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57-419: CODASYL's members were individuals from industry and government involved in data processing activity . Its larger goal was to promote more effective data systems analysis , design, and implementation . The organization published specifications for various languages over the years, handing these over to official standards bodies ( ISO , ANSI , or their predecessors) for formal standardization . CODASYL

114-477: A Technical Quotes database with over 1,000 entries. These databases are being added to on a regular basis an IT Software and IT Companies databases will debut soon. ITHS holds an annual meeting and conference. The International Charles Babbage Society was founded in 1978 and operated out of Palo Alto, California . The following year the American Federation of Information Processing Societies (AFIPS) became

171-519: A List Processing Task Force. This group was chartered to develop COBOL language extensions for processing collections of records; the name arose because Charles Bachman 's IDS system (which was the main technical input to the project) managed relationships between records using chains of pointers. In 1967 the group renamed itself the Data Base Task Group (DBTG), and its first report in January 1968

228-553: A business in common with a view of profit" and is not a joint stock company or an incorporated company. If the business entity registers with the Registrar of Companies it takes the form of a limited partnership defined in the Limited Partnerships Ordinance. However, if this business entity fails to register with the Registrar of Companies, then it becomes a general partnership as a default. A limited partnership in

285-604: A business partnership are personally liable for the debts and obligations of the partnership. Forms of partnership have evolved that may limit a partner's liability. The general partnership, in which all partners manage the business and are personally liable for its debts, developed under common law . General partners have an obligation of strict liability to third parties injured by the Partnership. General partners may have joint liability or joint and several liability depending upon circumstances. The limited partnership (LP)

342-515: A compensation for the opportunity cost of lending money without using it for other fruitful purposes. To circumvent the usury laws edicted by the Church, other forms of reward were created, in particular through the widespread form of partnership called commenda , very popular with Italian merchant bankers. Florentine merchant banks were almost sure to make a positive return on their loans, but this would be before taking into account solvency risks. In

399-612: A contract. Partnerships have a long history; they were already in use in medieval times in Europe and in the Middle East. According to a 2006 article, the first partnership was implemented in 1383 by Francesco di Marco Datini , a merchant of Prato and Florence. The Covoni company (1336–40) and the Del Buono-Bencivenni company (1336–40) have also been referred to as early partnerships, but they were not formal partnerships. In Europe,

456-462: A first step toward partnership. This capacity to join forces in reciprocal services became a distinctive feature, and a long lasting success factor, of the Hanseatic team spirit. A close examination of medieval trade in Europe shows that numerous significant credit based trades were not bearing interest. Hence, pragmatism and common sense called for a fair compensation for the risk of lending money, and

513-569: A fixed share of the partnership (usually, but not always an equal share with the other partners) and, upon distribution of profits, receive a portion of the partnership's profits proportionate to that share. In more sophisticated partnerships, different models exist for determining either ownership interest, profit distribution, or both. Two common alternate approaches to distribution of profit are " lockstep " and " source of origination " compensation (sometimes referred to, more graphically, as "eat what you kill"). The source of origination compensation

570-615: A noteworthy contribution to the information technology industry, and a database of notable technology quotes. A continuing project is one of aggregating the locations and content of IT history archival information around the world to facilitate and encourage IT history research and scholarship. This International Database of Historical and Archival Sites currently consists of 1,663 international information technology historical and archival collections encompassing over 49.8 million documents. An IT Hardware database has been added consisting of 12,187 entries, an IT Honor Roll with 1,031 entries, and

627-541: A partner is the agent of the firm for the purpose of the business of the firm" 5) Oral or Written Agreements . The Partnership Act, 1932 nowhere mentions that the Partnership Agreement is to be in written or oral format. Thus the general rule of the Contract Act applies that the contract can be 'oral' or 'written' as long as it satisfies the basic conditions of being a contract i.e. the agreement between partners

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684-423: A partnership agreement, even if it has not been reduced to writing. In common law jurisdictions, a written partnership agreement is not legally required, but partners may benefit from a partnership agreement that articulates the important terms of their relationship. In business, two or more companies join forces in a joint venture, a buyer–supplier relationship, a strategic alliance or a consortium to i) work on

741-635: A principal sponsor of the society, which was renamed the Charles Babbage Institute . In 1980, the institute moved to the University of Minnesota , which contracted with the principals of the Charles Babbage Institute to sponsor and house the institute. A new entity, the Charles Babbage Foundation , was created to help support and govern the institute, in partnership with the university. In 1989, CBI became an organized research unit of

798-579: A project (e.g. industrial or research project) which would be too heavy or too risky for a single entity, ii) join forces to have a stronger position on the market, iii) comply with specific regulation (e.g. in some emerging countries, foreigners can only invest in the form of partnerships with local entrepreneurs). In this case, the alliance may be structured in a process comparable to a Mergers & Acquisitions transaction. A large literature in business and management has paid attention to forming and managing partnership agreements. It has, in particular, shown

855-1035: A single commercial civilization in the Middle Ages, and the two regions were economically interdependent through trade (in varying degrees). The Mongols adopted and developed the concepts of liability in relation to investments and loans in Mongol– ortoq partnerships, promoting trade and investment to facilitate the commercial integration of the Mongol Empire. The contractual features of a Mongol- ortoq partnership closely resembled that of qirad and commenda arrangements; however, Mongol investors used metal coins, paper money, gold and silver ingots and tradable goods for partnership investments and primarily financed money-lending and trade activities. Moreover, Mongol elites formed trade partnerships with merchants from Central and Western Asia and Europe, including Marco Polo 's family. To come into being, every partnership necessarily involves

912-636: Is registered as a company under Companies Act, 2013 or formed in pursuance of some other law. Some other law means companies and corporations formed via some other law passed by Parliament of India . 7) Mutual agency is the real test . The real test of 'partnership firm' is 'mutual agency' set by the Courts of India, i.e. whether a partner can bind the firm by his act, i.e. whether he can act as agent of all other partners. Statutory regulation of partnerships in Canada fall under provincial jurisdiction . A partnership

969-399: Is a partnership in which general partners manage the partnership's operations, and limited partners forego the right to manage the business in exchange for limited liability for the partnership debts. The liability of limited partners is limited to their investment in the partnership. This form of partnership was developed in the 19th century, the U.K. where it was imparted by charter, and in

1026-418: Is an agreement where parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests. The partners in a partnership may be individuals, businesses , interest -based organizations , schools , governments or combinations. Organizations may partner to increase the likelihood of each achieving their mission and to amplify their reach. A partnership may result in issuing and holding equity or may be only governed by

1083-476: Is basically a settlement between two or more groups or firms in which profit and loss are equally divided In Bangladesh, the relevant law for regulating partnership is the Partnership Act 1932. A partnership is defined as the relation between persons who have agreed to share the profits of a business carried on by all or any of them acting for all. The law does not require written partnership agreement between

1140-511: Is entitled to a share of the partnership's profits. Silent partners may prefer to invest in limited partnerships in order to insulate their personal assets from the debts or liabilities of the partnership. Summarising s. 5 of the Partnership Act 1958 (Vic), for a partnership in Australia to exist, four main criteria must be satisfied. They are: Partners share profits and losses. A partnership

1197-611: Is legally enforceable. A written agreement is advisable to establish existence of partnership and to prove rights and liabilities of each partner, as it is difficult to prove an oral agreement. 6) Number of Partners is minimum 2 and maximum 50 in any kind of business activities . Since partnership is 'agreement' there must be minimum two partners. The Partnership Act does not put any restrictions on maximum number of partners. However, section 464 of Companies Act 2013, and Rule 10 of Companies (Miscellaneous) Rules, 2014 prohibits partnership consisting of more than 50 for any businesses, unless it

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1254-415: Is not a separate legal entity and partnership income is taxed at the rate of the partner receiving the income. It can be deemed to exist regardless of the intention of the partners. Common elements considered by courts in determining the existence of a partnership are that two or more legal persons: Under U.S. law a partnership is a business association of two or more individuals, through which partners share

1311-507: Is rarely seen outside of law firms. The principle is simply that each partner receives a share of the partnership profits up to a certain amount, with any additional profits being distributed to the partner who was responsible for the "origination" of the work that generated the profits. British law firms tend to use the lockstep principle, whereas American firms are more accustomed to source of origination. When British firm Clifford Chance merged with American firm Rogers & Wells , many of

1368-445: Is reached, the partnership is typically enforceable by civil law , especially if well documented. Partners who wish to make their agreement affirmatively explicit and enforceable typically draw up articles of partnership . Trust and pragmatism are also essential as it cannot be expected that everything can be written in the initial partnership agreement, therefore quality governance and clear communication are critical success factors in

1425-486: Is remembered almost entirely for two activities: its work on the development of the COBOL language and its activities in standardizing database interfaces. It also worked on a wide range of other topics, including end-user form interfaces and operating system control languages, but these projects had little lasting impact. The remainder of this section is concerned with CODASYL's database activities. In 1965 CODASYL formed

1482-562: The Burroughs corporate records and the Control Data corporate records, among many others); trade publications ; periodicals ; manuals and product literature for older systems, photographic material (stills and moving), and a variety of other rare reference materials. It is now a center at the University of Minnesota , and is located on its Twin Cities , Minneapolis campus, where it is housed in

1539-749: The Charles Babbage Foundation , it advises historians, promotes collaboration among academic organizations and museums, and assists IT corporations in preparing and archiving their histories for future studies. The IT History Society provides background information to those with an interest in the history of Information Technology , including papers that provide advice on how to perform historical work and how historical activities can benefit private sector organizations. It tracks historical projects seeking funding as well as projects underway and completed. It maintains online, publicly available, lists of events pertaining to IT history, IT history resources, an IT Honor Roll acknowledging more than 700 individuals who have made

1596-749: The Elmer L. Andersen Library on the West Bank. The CBI has collections of archival papers and oral histories from many notable figures in computing including: CBI was founded in 1978 by Erwin Tomash and associates as the International Charles Babbage Society , and initially operated in Palo Alto, California . In 1979, the American Federation of Information Processing Societies (AFIPS) became

1653-562: The Uniform Partnership Act and the Uniform Limited Partnership Act . Most U.S. states have adopted a form of the Uniform Partnership Act , which includes provisions regulating general partnerships , limited partnerships and limited liability partnerships . Although the federal government does not have specific statutory law for establishing partnerships, it has an extensive statutory and regulatory scheme for

1710-623: The taxation of partnerships , set forth in the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) and Code of Federal Regulations . The IRC defines federal tax obligations for partnership operations that effectively serve as federal regulation of some aspects of partnerships. A partnership in Hong Kong is a business entity formed by the Hong Kong Partnerships Ordinance, which defines a partnership as "the relation between persons carrying on

1767-537: The IT History Society and reworked its programs to better support the IT history community. The Charles Babbage Institute is a research center at the University of Minnesota specializing in the history of information technology , particularly the history of digital computing, programming/software, and computer networking since 1935. The institute is named for Charles Babbage , the nineteenth-century English inventor of

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1824-730: The Middle East, the qirad and mudarabas institutions developed when trade with the Levant, namely the Ottoman Empire and the Muslim Near East, flourished and when early trading companies , contracts , bills of exchange and long-distance international trade were established. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Levant trade revived from the 10th to 11th century in Byzantine Italy. The eastern and western Mediterranean formed part of

1881-527: The State government and Central (National) Government can legislate i.e. pass laws on). 3) Unlimited Liability . The major disadvantage of partnership is the unlimited liability of partners for the debts and liabilities of the firm. Any partner can bind the firm and the firm is liable for all liabilities incurred by any firm on behalf of the firm. If property of partnership firm is insufficient to meet liabilities, personal property of any partner can be attached to pay

1938-418: The U.S. where it was created by statute. More recently, additional forms of partnership have been recognized: A silent partner or sleeping partner is one who still shares in the profits and losses of the business, but who is not involved in its management. Sometimes the silent partner's interest in the business will not be publicly known. A silent partner is often an investor in the partnership, who

1995-573: The United Kingdom consists of: Limited partners may not: If they do, they become liable for all the debts and obligations of the firm up to the amount drawn out or received back or incurred while taking part in the management, as the case may be. Charles Babbage Institute The IT History Society ( ITHS ) is an organization that supports the history and scholarship of information technology by encouraging, fostering, and facilitating archival and historical research. Formerly known as

2052-466: The area and related topics (such as archival methods ); to do this, it offers graduate fellowships and travel grants, organizes conferences and workshops, and participates in public programming. It also serves as an international clearinghouse of resources for the history of information technology. Also valuable for researchers are its extensive collection of oral history interviews, more than 400 in total. Oral histories with important early figures in

2109-467: The database; and a data manipulation language (DML) defining verbs for embedding in the COBOL programming language to request and update data in the database. Although the work was focused on COBOL, the idea of a host-language independent database was starting to emerge, prompted by IBM 's advocacy of PL/I as a COBOL replacement. In 1971, largely in response to the need for programming language independence,

2166-416: The debts of the firm. 4) Partners are Mutual Agents .The business of firm can be carried on by all or any of them acting for all. Any partner has authority to bind the firm. Act of any one partner is binding on all the partners. Thus, each partner is 'agent' of all the remaining partners. Hence, partners are 'mutual agents'. Section 18 of the Partnership Act, 1932 says "Subject to the provisions of this Act,

2223-440: The difficulties associated with that merger were blamed on the difficulties of merging a lockstep culture with a source of origination culture. Partnerships recognized by a government body may enjoy special benefits from taxation policy . Among developed countries, for example, business partnerships are often favored over corporations in taxation policy, since dividend taxes only occur on profit before they are distributed to

2280-459: The establishment of partnerships. Instead, every U.S. state and the District of Columbia has its own statutes and common law that govern partnerships. The National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws has issued non-binding model laws (called uniform act) in which to encourage the adoption of uniformity of partnership law into the states by their respective legislatures. Model laws include

2337-501: The field have been conducted by CBI staff and collaborating colleagues. Owing to the poorly documented state of many early computer developments, these oral histories are immensely valuable documents. One author called the set of CBI oral histories "a priceless resource for any historian of computing." Most of CBI's oral histories are transcribed and available online. The archival collection also contains manuscripts ; records of professional associations ; corporate records (including

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2394-466: The following common characteristics: 1) A partnership firm is not a legal entity apart from the partners constituting it. It has limited identity for the purpose of tax law as per section 4 of the Partnership Act of 1932. 2) Partnership is a concurrent subject . Contracts of partnerships are included in the Entry no.7 of List III of The Constitution of India (the list constitutes the subjects on which both

2451-633: The long run. It is common for information about formally partnered entities to be made public, such as through a press release, a newspaper ad, or public records laws. Partner compensation will often be defined by the terms of a partnership agreement. Partners who work for the partnership may receive compensation for their labor before any division of profits between partners. In certain partnerships of individuals, particularly law firms and accountancy firms, equity partners are distinguished from salaried partners (or contract or income partners ). The degree of control which each type of partner exerts over

2508-416: The partners to form a partnership. A partnership is not required to be registered, but a partnership is considered as a separate legal identity from its owners only if the partnership is registered. There must be a minimum of 2 partners and maximum of 20 partners. According to section 4 of the Partnership Act of 1932,"Partnership is defined as the relation between two or more persons who have agreed to share

2565-555: The partners. However, depending on the partnership structure and the jurisdiction in which it operates, owners of a partnership may be exposed to greater personal liability than they would as shareholders of a corporation. In such countries, partnerships are often regulated via antitrust laws, so as to inhibit monopolistic practices and foster free market competition . Enforcement of the laws, however, varies considerably. Domestic partnerships recognized by governments typically enjoy tax benefits, as well. At common law , members of

2622-503: The partnership depends on the relevant partnership agreement . Although individuals in both categories are described as partners, equity partners and salaried partners have little in common other than joint and several liability . In many legal systems, salaried partners are not technically "partners" at all in the eyes of the law. However, if their firm holds them out as partners, they are nonetheless subject to joint and several liabilities. In their most basic form, equity partners enjoy

2679-521: The partnerships contributed to the Commercial Revolution which started in the 13th century. In the 15th century the cities of the Hanseatic League would mutually strengthen each other; a ship from Hamburg to Gdansk would not only carry its own cargo but was also commissioned to transport freight for other members of the league. This practice not only saved time and money, but also constituted

2736-497: The profits and responsibility for the liabilities of their venture. U.S. states recognize forms of limited partnership that may allow a partner who does not participate in the business venture to avoid liability for the partnership's debts and obligations. Partnerships typically pay less taxes than corporations in fields like fund management. The federal government of the United States does not have specific statutory law governing

2793-451: The profits of a business carried on by all or any one of them acting for all". This definition superseded the previous definition given in section 239 of Indian Contract Act 1872 as – "Partnership is the relation which subsists between persons who have agreed to combine their property, labor, skill in some business, and to share the profits thereof between them". The 1932 definition added the concept of mutual agency. The Indian Partnerships have

2850-503: The programmable computer. The institute is located in Elmer L. Andersen Library at the University of Minnesota Libraries in Minneapolis , Minnesota . In addition to holding important historical archives, in paper and electronic form, its staff of historians and archivists conduct and publish historical and archival research that promotes the study of the history of information technology internationally. CBI also encourages research in

2907-440: The role of contracts and relational mechanisms to organize business partnerships. Partnerships present the involved parties with complex negotiations and special challenges that must be navigated to agreement. Overarching goals, levels of give-and-take, areas of responsibility, lines of authority and succession , how success is evaluated and distributed, and often a variety of other factors must all be negotiated. Once an agreement

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2964-520: The technology from B.F. Goodrich . Cullinet was eventually sold to Computer Associates , which as of 2007 still sells and supports a version of IDMS. ANSI and ISO adopted the CODASYL database specifications under the name Network Database Language (NDL), with work taking place within the same working group (X3H2) as SQL standardization. An ISO standard for NDL was ratified as ISO 8907:1987, but, as it never had any practical effect on implementations, it

3021-656: The university. Around 2000, CBF broadened its mission to support the history of information technology through other organizations, collaborating, for example, with the Sloan Foundation , Software History Center , and the Computer History Museum in experimenting with Internet-based archival and historical research. In 2002, the Charles Babbage Foundation broadened its mission to support the entire IT history community. In 2007, CBF changed its name to

3078-596: The work was reorganized: development of the Data Description Language was continued by the Data Description Language Committee , while the COBOL DML was taken over by the COBOL language committee. With hindsight, this split had unfortunate consequences. The two groups never quite managed to synchronize their specifications, leaving vendors to patch up the differences. The inevitable consequence

3135-633: Was a lack of interoperability among implementations. A number of vendors implemented database products conforming (roughly) to the DBTG specifications: the best-known implementations were Honeywell 's—originally General Electric 's—Integrated Data Store (IDS/2), HP's IMAGE , Cullinet's Integrated Database Management System IDMS , ICL's 2900 IDMS (derived from Cullinet's product), Univac 's DMS-1100, and Digital Equipment Corporation 's DBMS for VMS (later known as Oracle Codasyl DBMS). Cullinet , originally known as Cullinane Database Systems, obtained

3192-488: Was entitled COBOL extensions to handle data bases . In October 1969 the DBTG published its first language specifications for the network database model which became generally known as the CODASYL Data Model. This specification in fact defined several separate languages: a data definition language (DDL) to define the schema of the database, another DDL to create one or more subschemas defining application views of

3249-452: Was formally withdrawn in 1998. Some of the CODASYL committees continue their work today, but CODASYL itself no longer exists. The records of CODASYL were donated to the Charles Babbage Institute . CBI also hold the archival records for American National Standards Institute X3H2 records . Interest in CODASYL gradually faded due to growing interest in relational databases beginning in the early 1980s. Partnership A partnership

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