Misplaced Pages

#653346

86-398: Based on the concept of predictive policing , TIA was meant to correlate detailed information about people in order to anticipate and prevent terrorist incidents before execution. The program modeled specific information sets in the hunt for terrorists around the globe. Admiral John Poindexter called it a " Manhattan Project for counter-terrorism ". According to Senator Ron Wyden , TIA was

172-432: A data modeling construct for the relational model, and the difference between the two has become irrelevant. The 1980s ushered in the age of desktop computing . The new computers empowered their users with spreadsheets like Lotus 1-2-3 and database software like dBASE . The dBASE product was lightweight and easy for any computer user to understand out of the box. C. Wayne Ratliff , the creator of dBASE, stated: "dBASE

258-472: A 1962 report by the System Development Corporation of California as the first to use the term "data-base" in a specific technical sense. As computers grew in speed and capability, a number of general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-1960s a number of such systems had come into commercial use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and Charles Bachman , author of one such product,

344-432: A T-shaped path from various angles. The University of Southampton 's Department of Electronics and Computer Science was developing an "automatic gait recognition" system and was in charge of compiling a database to test it. The University of Texas at Dallas was compiling a database to test facial systems. The data included a set of nine static pictures taken from different viewpoints, a video of each subject looking around

430-618: A campaign to terminate TIA's implementation, claiming that it would "kill privacy in America" because "every aspect of our lives would be catalogued". The San Francisco Chronicle criticized the program for "Fighting terror by terrifying U.S. citizens". Still, in 2013 former Director of National Intelligence James Clapper lied about a massive data collection on US citizens and others. Edward Snowden said that because of Clapper's lie he lost hope to change things formally. Predictive policing Too Many Requests If you report this error to

516-404: A company often contracted out by the government for work on defense projects. TIA was officially commissioned during the 2002 fiscal year . In January 2002 Poindexter was appointed Director of the newly created Information Awareness Office division of DARPA, which managed TIA's development. The office temporarily operated out of the fourth floor of DARPA's headquarters, while Poindexter looked for

602-526: A conceptual method by which the government could sift through massive amounts of data becoming available via digitization and draw important conclusions. TIA was proposed as a program shortly after the September 11 attacks in 2001, by Rear Admiral John Poindexter . A former national security adviser to President Ronald Reagan and a key player in the Iran–Contra affair , he was working with Syntek Technologies,

688-440: A custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions. Since DBMSs comprise a significant market , computer and storage vendors often take into account DBMS requirements in their own development plans. Databases and DBMSs can be categorized according to the database model(s) that they support (such as relational or XML ),

774-426: A database containing criminal records, a phone call database and a foreign intelligence database. The Web is considered an "unstructured public data source" because it is publicly accessible and contains many different types of data—blogs, emails, records of visits to websites, etc.—all of which need to be analyzed and stored efficiently. Another goal was to develop "a large, distributed system architecture for managing

860-443: A database management system. Existing DBMSs provide various functions that allow management of a database and its data which can be classified into four main functional groups: Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a particular database model . "Database system" refers collectively to the database model, database management system, and database. Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold

946-404: A database. One way to classify databases involves the type of their contents, for example: bibliographic , document-text, statistical, or multimedia objects. Another way is by their application area, for example: accounting, music compositions, movies, banking, manufacturing, or insurance. A third way is by some technical aspect, such as the database structure or interface type. This section lists

SECTION 10

#1732858721654

1032-543: A different chain, based on IBM's papers on System R. Though Oracle V1 implementations were completed in 1978, it was not until Oracle Version 2 when Ellison beat IBM to market in 1979. Stonebraker went on to apply the lessons from INGRES to develop a new database, Postgres, which is now known as PostgreSQL . PostgreSQL is often used for global mission-critical applications (the .org and .info domain name registries use it as their primary data store , as do many large companies and financial institutions). In Sweden, Codd's paper

1118-463: A different type of entity . Only in the mid-1980s did computing hardware become powerful enough to allow the wide deployment of relational systems (DBMSs plus applications). By the early 1990s, however, relational systems dominated in all large-scale data processing applications, and as of 2018 they remain dominant: IBM Db2 , Oracle , MySQL , and Microsoft SQL Server are the most searched DBMS . The dominant database language, standardized SQL for

1204-423: A few of the adjectives used to characterize different kinds of databases. Connolly and Begg define database management system (DBMS) as a "software system that enables users to define, create, maintain and control access to the database." Examples of DBMS's include MySQL , MariaDB , PostgreSQL , Microsoft SQL Server , Oracle Database , and Microsoft Access . The DBMS acronym is sometimes extended to indicate

1290-593: A place to permanently house TIA's researchers. Soon Project Genoa was completed and its research moved on to Genoa II . Late that year, the Information Awareness Office awarded the Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) a $ 19 million contract to develop the "Information Awareness Prototype System", the core architecture to integrate all of TIA's information extraction, analysis, and dissemination tools. This

1376-617: A room, a video of the subject speaking, and one or more videos of the subject showing facial expressions. Colorado State University developed multiple systems for identification via facial recognition. Columbia University participated in implementing HumanID in poor weather. The bio-surveillance project was designed to predict and respond to bioterrorism by monitoring non-traditional data sources such as animal sentinels, behavioral indicators, and pre-diagnostic medical data. It would leverage existing disease models, identify abnormal health early indicators, and mine existing databases to determine

1462-712: A series of dedicated nodes . INSCOM was to house TIA's hardware in Fort Belvoir , Virginia . Companies contracted to work on TIA included the Science Applications International Corporation , Booz Allen Hamilton , Lockheed Martin Corporation , Schafer Corporation, SRS Technologies , Adroit Systems, CACI Dynamic Systems, ASI Systems International, and Syntek Technologies. Universities enlisted to assist with research and development included Berkeley , Colorado State , Carnegie Mellon , Columbia , Cornell , Dallas , Georgia Tech , Maryland , MIT , and Southampton . TIA's goal

1548-449: A set of operations based on the mathematical system of relational calculus (from which the model takes its name). Splitting the data into a set of normalized tables (or relations ) aimed to ensure that each "fact" was only stored once, thus simplifying update operations. Virtual tables called views could present the data in different ways for different users, but views could not be directly updated. Codd used mathematical terms to define

1634-447: A single large "chunk". Subsequent multi-user versions were tested by customers in 1978 and 1979, by which time a standardized query language – SQL – had been added. Codd's ideas were establishing themselves as both workable and superior to CODASYL, pushing IBM to develop a true production version of System R, known as SQL/DS , and, later, Database 2 ( IBM Db2 ). Larry Ellison 's Oracle Database (or more simply, Oracle ) started from

1720-449: A strong demand for massively distributed databases with high partition tolerance, but according to the CAP theorem , it is impossible for a distributed system to simultaneously provide consistency , availability, and partition tolerance guarantees. A distributed system can satisfy any two of these guarantees at the same time, but not all three. For that reason, many NoSQL databases are using what

1806-454: A time by navigating the links, they would use a declarative query language that expressed what data was required, rather than the access path by which it should be found. Finding an efficient access path to the data became the responsibility of the database management system, rather than the application programmer. This process, called query optimization, depended on the fact that queries were expressed in terms of mathematical logic. Codd's paper

SECTION 20

#1732858721654

1892-444: A treadmill. Four separate 11-second gaits were tested for each: slow walk, fast walk, inclined, and carrying a ball. The University of Maryland 's Institute for Advanced Computer Studies' research focused on recognizing people at a distance by gait and face. Also to be used were infrared and five-degree-of-freedom cameras. Tests included filming 38 male and 6 female subjects of different ethnicities and physical features walking along

1978-956: Is called eventual consistency to provide both availability and partition tolerance guarantees with a reduced level of data consistency. NewSQL is a class of modern relational databases that aims to provide the same scalable performance of NoSQL systems for online transaction processing (read-write) workloads while still using SQL and maintaining the ACID guarantees of a traditional database system. Databases are used to support internal operations of organizations and to underpin online interactions with customers and suppliers (see Enterprise software ). Databases are used to hold administrative information and more specialized data, such as engineering data or economic models. Examples include computerized library systems, flight reservation systems , computerized parts inventory systems , and many content management systems that store websites as collections of webpages in

2064-505: Is classified by IBM as a hierarchical database . IDMS and Cincom Systems ' TOTAL databases are classified as network databases. IMS remains in use as of 2014 . Edgar F. Codd worked at IBM in San Jose, California , in one of their offshoot offices that were primarily involved in the development of hard disk systems. He was unhappy with the navigational model of the CODASYL approach, notably

2150-436: Is designed to link items relating potential "terrorist" groups and scenarios, and to learn patterns of different groups or scenarios to identify new organizations and emerging threats. Wargaming the asymmetric environment (WAE) focused on developing automated technology that could identify predictive indicators of terrorist activity or impending attacks by examining individual and group behavior in broad environmental context and

2236-458: Is organized. Because of the close relationship between them, the term "database" is often used casually to refer to both a database and the DBMS used to manipulate it. Outside the world of professional information technology , the term database is often used to refer to any collection of related data (such as a spreadsheet or a card index) as size and usage requirements typically necessitate use of

2322-421: Is still pursued in certain applications by some companies like Netezza and Oracle ( Exadata ). IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's concepts as System R in the early 1970s. The first version was ready in 1974/5, and work then started on multi-table systems in which the data could be split so that all of the data for a record (some of which is optional) did not have to be stored in

2408-404: Is the basis of query optimization. There is no loss of expressiveness compared with the hierarchic or network models, though the connections between tables are no longer so explicit. In the hierarchic and network models, records were allowed to have a complex internal structure. For example, the salary history of an employee might be represented as a "repeating group" within the employee record. In

2494-635: The Integrated Data Store (IDS), founded the Database Task Group within CODASYL , the group responsible for the creation and standardization of COBOL . In 1971, the Database Task Group delivered their standard, which generally became known as the CODASYL approach , and soon a number of commercial products based on this approach entered the market. The CODASYL approach offered applications

2580-583: The Michigan Terminal System . The system remained in production until 1998. In the 1970s and 1980s, attempts were made to build database systems with integrated hardware and software. The underlying philosophy was that such integration would provide higher performance at a lower cost. Examples were IBM System/38 , the early offering of Teradata , and the Britton Lee, Inc. database machine. Another approach to hardware support for database management

2666-468: The NSA call database , internet histories, or bank records). EELD was designed to design systems with the ability to extract data from multiple sources (e.g., text messages, social networking sites, financial records, and web pages). It was to develop the ability to detect patterns comprising multiple types of links between data items or communications (e.g., financial transactions, communications, travel, etc.). It

Total Information Awareness - Misplaced Pages Continue

2752-604: The School of Computer Science ) worked on dynamic face recognition. The research focused primarily on the extraction of body biometric features from video and identifying subjects from those features. To conduct its studies, the university created databases of synchronized multi-camera video sequences of body motion, human faces under a wide range of imaging conditions, AU coded expression videos, and hyperspectal and polarimetric images of faces. The video sequences of body motion data consisted of six separate viewpoints of 25 subjects walking on

2838-665: The United States Senate voted to limit TIA by restricting its ability to gather information from emails and the commercial databases of health, financial and travel companies. According to the Consolidated Appropriations Resolution, 2003, Pub. L. No. 108-7, Division M, § 111(b) passed in February, the Defense Department was given 90 days to compile a report laying out a schedule of TIA's development and

2924-476: The University of California, Berkeley were given grants to work on TIDES. Communicator was to develop "dialogue interaction" technology to enable warfighters to talk to computers, such that information would be accessible on the battlefield or in command centers without a keyboard-based interface. Communicator was to be wireless, mobile, and to function in a networked environment. The dialogue interaction software

3010-607: The War on Terror . In October 2005, the SAIC signed a $ 3.7 million contract for work on Topsail. In early 2006 a spokesman for the Air Force Research Laboratory said that Topsail was "in the process of being canceled due to lack of funds". When asked about Topsail in a Senate Intelligence Committee hearing that February, both National Intelligence Director John Negroponte and FBI Director Robert Mueller said they did not know

3096-434: The database models that they support. Relational databases became dominant in the 1980s. These model data as rows and columns in a series of tables , and the vast majority use SQL for writing and querying data. In the 2000s, non-relational databases became popular, collectively referred to as NoSQL , because they use different query languages . Formally, a "database" refers to a set of related data accessed through

3182-471: The hierarchical model and the CODASYL model ( network model ). These were characterized by the use of pointers (often physical disk addresses) to follow relationships from one record to another. The relational model , first proposed in 1970 by Edgar F. Codd , departed from this tradition by insisting that applications should search for data by content, rather than by following links. The relational model employs sets of ledger-style tables, each used for

3268-402: The software that interacts with end users , applications , and the database itself to capture and analyze the data. The DBMS additionally encompasses the core facilities provided to administer the database. The sum total of the database, the DBMS and the associated applications can be referred to as a database system . Often the term "database" is also used loosely to refer to any of the DBMS,

3354-507: The "biggest surveillance program in the history of the United States". Congress defunded the Information Awareness Office in late 2003 after media reports criticized the government for attempting to establish "Total Information Awareness" over all citizens. Although the program was formally suspended, other government agencies later adopted some of its software with only superficial changes. TIA's core architecture continued development under

3440-622: The 1980s and early 1990s. The 1990s, along with a rise in object-oriented programming , saw a growth in how data in various databases were handled. Programmers and designers began to treat the data in their databases as objects . That is to say that if a person's data were in a database, that person's attributes, such as their address, phone number, and age, were now considered to belong to that person instead of being extraneous data. This allows for relations between data to be related to objects and their attributes and not to individual fields. The term " object–relational impedance mismatch " described

3526-518: The Department of Defense involving a proposal to reward investors who predicted terrorist attacks, Poindexter resigned from office on 29 August. On September 30, 2003, Congress officially cut off TIA's funding and the Information Awareness Office (with the Senate voting unanimously against it) because of its unpopular perception by the general public and the media. Senators Ron Wyden and Byron Dorgan led

Total Information Awareness - Misplaced Pages Continue

3612-601: The University of Michigan began development of the MICRO Information Management System based on D.L. Childs ' Set-Theoretic Data model. MICRO was used to manage very large data sets by the US Department of Labor , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , and researchers from the University of Alberta , the University of Michigan , and Wayne State University . It ran on IBM mainframe computers using

3698-486: The Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.236 via cp1112 cp1112, Varnish XID 387115824 Upstream caches: cp1112 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Fri, 29 Nov 2024 05:38:41 GMT Database In computing , a database is an organized collection of data or a type of data store based on the use of a database management system ( DBMS ),

3784-539: The ability to navigate around a linked data set which was formed into a large network. Applications could find records by one of three methods: Later systems added B-trees to provide alternate access paths. Many CODASYL databases also added a declarative query language for end users (as distinct from the navigational API ). However, CODASYL databases were complex and required significant training and effort to produce useful applications. IBM also had its own DBMS in 1966, known as Information Management System (IMS). IMS

3870-438: The actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in large-volume transaction processing environments . DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications . DBMSs may be built around

3956-535: The available database technology at the time was insufficient for storing and organizing such enormous quantities of data. So they developed techniques for virtual data aggregation to support effective analysis across heterogeneous databases, as well as unstructured public data sources, such as the World Wide Web . "Effective analysis across heterogenous databases" means the ability to take things from databases which are designed to store different types of data—such as

4042-451: The bio-surveillance project). A set of audit logs were to be kept, which would track whether innocent Americans' communications were getting caught up in relevant data. The term total information awareness was first coined at the 1999 annual DARPAtech conference in a presentation by the deputy director of the Office of Information Systems Management, Brian Sharkey. Sharkey applied the phrase to

4128-676: The code name "Basketball". According to a 2012 New York Times article, TIA's legacy was "quietly thriving" at the National Security Agency (NSA). TIA was intended to be a five-year research project by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ). The goal was to integrate components from previous and new government intelligence and surveillance programs, including Genoa , Genoa II , Genisys, SSNA, EELD, WAE, TIDES, Communicator, HumanID and Bio-Surveillance, with data mining knowledge gleaned from

4214-586: The database system or an application associated with the database. Small databases can be stored on a file system , while large databases are hosted on computer clusters or cloud storage . The design of databases spans formal techniques and practical considerations, including data modeling , efficient data representation and storage, query languages , security and privacy of sensitive data, and distributed computing issues, including supporting concurrent access and fault tolerance . Computer scientists may classify database management systems according to

4300-493: The effort. Reports began to emerge in February 2006 that TIA's components had been transferred to the authority of the NSA. In the Department of Defense appropriations bill for the 2004 fiscal year, a classified annex provided the funding. It was stipulated that the technologies were limited for military or foreign intelligence purposes against non-U.S. citizens. Most of the original project goals and research findings were preserved, but

4386-655: The huge volume of raw data input, analysis results, and feedback, that will result in a simpler, more flexible data store that performs well and allows us to retain important data indefinitely". Scalable social network analysis (SSNA) aimed to develop techniques based on social network analysis to model the key characteristics of terrorist groups and discriminate them from other societal groups. Evidence extraction and link discovery (EELD) developed technologies and tools for automated discovery, extraction and linking of sparse evidence contained in large amounts of classified and unclassified data sources (such as phone call records from

SECTION 50

#1732858721654

4472-400: The inconvenience of translating between programmed objects and database tables. Object databases and object–relational databases attempt to solve this problem by providing an object-oriented language (sometimes as extensions to SQL) that programmers can use as alternative to purely relational SQL. On the programming side, libraries known as object–relational mappings (ORMs) attempt to solve

4558-504: The intended use of allotted funds or face a cutoff of support. The report arrived on May 20. It disclosed that the program's computer tools were still in their preliminary testing phase. Concerning the pattern recognition of transaction information, only synthetic data created by researchers was being processed. The report also conceded that a full prototype of TIA would not be ready until the 2007 fiscal year. Also in May, Total Information Awareness

4644-430: The lack of a "search" facility. In 1970, he wrote a number of papers that outlined a new approach to database construction that eventually culminated in the groundbreaking A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks . In this paper, he described a new system for storing and working with large databases. Instead of records being stored in some sort of linked list of free-form records as in CODASYL, Codd's idea

4730-576: The model: relations, tuples, and domains rather than tables, rows, and columns. The terminology that is now familiar came from early implementations. Codd would later criticize the tendency for practical implementations to depart from the mathematical foundations on which the model was based. The use of primary keys (user-oriented identifiers) to represent cross-table relationships, rather than disk addresses, had two primary motivations. From an engineering perspective, it enabled tables to be relocated and resized without expensive database reorganization. But Codd

4816-660: The most valuable early indicators for abnormal health conditions. As a "virtual, centralized, grand database", the scope of surveillance included credit card purchases, magazine subscriptions, web browsing histories, phone records, academic grades, bank deposits, gambling histories, passport applications, airline and railway tickets, driver's licenses, gun licenses, toll records, judicial records, and divorce records. Health and biological information TIA collected included drug prescriptions, medical records, fingerprints, gait, face and iris data, and DNA . TIA's Genisys component, in addition to integrating and organizing separate databases,

4902-592: The motivation of specific terrorists. Translingual information detection, extraction and summarization (TIDES) developed advanced language processing technology to enable English speakers to find and interpret critical information in multiple languages without requiring knowledge of those languages. Outside groups (such as universities, corporations, etc.) were invited to participate in the annual information retrieval , topic detection and tracking, automatic content extraction, and machine translation evaluations run by NIST . Cornell University , Columbia University , and

4988-600: The privacy protection mechanics were abandoned. Genoa II , which focused on collaboration between machines and humans, was renamed "Topsail" and handed over to the NSA's Advanced Research and Development Activity , or ARDA (ARDA was later moved to the Director of National Intelligence 's control as the Disruptive Technologies Office ). Tools from the program were used in the war in Afghanistan and other parts of

5074-538: The private sector to create a resource for the intelligence , counterintelligence , and law enforcement communities. These components consisted of information analysis, collaboration, decision-support tools, language translation, data-searching, pattern recognition , and privacy-protection technologies. TIA research included or planned to include the participation of nine government entities: INSCOM , NSA , DIA , CIA , CIFA , STRATCOM , SOCOM , JFCOM , and JWAC . They were to be able to access TIA's programs through

5160-465: The program could be abused by government authorities as part of their practice of mass surveillance in the United States . In an op-ed for The New York Times , William Safire called it "the supersnoop's dream: a Total Information Awareness about every U.S. citizen". Hans Mark , a former director of defense research and engineering at the University of Texas , called it a "dishonest misuse of DARPA ". The American Civil Liberties Union launched

5246-427: The program's status. Negroponte's deputy, former NSA director , Michael V. Hayden , said, "I'd like to answer in closed session." The Information Awareness Prototype System was reclassified as "Basketball" and work on it continued by SAIC, supervised by ARDA. As late as September 2004, Basketball was fully funded by the government and being tested in a research center jointly run by ARDA and SAIC. Critics allege that

SECTION 60

#1732858721654

5332-480: The relational approach, the data would be normalized into a user table, an address table and a phone number table (for instance). Records would be created in these optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided. As well as identifying rows/records using logical identifiers rather than disk addresses, Codd changed the way in which applications assembled data from multiple records. Rather than requiring applications to gather data one record at

5418-599: The relational model, has influenced database languages for other data models. Object databases were developed in the 1980s to overcome the inconvenience of object–relational impedance mismatch , which led to the coining of the term "post-relational" and also the development of hybrid object–relational databases . The next generation of post-relational databases in the late 2000s became known as NoSQL databases, introducing fast key–value stores and document-oriented databases . A competing "next generation" known as NewSQL databases attempted new implementations that retained

5504-419: The relational model, the process of normalization led to such internal structures being replaced by data held in multiple tables, connected only by logical keys. For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their name, login information, various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach, all of this data would be placed in a single variable-length record. In

5590-455: The relational/SQL model while aiming to match the high performance of NoSQL compared to commercially available relational DBMSs. The introduction of the term database coincided with the availability of direct-access storage (disks and drums) from the mid-1960s onwards. The term represented a contrast with the tape-based systems of the past, allowing shared interactive use rather than daily batch processing . The Oxford English Dictionary cites

5676-623: The same problem. XML databases are a type of structured document-oriented database that allows querying based on XML document attributes. XML databases are mostly used in applications where the data is conveniently viewed as a collection of documents, with a structure that can vary from the very flexible to the highly rigid: examples include scientific articles, patents, tax filings, and personnel records. NoSQL databases are often very fast, do not require fixed table schemas, avoid join operations by storing denormalized data, and are designed to scale horizontally . In recent years, there has been

5762-582: The technology progress in the areas of processors , computer memory , computer storage , and computer networks . The concept of a database was made possible by the emergence of direct access storage media such as magnetic disks , which became widely available in the mid-1960s; earlier systems relied on sequential storage of data on magnetic tape . The subsequent development of database technology can be divided into three eras based on data model or structure: navigational , SQL/ relational , and post-relational. The two main early navigational data models were

5848-423: The type(s) of computer they run on (from a server cluster to a mobile phone ), the query language (s) used to access the database (such as SQL or XQuery ), and their internal engineering, which affects performance, scalability , resilience, and security. The sizes, capabilities, and performance of databases and their respective DBMSs have grown in orders of magnitude. These performance increases were enabled by

5934-410: The underlying database model , with RDBMS for the relational , OODBMS for the object (oriented) and ORDBMS for the object–relational model . Other extensions can indicate some other characteristics, such as DDBMS for a distributed database management systems. The functionality provided by a DBMS can vary enormously. The core functionality is the storage, retrieval and update of data. Codd proposed

6020-455: The use of a "database management system" (DBMS), which is an integrated set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the database (although restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data). The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage how that information

6106-460: The use of a "language" for data access , known as QUEL . Over time, INGRES moved to the emerging SQL standard. IBM itself did one test implementation of the relational model, PRTV , and a production one, Business System 12 , both now discontinued. Honeywell wrote MRDS for Multics , and now there are two new implementations: Alphora Dataphor and Rel. Most other DBMS implementations usually called relational are actually SQL DBMSs. In 1970,

6192-443: Was ICL 's CAFS accelerator, a hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities. In the long term, these efforts were generally unsuccessful because specialized database machines could not keep pace with the rapid development and progress of general-purpose computers. Thus most database systems nowadays are software systems running on general-purpose hardware, using general-purpose computer data storage. However, this idea

6278-803: Was intelligence analysis to assist human analysts. It was designed to support both top-down and bottom-up approaches; a policymaker could hypothesize an attack and use Genoa to look for supporting evidence of it or compile pieces of intelligence into a diagram and suggest possible outcomes. Human analysts could then modify the diagram to test various cases. Genoa was independently commissioned in 1996 and completed in 2002 as scheduled. While Genoa primarily focused on intelligence analysis, Genoa II aimed to provide means by which computers, software agents, policymakers, and field operatives could collaborate. Genisys aimed to develop technologies that would enable "ultra-large, all-source information repositories". Vast amounts of information were to be collected and analyzed, and

6364-528: Was a development of software written for the Apollo program on the System/360 . IMS was generally similar in concept to CODASYL, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of CODASYL's network model. Both concepts later became known as navigational databases due to the way data was accessed: the term was popularized by Bachman's 1973 Turing Award presentation The Programmer as Navigator . IMS

6450-528: Was a key component of HumanID, because it could be employed on low-resolution video feeds and therefore help identify subjects at a distance. They planned to develop a system that recovered static body and stride parameters of subjects as they walked, while also looking into the ability of time-normalized joint angle trajectories in the walking plane as a way of recognizing gait. The university also worked on finding and tracking faces by expressions and speech. Carnegie Mellon University 's Robotics Institute (part of

6536-412: Was also read and Mimer SQL was developed in the mid-1970s at Uppsala University . In 1984, this project was consolidated into an independent enterprise. Another data model, the entity–relationship model , emerged in 1976 and gained popularity for database design as it emphasized a more familiar description than the earlier relational model. Later on, entity–relationship constructs were retrofitted as

6622-772: Was also started on foreign-language computer interaction for use in coalition operations. Live exercises were conducted involving small unit logistics operations with the United States Marines to test the technology in extreme environments. The human identification at a distance (HumanID) project developed automated biometric identification technologies to detect, recognize and identify humans at great distances for "force protection", crime prevention, and "homeland security/defense" purposes. The goals of HumanID were to: A number of universities assisted in designing HumanID. The Georgia Institute of Technology 's College of Computing focused on gait recognition . Gait recognition

6708-403: Was different from programs like BASIC, C, FORTRAN, and COBOL in that a lot of the dirty work had already been done. The data manipulation is done by dBASE instead of by the user, so the user can concentrate on what he is doing, rather than having to mess with the dirty details of opening, reading, and closing files, and managing space allocation." dBASE was one of the top selling software titles in

6794-461: Was done through its consulting arm, Hicks & Associates, which employed many former Defense Department and military officials. TIA's earliest version employed software called "Groove", which had been developed in 2000 by Ray Ozzie . Groove made it possible for analysts from many different agencies to share intelligence data instantly, and linked specialized programs that were designed to look for patterns of suspicious behavior. On 24 January 2003,

6880-422: Was more interested in the difference in semantics: the use of explicit identifiers made it easier to define update operations with clean mathematical definitions, and it also enabled query operations to be defined in terms of the established discipline of first-order predicate calculus ; because these operations have clean mathematical properties, it becomes possible to rewrite queries in provably correct ways, which

6966-422: Was picked up by two people at Berkeley, Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker . They started a project known as INGRES using funding that had already been allocated for a geographical database project and student programmers to produce code. Beginning in 1973, INGRES delivered its first test products which were generally ready for widespread use in 1979. INGRES was similar to System R in a number of ways, including

7052-404: Was renamed Terrorism Information Awareness in an attempt to stem the flow of criticism on its information-gathering practices on average citizens. At some point in early 2003, the National Security Agency began installing access nodes on TIA's classified network. The NSA then started running stacks of emails and intercepted communications through TIA's various programs. Following a scandal in

7138-565: Was to interpret dialogue's context to improve performance, and to automatically adapt to new topics so conversation could be natural and efficient. Communicator emphasized task knowledge to compensate for natural language effects and noisy environments. Unlike automated translation of natural language speech, which is much more complex due to an essentially unlimited vocabulary and grammar, Communicator takes on task-specific issues so that there are constrained vocabularies (the system only needs to be able to understand language related to war). Research

7224-490: Was to organize the data as a number of " tables ", each table being used for a different type of entity. Each table would contain a fixed number of columns containing the attributes of the entity. One or more columns of each table were designated as a primary key by which the rows of the table could be uniquely identified; cross-references between tables always used these primary keys, rather than disk addresses, and queries would join tables based on these key relationships, using

7310-406: Was to revolutionize the United States' ability to detect, classify and identify foreign terrorists and decipher their plans, thereby enabling the U.S. to take timely action to preempt and disrupt terrorist activity. To that end, TIA was to create a counter-terrorism information system that: Unlike the other program components, Genoa predated TIA and provided a basis for it. Genoa's primary function

7396-415: Was to run an internal "privacy protection program". This was intended to restrict analysts' access to irrelevant information on private U.S. citizens, enforce privacy laws and policies, and report misuses of data. There were also plans for TIA to have an application that could "anonymize" data, so that information could be linked to an individual only by court order (especially for medical records gathered by

#653346