been different at different times. The two main national parties are presently the Democratic and the Republican . The former is perceived as relatively liberal in its political platform while the latter is perceived as relatively conservative . In the American federal system , sovereign powers are shared between two levels of elected government: national and state. People in
18190-572: The United States in 2001 by the pan-Islamist militant organization al-Qaeda led to the war on terror , and subsequent military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq . The cultural impact of the attacks was profound and long-lasting. The U.S. housing bubble culminated in 2007 with the Great Recession , the largest economic contraction since the Great Depression. Coming to a head in
18360-578: The United States of America to Spain" to seek assistance in the Revolutionary War effort. The first known public usage is an anonymous essay published in the Williamsburg newspaper, The Virginia Gazette , on April 6, 1776. By June 1776, the "United States of America" appeared in the Articles of Confederation and the Declaration of Independence . The Second Continental Congress adopted
18530-580: The United States, despite the usage of "the Americas " as the totality of North and South America. "The States" is an established colloquial shortening of the name, used particularly from abroad; "stateside" is the corresponding adjective or adverb. The first inhabitants of North America migrated from Siberia across the Bering land bridge about 12,000 years ago; the Clovis culture , which appeared around 11,000 BC,
18700-605: The United States, except Iran , North Korea , and Bhutan . Though Taiwan does not have formal diplomatic relations with the U.S., it maintains close unofficial relations. The United States regularly supplies Taiwan with military equipment to deter potential Chinese aggression. Its geopolitical attention also turned to the Indo-Pacific when the United States joined the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue with Australia, India, and Japan. The United States has
18870-509: The United States. The American prison system is largely heterogenous, with thousands of relatively independent systems operating across federal, state, local, and tribal levels. In 2023, "these systems [held] almost 2 million people in 1,566 state prisons, 98 federal prisons, 3,116 local jails, 1,323 juvenile correctional facilities, 181 immigration detention facilities, and 80 Indian country jails, as well as in military prisons , civil commitment centers, state psychiatric hospitals, and prisons in
19040-443: The cancer mortality rate had increased and recognized that the cause of the increase was related to the rise of industrial chemicals in consumer products and the environment. As a result of these concerns, Congress concluded the risk of chemical exposure to the public were serious enough to warrant swift legislative action. Three key assumptions informed Congress' approach to drafting a chemicals control policy. First, in order to limit
19210-402: The chemicals that are manufactured, produced, and used in the U.S economy. Specifically, CEQ recommended that TSCA strengthen government oversight by requiring the following measures: First, manufacturers should notify officials when they use or produce new chemicals, or plan to sell a significant volume of old chemicals. Second, producers should test their chemicals and report data to officials on
19380-405: The contiguous United States are in the State of California, about 84 miles (135 km) apart. At an elevation of 20,310 feet (6,190.5 m), Alaska's Denali is the highest peak in the country and continent. Active volcanoes are common throughout Alaska's Alexander and Aleutian Islands , and Hawaii consists of volcanic islands. The supervolcano underlying Yellowstone National Park in
19550-549: The country's GDP. The U.S. has 42% of the world's nuclear weapons —the second-largest share after Russia. The United States has the third-largest combined armed forces in the world, behind the Chinese People's Liberation Army and Indian Armed Forces . The military operates about 800 bases and facilities abroad, and maintains deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel in 25 foreign countries. State defense forces (SDFs) are military units that operate under
19720-464: The country's territory would expand with the admission of new states , rather than the expansion of existing states. The U.S. Constitution was drafted at the 1787 Constitutional Convention to overcome the limitations of the Articles. It went into effect in 1789, creating a federal republic governed by three separate branches that together ensured a system of checks and balances . George Washington
19890-699: The development of self-governance, and the First Great Awakening , a series of Christian revivals , fueled colonial interest in religious liberty . For a century, the American colonists had been providing their own troops and materiel in conflicts with indigenous peoples allied with Britain's colonial rivals , especially France, and the Americans had begun to develop a sense of self-defense and self-reliance separate from Britain. The French and Indian War (1754–1763) took on new significance for all North American colonists after Parliament under William Pitt
20060-414: The dispossession of native inhabitants . As more states were admitted , a North–South division over slavery led to the secession of the Confederate States of America , which fought states remaining in the Union in the 1861–1865 American Civil War . With the victory and preservation of the United States, slavery was abolished nationally . By 1900, the country had established itself as a great power ,
20230-595: The duration of exposure, and manner or method of chemical disposal. In order to obtain more information related to chemical risks, the EPA must ask chemical companies to do testing. This occurs either by (1) mutual agreement, or (2) voluntary industry efforts under the HPV Challenge Program. The EPA has also created the Sustainable Futures (SF) Initiative model, which allows companies to voluntarily screen their products that might pose risks to human health or
20400-574: The enactment of the Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act , TSCA directed the EPA to use the least burdensome method to reduce chemical risk to reasonable levels while taking into consideration the benefits provided by the chemical product or process. There have been many challenges in the implementation of TSCA. First, according to David Markell, Professor of Law at Florida State University, TSCA and preexisting regulations have "an ―after-the-fact focus" that fails to protect individuals before toxic substances are released in products and
20570-564: The environment for labor unions to begin to flourish . This period eventually ended with the advent of the Progressive Era , which was characterized by significant reforms. Pro-American elements in Hawaii overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy ; the islands were annexed in 1898. That same year, Puerto Rico , the Philippines , and Guam were ceded to the U.S. by Spain after the latter's defeat in
20740-515: The environment," it may regulate the substance from limiting uses or production volume to outright banning it. In 2016, the Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act was the first major overhaul in many years. The Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 mandated the EPA to protect the public from "unreasonable risk of injury to health or the environment" by regulating the manufacture, processing, distribution, use, sale, and disposal of chemicals. This act does not address pollution, which
20910-410: The environment. The CGCI responds to the demand by consumers and environmental groups advocating for greener products. Green technology innovation introduced new products using nanotechnology available for consumption. The ultra fine nano particles can enter the human body via the skin, lungs or intestinal tract and may induce undesirable genetic changes as a side effect. The regulation of nano particles
21080-441: The environment. Through this initiative, the EPA hopes to enable manufacturers to better predict hazards and exposures of their products. The program is designed to enable companies to bring safer chemicals to the market. Currently existing chemicals on the market are listed in the TSCA Inventory. Though tasked with protecting the public from dangerous and potentially carcinogenic substances, some 62,000 chemicals were never tested by
21250-456: The environment..." or show that the chemical "... is or will be produced in substantial quantities, and such substance either enters or may reasonably be anticipated to enter the environment in substantial quantities or there is or may be significant or substantial human exposure to the substance...." If the EPA does not satisfy these requirements, it cannot act to block the manufacture of the new chemical. The EPA has only 90 days from receipt of
21420-527: The federal government often applied policies of Indian removal or assimilation . The Trail of Tears (1830–1850) was a U.S. government policy that forcibly removed and displaced most Native Americans living east of the Mississippi River to lands far to the west. These and earlier organized displacements prompted a long series of American Indian Wars west of the Mississippi. The Republic of Texas
21590-451: The first manufacture or import for a non-exempt purpose. Section 5 of TSCA does not require any toxicity testing before submitting a PMN No safety information is required to be included in the PMN, so the EPA must rely on computer modeling to determine whether the new chemical "may present an unreasonable risk." In order to regulate new chemicals, the EPA must determine that the chemical "...may present an unreasonable risk of injury to health or
21760-590: The first nuclear weapons and used them against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, ending the war. The United States was one of the " Four Policemen " who met to plan the post-war world , alongside the United Kingdom , Soviet Union , and China . The U.S. emerged relatively unscathed from the war, with even greater economic power and international political influence . After World War II,
21930-636: The first settlement of the Thirteen Colonies in Virginia in 1607. Clashes with the British Crown over taxation and political representation sparked the American Revolution , with the Second Continental Congress formally declaring independence on July 4, 1776. Following its victory in the 1775–1783 Revolutionary War , the country continued to expand westward across North America , resulting in
22100-546: The government and chemical producers. It was first introduced to Congress in 1971, but it was opposed by industry and environmental groups, leading to the five-year stalemate. TSCA authorized the EPA to regulate new and existing chemicals. TSCA was in response to Congress' growing concerns about the unreasonable risks that chemicals pose to human health and the environment. TSCA limits the manufacture, processing, commercial distribution, use, and disposal of chemical substances including PCBs, asbestos, radon and lead-based paint . In
22270-424: The hazards and outcome of chemical use. Labeling is an alternative solution to give the consumer the freedom to choose what products to buy "as a condition for entering or remaining on the market, using a standard that establishes a reasonable certainty of no harm." The private sector responded to the public concern of chemical exposure in everyday life by incorporating "screening mechanism(s) to diminish and/or prevent
22440-435: The health impacts of environmental injustice because their immune system is immature and they cannot handle the amount of chemicals in relation to the size of their body. To protect vulnerable groups the federal, state and local government could implement better policy to protect them from the increasing number of chemical exposure happening in daily basis. This concern is reflected in the Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for
22610-521: The impact of toxic chemicals, for instance consuming organic food. Mothers who are breastfeeding can expose their child to toxic chemicals in their milk. When the diet of children is modified from "conventional to organic food, the levels of pesticides in their bodies decline," but low-income families have to prioritize their needs and buying organic food may not be possible because of a budget constraint Readers are reminded that pesticides are not regulated under TSCA jurisdiction, rather they are regulated under
22780-490: The industry to notify EPA of new chemicals being produced, and gave the EPA the ability to regulate chemical production and use. For example, EPA banned the use of methylene chloride in consumer paint and coating removal products. The types of chemicals regulated by the act fall into two broad categories: existing and new. The distinction is made because the act regulates the two categories of chemicals in different ways. Existing chemicals include any chemical currently listed on
22950-463: The integration of Army National Guard units and personnel into the U.S. Army and (since 1947) the U.S. Air Force. There are about 18,000 U.S. police agencies from local to national level in the United States. Law in the United States is mainly enforced by local police departments and sheriff departments in their municipal or county jurisdictions. The state police departments have authority in their respective state , and federal agencies such as
23120-449: The legal burden the EPA bears in banning chemicals. The EPA has been successful in restricting five chemicals using section 6 authority (PCBs, chlorofluorocarbons, dioxin, asbestos, and hexavalent chromium) in its 38-year history, with the ban on asbestos being partially overturned in 1991. EPA has restricting some existing chemicals using Section 5 SNURs. As of 2015, 250 of the more than 60,000 existing chemicals have been directly tested by
23290-418: The market without first assessing toxic impacts. New chemicals, however, would be subject to review for health and environmental risks. Since then number of chemicals listed on the TSCA Inventory has grown to roughly 84,000. The EPA has only required approximately 200 of these 84,000 chemicals to be tested, and of the 22,000 chemicals introduced since 1976, chemical manufacturers have produced very little data for
23460-414: The market, fixing the key flaws in TSCA's safety standard that led to the EPA's inability to ban asbestos, allowing the EPA to order testing without first having to show potential risk, and making more information about chemicals available to states, health professionals and the public by limiting current trade secret allowances." The CSIA would have required states to co-enforce any requirements laid out by
23630-427: The market, to regulate chemicals already existing in 1976 that posed an "unreasonable risk of injury to health or the environment", as for example PCBs , lead, mercury and radon , and to regulate these chemicals' distribution and use. Contrary to what the name implies, TSCA does not separate chemicals into categories of toxic and non-toxic. Rather it prohibits the manufacture or importation of chemicals that are not on
23800-487: The marketing of products containing chemical substances that could potentially adversely affect human health and the environment." The demand for sustainable products can force the market to adopt more green chemistry. Opponents to TSCA reform proposals argue that stringent legislation can be seen as "job-killing." Nevertheless, the demand for sustainable products can increase innovation and investment in new products that can eventually replace toxic chemicals. Green chemistry
23970-477: The military draft (leading to the end of conscription in 1973) and wide opposition to U.S. intervention in Vietnam (with the U.S. totally withdrawing in 1975). A societal shift in the roles of women was significantly responsible for the large increase in female paid labor participation during the 1970s, and by 1985 the majority of American women aged 16 and older were employed. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw
24140-612: The most attractive to the population are the most vulnerable. The U.S. is one of 17 megadiverse countries containing large numbers of endemic species : about 17,000 species of vascular plants occur in the contiguous United States and Alaska, and over 1,800 species of flowering plants are found in Hawaii, few of which occur on the mainland. The United States is home to 428 mammal species, 784 birds, 311 reptiles, 295 amphibians , and around 91,000 insect species. There are 63 national parks , and hundreds of other federally managed parks, forests, and wilderness areas , managed by
24310-642: The most violent, the California genocide of thousands of Native inhabitants, lasted into the early 1870s, just as additional western territories and states were created. During the colonial period, slavery had been legal in the American colonies , though the practice began to be significantly questioned during the American Revolution. States in the North enacted abolition laws , though support for slavery strengthened in Southern states , as inventions such as
24480-480: The negotiations to reform TSCA. In 1989, the EPA issued a final rule under section 6 to ban the manufacturing, importing, and processing of nearly all asbestos-containing products in the USA. However, it had only limited success in using the authority granted under TSCA section 6 to control chemicals tested and deemed dangerous to public health. The EPA's failure to adequately regulate these chemicals caused strong debates over
24650-406: The placing of industrial facilities near them but the low-income neighborhoods "and communities of color become an easier target" as they are not well represented or well organized to fight against the industry and the government. Environmental disparities is a prevalent issue for low income-people as they become trapped in "housing discrimination" living in polluted neighborhoods unable to relocate to
24820-408: The policy of redlining later adopted by the federal Home Owners' Loan Corporation . An explosion of technological advancement accompanied by the exploitation of cheap immigrant labor led to rapid economic expansion during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , allowing the United States to outpace the economies of England, France, and Germany combined. This fostered the amassing of power by
24990-553: The primary colonial grievances was a denial of their rights as Englishmen , particularly the right to representation in the British government that taxed them . To demonstrate their dissatisfaction and resolve, the First Continental Congress met in 1774 and passed the Continental Association , a colonial boycott of British goods that proved effective. The British attempt to then disarm the colonists resulted in
25160-425: The production of certain categories of toxic substances, such as pesticides, drugs, and food additives, most existing Federal authorities are designed to prevent harmful exposure only after the substances have been introduced into production." In order to adequately regulate what chemicals should enter the environment, CEQ recommended that the government create a more comprehensive chemical policy to identify and control
25330-460: The public about the potential risk of exposure to chemical products that can harm their health and the environment. According to a poll conducted by the Mellman Group, 78 percent of Americans are seriously concerned about the threat to children's health from toxic chemicals in day-to-day life. The same poll reported that 33 percent of the respondents answered that everyday exposure to toxic chemicals
25500-527: The quantities, uses, physical and biological properties, and any other information is necessary for assessing hazardous materials. Lastly, with this information, the government should disclose any information about the health effects caused by dangerous chemicals to the public. Congress agreed with CEQ that additional authority was required to test chemicals to determine their effect, and responded to CEQ's recommendation by proposing many House and Senate bills between 1972 and 1973. Policy makers were also aware that
25670-417: The reproductive and developmental health" during critical windows of development, this may lead to a higher risk for birth defects and childhood illnesses and "disability across the entire span of human life." Health professionals can provide information to women planning to become pregnant or already pregnant to avoid potential hazards and exposure to environmental toxic chemicals. Eating healthy food can reduce
25840-515: The rights of African Americans . National infrastructure, including transcontinental telegraph and railroads , spurred growth in the American frontier . From 1865 through 1917 an unprecedented stream of immigrants arrived in the United States, including 24.4 million from Europe. Most came through the port of New York City , and New York City and other large cities on the East Coast became home to large Jewish , Irish , and Italian populations, while many Germans and Central Europeans moved to
26010-406: The risks that chemicals pose to human health and the environment, it would be important to be proactive in understanding toxic substances and use preventive measures. Second, toxic risk should be approached in a "holistic rather than fragmented" manner. Third, it was important to collect as much information as possible about the toxicity of chemicals and the risks associated with them. Although there
26180-437: The rocky Great Basin and Chihuahua , Sonoran , and Mojave deserts. In the northwest corner of Arizona , carved by the Colorado River over millions of years, is the Grand Canyon , a steep-sided canyon and popular tourist destination known for its overwhelming visual size and intricate, colorful landscape. The Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges run close to the Pacific coast . The lowest and highest points in
26350-434: The safe use of chemicals affecting human health and environmental welfare effectively. Prior to the TSCA amendments in 2016, "the act has not been substantially updated." Organizations concerned about product safety, "including the chemical industry, environmental and public health advocates, and the EPA" have attempted to mitigate the effects of weak regulation. They argue that "the inability to function as intended results from
26520-464: The six service branches, which are made up of the U.S. Army , Marine Corps , Navy , Air Force , and Space Force . The Coast Guard is administered by the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime and can be transferred to the Department of the Navy in wartime. The United States spent $ 916 billion on its military in 2023, which is by far the largest amount of any country , making up 37% of global military spending and accounting for 3.4% of
26690-407: The sole authority of a state government. SDFs are authorized by state and federal law but are under the command of the state's governor . They are distinct from the state's National Guard units in that they cannot become federalized entities. A state's National Guard personnel, however, may be federalized under the National Defense Act Amendments of 1933 , which created the Guard and provides for
26860-543: The states are also represented by local elected governments , which are administrative divisions of the states. States are subdivided into counties or county equivalents , and further divided into municipalities . The District of Columbia is a federal district containing the U.S. capital, Washington, D.C. . The federal district is an administrative division of the federal government. Federally recognized tribes govern 326 Indian reservations . The United States has an established structure of foreign relations, and it has
27030-451: The structure and responsibilities of the national federal government and its relationship with the individual states. The U.S. Constitution is the world's oldest national constitution still in effect (from March 4, 1789). Composed of three branches, all headquartered in Washington, D.C., the federal government is the national government of the United States. It is regulated by a strong system of checks and balances . The three-branch system
27200-407: The toxicity is only available for about "two-thirds of the 3000 high production volume (HPV) chemicals." Policy and regulation to protect vulnerable groups can reduce the exposure of children to toxic substances. For instance, in 2008, the state of Maine implemented the Kid-Safe Act to protect children from exposure to lead in toys "and bisphenol A (better known as BPA) in baby bottles" In January 2016,
27370-406: The world's fourth-longest river system , runs predominantly north–south through the heart of the country. The flat and fertile prairie of the Great Plains stretches to the west, interrupted by a highland region in the southeast. The Rocky Mountains , west of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, peaking at over 14,000 feet (4,300 m) in Colorado . Farther west are
27540-449: The world's second-largest diplomatic corps as of 2024 . It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council , and home to the United Nations headquarters . The United States is a member of the G7 , G20 , and OECD intergovernmental organizations. Almost all countries have embassies and many have consulates (official representatives) in the country. Likewise, nearly all countries host formal diplomatic missions with
27710-461: The world's third-largest land area , largest exclusive economic zone , and third-largest population , exceeding 334 million. Its three largest metropolitan areas are New York , Los Angeles , and Chicago , and its three most populous states are California , Texas , and Florida . Paleo-Indians migrated across the Bering land bridge more than 12,000 years ago, and formed various civilizations and societies . British colonization led to
27880-444: The world's oldest surviving federation, and its presidential system of national government has been adopted, in whole or in part, by many newly independent states worldwide following their decolonization . It is a liberal representative democracy "in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law ". The Constitution of the United States serves as the country's supreme legal document , also establishing
28050-423: The world's tornadoes occur in the country , mainly in Tornado Alley . Overall, the United States receives more high-impact extreme weather incidents than any other country. Extreme weather became more frequent in the U.S. in the 21st century, with three times the number of reported heat waves as in the 1960s. In the American Southwest , droughts became more persistent and more severe. The regions considered as
28220-429: The world, with almost 2 million people incarcerated . An analysis of the World Health Organization Mortality Database from 2010 showed U.S. homicide rates "were 7 times higher than in other high-income countries, driven by a gun homicide rate that was 25 times higher". Title 15 of the United States Code U.S. federal statutes on commerce and trade This article
28390-458: Was annexed in 1845, and the 1846 Oregon Treaty led to U.S. control of the present-day American Northwest . Victory in the Mexican–American War resulted in the 1848 Mexican Cession of California, Nevada, Utah, and much of present-day Colorado and the American Southwest . The California gold rush of 1848–1849 spurred a huge migration of white settlers to the Pacific coast, leading to even more confrontations with Native populations. One of
28560-703: Was adopted on July 4, 1776. The political values of the American Revolution included liberty , inalienable individual rights ; and the sovereignty of the people ; supporting republicanism and rejecting monarchy , aristocracy , and all hereditary political power; civic virtue ; and vilification of political corruption . The Founding Fathers of the United States , who included Washington, Jefferson, John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , Alexander Hamilton , John Jay , James Madison , Thomas Paine , and many others, were inspired by Greco-Roman , Renaissance , and Enlightenment philosophies and ideas. The Articles of Confederation were ratified in 1781 and established
28730-404: Was elected the country's first president under the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights was adopted in 1791 to allay skeptics' concerns about the power of the more centralized government. His resignation as commander-in-chief after the Revolutionary War and his later refusal to run for a third term as the country's first president established a precedent for the supremacy of civil authority in
28900-569: Was much support for policy to address public health risks from chemical exposure, the law was stalled at the last minute because of disagreement over the proper scope of chemical screening prior to commercial production. However, a series of environmental disasters, such as the Kepone catastrophe at Hopewell, Virginia , and the pollution of the Hudson River "and other waterways by PCBs, the threat of stratospheric ozone depletion from chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) emissions, and contamination of agricultural products by polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) in
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