147-682: (Redirected from Toruń Cup ) International figure skating competition Mentor Toruń Cup [REDACTED] Location: [REDACTED] Poland The Mentor Toruń Cup (previously known as the Kangus Cup in 2007, the Nestlé Kangus Cup in 2008, the GAM Nestlé Nesquik Cup from 2009 to 2010, the Mentor Nestlé Nesquik Toruń Cup from 2011 to 2016, and
294-494: A Fellowship of the Royal Society . In 1791, Great Sejm parliament adopted the 3 May Constitution , the first set of supreme national laws, and introduced a constitutional monarchy . The Targowica Confederation , an organisation of nobles and deputies opposing the act, appealed to Catherine and caused the 1792 Polish–Russian War . Fearing the reemergence of Polish hegemony, Russia and Prussia arranged and in 1793 executed,
441-476: A Catholic mission to convert the population from their original pagan beliefs. Pope Celestine III had called for a crusade against pagans in Northern Europe in 1193. When peaceful means of conversion failed to produce results, Meinhard plotted to convert Livonians by force of arms. At the beginning of the 13th century, Germans ruled large parts of what is currently Latvia. The influx of German crusaders in
588-668: A coastline spanning 770 km (480 mi); extending from the shores of the Baltic Sea, along the Bay of Pomerania in the west to the Gulf of Gdańsk in the east. The beach coastline is abundant in sand dune fields or coastal ridges and is indented by spits and lagoons, notably the Hel Peninsula and the Vistula Lagoon , which is shared with Russia. The largest Polish island on the Baltic Sea
735-520: A combined area of 312,696 km (120,733 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Warsaw ; other major cities include Kraków , Wrocław , Łódź , Poznań , Gdańsk , and Szczecin . Prehistoric human activity on Polish soil dates to the Lower Paleolithic , with continuous settlement since the end of the Last Glacial Period . Culturally diverse throughout late antiquity , in
882-889: A democratic unitary parliamentary republic . Latvia is a developed country with a high-income , advanced economy ranking 39th in the Human Development Index . It is a member of the European Union , Eurozone , NATO , the Council of Europe , the United Nations , the Council of the Baltic Sea States , the International Monetary Fund , the Nordic-Baltic Eight , the Nordic Investment Bank ,
1029-683: A golden age in the 16th century. Latgalia , the easternmost region of Latvia, became a part of the Inflanty Voivodeship of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden , and Russia struggled for supremacy in the eastern Baltic. After the Polish–Swedish War , northern Livonia (including Vidzeme) came under Swedish rule. Riga became
1176-548: A leading power and a major cultural entity, exercising political control over parts of Central, Eastern , Southeastern and Northern Europe. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied approximately 1 million km (390,000 sq mi) at its peak and was the largest state in Europe. Simultaneously, Poland imposed Polonisation policies in newly acquired territories which were met with resistance from ethnic and religious minorities. In 1573, Henry de Valois of France ,
1323-645: A legendary ruler of the Lechites , or from the Lendians , a West Slavic tribe that dwelt on the south-easternmost edge of Lesser Poland . The origin of the tribe's name lies in the Old Polish word lęda (plain). Initially, both names Lechia and Polonia were used interchangeably when referring to Poland by chroniclers during the Middle Ages . The first Stone Age archaic humans and Homo erectus species settled what
1470-646: A new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the Polish government-in-exile based in London. This action angered many Poles who considered it a betrayal by the Allies. In 1944, Stalin had made guarantees to Churchill and Roosevelt that he would maintain Poland's sovereignty and allow democratic elections to take place. However, upon achieving victory in 1945,
1617-548: A political force. Despite persecution and imposition of martial law in 1981 by General Wojciech Jaruzelski , it eroded the dominance of the Polish United Workers' Party and by 1989 had triumphed in Poland's first partially free and democratic parliamentary elections since the end of the Second World War. Lech Wałęsa , a Solidarity candidate, eventually won the presidency in 1990 . The Solidarity movement heralded
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#17329247823311764-817: A power vacuum was created by the Russian Revolution in 1917, followed by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Russia and Germany in March 1918, then the Allied armistice with Germany on 11 November 1918. On 18 November 1918, in Riga, the People's Council of Latvia proclaimed the independence of the new country and Kārlis Ulmanis was entrusted to set up a government and he took the position of prime minister. The General representative of Germany August Winnig formally handed over political power to
1911-729: A rival Habsburg electoral candidate, Archduke Maximilian III , in the War of the Polish Succession (1587–1588) . In 1592, Sigismund succeeded his father and John Vasa , in Sweden . The Polish-Swedish union endured until 1599, when he was deposed by the Swedes. In 1609, Sigismund invaded Russia which was engulfed in a civil war , and a year later the Polish winged hussar units under Stanisław Żółkiewski occupied Moscow for two years after defeating
2058-734: A second resettlement scheme was agreed. The racially approved being resettled mainly in Poland, being given land and businesses in exchange for the money they had received from the sale of their previous assets. On 5 October 1939, Latvia was forced to accept a "mutual assistance" pact with the Soviet Union, granting the Soviets the right to station between 25,000 and 30,000 troops on Latvian territory. State administrators were murdered and replaced by Soviet cadres. Elections were held with single pro-Soviet candidates listed for many positions. The resulting people's assembly immediately requested admission into
2205-845: A tribal federation and later a centralised monarchical state. Poland began to form into a recognisable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under the Piast dynasty . In 966, ruler of the Polans Mieszko I accepted Christianity under the auspices of the Roman Church with the Baptism of Poland . In 968, a missionary bishopric was established in Poznań . An incipit titled Dagome iudex first defined Poland's geographical boundaries with its capital in Gniezno and affirmed that its monarchy
2352-693: Is Mount Rysy at 2,501 metres (8,205 ft) in elevation, located in the Tatras. The highest summit of the Sudetes massif is Mount Śnieżka at 1,603.3 metres (5,260 ft), shared with the Czech Republic. The lowest point in Poland is situated at Raczki Elbląskie in the Vistula Delta , which is 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) below sea level. Latvia – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in
2499-803: Is Wolin , located within Wolin National Park . Poland also shares the Szczecin Lagoon and the Usedom island with Germany. The mountainous belt in the extreme south of Poland is divided into two major mountain ranges ; the Sudetes in the west and the Carpathians in the east. The highest part of the Carpathian massif are the Tatra Mountains , extending along Poland's southern border. Poland's highest point
2646-468: Is 1,866 km (1,159 mi). The total length of its land boundary is 1,368 km (850 mi), of which 343 km (213 mi) is shared with Estonia to the north, 276 km (171 mi) with the Russian Federation to the east, 161 km (100 mi) with Belarus to the southeast and 588 km (365 mi) with Lithuania to the south. The total length of its maritime boundary
2793-462: Is 498 km (309 mi), which is shared with Estonia, Sweden and Lithuania . Extension from north to south is 210 km (130 mi) and from west to east 450 km (280 mi). Most of Latvia's territory is less than 100 m (330 ft) above sea level . Its largest lake, Lubāns , has an area of 80.7 km (31.2 sq mi), its deepest lake, Drīdzis , is 65.1 m (214 ft) deep. The longest river on Latvian territory
2940-693: Is a founding member state of the United Nations and a member of the World Trade Organization , OECD , NATO , and the European Union (including the Schengen Area ). The native Polish name for Poland is Polska . The name is derived from the Polans , a West Slavic tribe who inhabited the Warta River basin of present-day Greater Poland region (6th–8th century CE). The tribe's name stems from
3087-569: Is different from Wikidata Poland – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green) – [ Legend ] Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe . It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to
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#17329247823313234-435: Is internal waters and 8,783 km (3,391 sq mi) is territorial sea. Topographically, the landscape of Poland is characterised by diverse landforms , water bodies and ecosystems . The central and northern region bordering the Baltic Sea lie within the flat Central European Plain , but its south is hilly and mountainous. The average elevation above the sea level is estimated at 173 metres. The country has
3381-637: Is now Latvia by the 1880s. The Young Latvians were largely eclipsed by the New Current , a broad leftist social and political movement, in the 1890s. Popular discontent exploded in the 1905 Russian Revolution , which took a nationalist character in the Baltic provinces . World War I devastated the territory of what became the state of Latvia, and other western parts of the Russian Empire. Demands for self-determination were initially confined to autonomy , until
3528-509: Is the Gauja , at 452 km (281 mi) in length. The longest river flowing through Latvian territory is the Daugava , which has a total length of 1,005 km (624 mi), of which 352 km (219 mi) is on Latvian territory. Latvia's highest point is Gaiziņkalns , 311.6 m (1,022 ft). The length of Latvia's Baltic coastline is 494 km (307 mi). An inlet of the Baltic Sea,
3675-482: The Armia Krajowa ( Home Army ), fought against German occupation. It was one of the three largest resistance movements of the entire war, and encompassed a range of clandestine activities, which functioned as an underground state complete with degree-awarding universities and a court system . The resistance was loyal to the exiled government and generally resented the idea of a communist Poland; for this reason, in
3822-501: The Balts and speak Latvian . Russians are the most prominent minority in the country, at almost a quarter of the population; 37.7% of the population speak Russian as their native tongue. After centuries of Teutonic , Swedish , Polish-Lithuanian , and Russian rule, the independent Republic of Latvia was established on 18 November 1918 after breaking away from the German Empire in
3969-691: The Battle of Daugavpils was a part of the Polish–Soviet War ). A freely elected Constituent assembly convened on 1 May 1920, and adopted a liberal constitution, the Satversme , in February 1922. The constitution was partly suspended by Kārlis Ulmanis after his coup in 1934 but reaffirmed in 1990. Since then, it has been amended and is still in effect in Latvia today. With most of Latvia's industrial base evacuated to
4116-485: The Battle of Vienna . The Saxon era, under Augustus II and Augustus III , saw neighboring powers grow in strength at the expense of Poland. Both Saxon kings faced opposition from Stanisław Leszczyński during the Great Northern War (1700) and the War of the Polish Succession (1733) . The royal election of 1764 resulted in the elevation of Stanisław II Augustus Poniatowski to the monarchy. His candidacy
4263-2640: The COVID-19 pandemic 2022 Ice dance [ edit ] Year Gold Silver Bronze Ref. 2012 [REDACTED] Olivia Smart Joseph Buckland [REDACTED] Ekaterina Bugrov Vasili Rogov [REDACTED] Irina Sayko Konstantin Yakovlev 2013 [REDACTED] Lolita Yermak Oleksiy Khimich [REDACTED] Anastasia Chiriyatyeva Serhiy Shevchenko [REDACTED] Anna Bolshem Ronald Zilberberg 2014 [REDACTED] Valeria Haistruk Oleksiy Oliynyk [REDACTED] Natalia Kaliszek Yaroslav Kurbakov [REDACTED] Anastasia Khromova Yury Karesey 2015 [REDACTED] Lorraine McNamara Quinn Carpenter [REDACTED] Rachel Parsons Michael Parsons [REDACTED] Eva Khachaturian Andrei Bagin 2016 [REDACTED] Adelina Galyavieva Laurent Abecassis [REDACTED] Maria Oleynik Yuri Hulitski [REDACTED] Rikako Fukase Aru Tateno 2017 [REDACTED] Elizaveta Khudaiberdieva Nikita Nazarov [REDACTED] Emiliya Kalehanova Uladzislau Palkhouski [REDACTED] Mariia Holubtsova Kyryl Bielobrov 2018 [REDACTED] Maria Kazakova Georgy Reviya [REDACTED] Mariia Holubtsova Kyryl Bielobrov [REDACTED] Julia Wagret Mathieu Couyras 2019 [REDACTED] Caroline Green Gordon Green [REDACTED] Loïcia Demougeot Théo le Mercier [REDACTED] Sonia Kamyshanova Dmitry Bovin 2020 [REDACTED] Arina Ushakova Maxim Nekrasov [REDACTED] Ekaterina Katashinskaia Aleksandr Vaskovich [REDACTED] Loïcia Demougeot Théo le Mercier 2021 Cancelled due to
4410-2497: The COVID-19 pandemic 2022 Ice dance [ edit ] Year Gold Silver Bronze Ref. 2012 [REDACTED] Penny Coomes Nicholas Buckland [REDACTED] Siobhan Heekin-Canedy Dmitri Dun [REDACTED] Kira Geil Tobias Eisenbauer 2013 [REDACTED] Siobhan Heekin-Canedy Dmitri Dun [REDACTED] Cathy Reed Chris Reed [REDACTED] Danielle O'Brien Gregory Merriman 2014 [REDACTED] Ekaterina Pushkash Jonathan Guerreiro [REDACTED] Sara Hurtado Adrià Díaz [REDACTED] Laurence Fournier Beaudry Nikolaj Sørensen 2015 [REDACTED] Wang Shiyue Liu Xinyu [REDACTED] Alisa Agafonova Alper Uçar [REDACTED] Natalia Kaliszek Maksym Spodyriev 2016 [REDACTED] Natalia Kaliszek Maksym Spodyriev [REDACTED] Kana Muramoto Chris Reed [REDACTED] Katharina Müller Tim Dieck 2017 [REDACTED] Natalia Kaliszek Maksym Spodyriev [REDACTED] Sara Hurtado Kirill Khalyavin [REDACTED] Kana Muramoto Chris Reed 2018 [REDACTED] Natalia Kaliszek Maksym Spodyriev [REDACTED] Lilah Fear Lewis Gibson [REDACTED] Anna Yanovskaya Ádám Lukács 2019 [REDACTED] Madison Chock Evan Bates [REDACTED] Natalia Kaliszek Maksym Spodyriev [REDACTED] Wang Shiyue Liu Xinyu 2020 [REDACTED] Natalia Kaliszek Maksym Spodyriev [REDACTED] Wang Shiyue Liu Xinyu [REDACTED] Tina Garabedian Simon Proulx-Sénécal 2021 Cancelled due to
4557-1992: The COVID-19 pandemic 2022 Junior results [ edit ] Men's singles [ edit ] Year Gold Silver Bronze Ref. 2007 [REDACTED] Dmitri Kagirov [REDACTED] Mikhail Karaliuk [REDACTED] Michał Kaliszek 2008 [REDACTED] Sebastian Iwasaki [REDACTED] Michał Kaliszek [REDACTED] Piotr Snopek 2009 [REDACTED] Mikhail Karaliuk [REDACTED] Sebastian Lofek No other competitors 2010 [REDACTED] Stanislav Pertsov [REDACTED] Julian Lagus [REDACTED] Harry Mattick 2011 [REDACTED] Denis Ten [REDACTED] Sarkis Hayrapetyan [REDACTED] Slavik Hayrapetyan 2012 [REDACTED] Alexander Schopke [REDACTED] Vincent Hey [REDACTED] Christopher Huttl 2013 [REDACTED] Tsao Chih-I [REDACTED] Jamie Whiteman [REDACTED] Krzysztof Gała 2014 [REDACTED] Daniel Samohin [REDACTED] Victor Bustamante [REDACTED] Anton Karpuk 2015 [REDACTED] Krzysztof Gała [REDACTED] Larry Loupolover [REDACTED] Illya Solomin 2016 [REDACTED] Daniel Grassl [REDACTED] Ilya Mironov [REDACTED] Micah Tang 2017 [REDACTED] Daniel Grassl [REDACTED] Ilya Mironov [REDACTED] Julian Donica 2018 [REDACTED] Gabriele Frangipani [REDACTED] Luke Digby [REDACTED] Daniel Sapoznikov 2019 [REDACTED] Andrii Kokura [REDACTED] Alp Eren Özkan [REDACTED] Landry Le May 2020 [REDACTED] Edward Appleby [REDACTED] Casper Johansson [REDACTED] Grigory Fedorov 2021 Cancelled due to
Mentor Toruń Cup - Misplaced Pages Continue
4704-2786: The COVID-19 pandemic 2022 Pairs [ edit ] Year Gold Silver Bronze Ref. 2008 [REDACTED] Ekaterina Sheremetieva Mikhail Kuznetsov [REDACTED] Irina Moiseeva Vladimir Morozov No other competitors 2009 [REDACTED] Irina Moiseeva Vladimir Morozov [REDACTED] Anastasia Ortikova Stepan Dubrovskiy [REDACTED] Natalia Kaliszek Michał Kaliszek 2010 [REDACTED] Karolin Salatzki Nolan Seegert [REDACTED] Natalia Kaliszek Michał Kaliszek [REDACTED] Magdalena Jaskółka Piotr Snopek 2011 [REDACTED] Michele Lundberg Richard Lundberg [REDACTED] Magdalena Jaskółka Piotr Snopek No other competitors 2012 [REDACTED] Valeria Grechukhina Andrei Filonov [REDACTED] Maria Deryabina Vladimir Arkhipov [REDACTED] Aleksandra Malinkiewicz Sebastian Lofek 2013 [REDACTED] Kamilla Gainetdinova Ivan Bich [REDACTED] Giulia Foresti Leo Luca Sforza [REDACTED] Elizaveta Usmantseva Sergei Kulbach 2014 [REDACTED] Ekaterina Pribylova Jegors Admiralovs No other competitors 2015 [REDACTED] Caitlin Fields Ernie Utah Stevens [REDACTED] Irma Caldara Edoardo Caputo No other competitors 2016 [REDACTED] Ekaterina Khokhlova Abish Baitkanov [REDACTED] Harriet Beatson Jack Newberry [REDACTED] Jessica Rotondo Ryan Dodds 2017 [REDACTED] Riku Miura Shoya Ichihashi [REDACTED] Dorota Broda Pedro Betegón No other competitors 2018 [REDACTED] Isabella Gamez Tòn Cónsul [REDACTED] Nadine Wang Spencer Howe [REDACTED] Sofiia Nesterova Artem Darenskyi 2021 Cancelled due to
4851-2163: The COVID-19 pandemic 2022 Pairs [ edit ] Year Gold Silver Bronze Ref. 2011 [REDACTED] Mary Beth Marley Rockne Brubaker [REDACTED] Alexandra Malakhova Leri Kenchadze No other competitors 2012 [REDACTED] Tatiana Novik Andrei Novoselov [REDACTED] Danielle Montalbano Evgeni Krasnopolski [REDACTED] Alexandra Herbríková Rudy Halmaert 2013 [REDACTED] Elizaveta Makarova Leri Kenchadze [REDACTED] Maria Paliakova Nikita Bochkov [REDACTED] Marcelina Lech Jakub Tyc 2014 [REDACTED] Giulia Foresti Luca Dematte [REDACTED] Veronica Grigorieva Aritz Maestu No other competitors 2015 [REDACTED] Nicole Della Monica Matteo Guarise [REDACTED] Tatiana Danilova Mikalai Kamianchuk [REDACTED] Minerva Fabienne Hase Nolan Seegert 2016 [REDACTED] Sumire Suto Francis Boudreau-Audet [REDACTED] Goda Butkutė Nikita Ermolaev [REDACTED] Lola Esbrat Andrei Novoselov 2017 [REDACTED] Sumire Suto Francis Boudreau-Audet [REDACTED] Kim Su-yeon Kim Hyung-tae [REDACTED] Goda Butkutė Nikita Ermolaev 2018 [REDACTED] Laura Barquero Aritz Maestu [REDACTED] Rebecca Ghilardi Filippo Ambrosini [REDACTED] Dorota Broda Pedro Betegon 2021 Cancelled due to
4998-2534: The COVID-19 pandemic 2022 References [ edit ] ^ "2015 Mentor Nestle Nesquik Torun Cup" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-03-15 . Retrieved 2015-01-05 . "Lower levels: Non ISU competition" . ^ "2016 Mentor Nestlé Nesquik Torun Cup" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2016. ^ "Mentor Cup 2017" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2017. ^ "Mentor Cup 2018" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2018. ^ "Mentor Cup 2019" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2019. ^ "Mentor Cup 2020" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2020. ^ "2014 Mentor Nestle Nesquik Torun Cup" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2014. "Official Youtube channel: 2014 Mentor Nestle Nesquik Torun Cup" . YouTube . ^ "2011 Mentor Nestle Nesquik Cup" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2011. ^ "2012 Mentor Nestle Nesquik Cup" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2012. "Official Youtube channel: 2012 Mentor Nestle Nesquik Cup" . YouTube . ^ "2013 Mentor Nestle Nesquik Torun Cup" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2013. "Official Youtube channel: 2013 Mentor Nestle Nesquik Torun Cup" . YouTube . ^ "2007 Kangus Cup" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2007. ^ "2008 Nestle Kangus Cup" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2008. ^ "2009 GAM Nestle Nesquik Cup" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2009. ^ "2010 GAM Nestle Nesquik Cup" . Polish Figure Skating Association. January 2010. External links [ edit ] Official website Mentor Toruń Cup at SkatingScores.com Polish Figure Skating Association Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mentor_Toruń_Cup&oldid=1220329491 " Categories : Figure skating competitions International figure skating competitions hosted by Poland Sport in Toruń Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description
5145-2010: The COVID-19 pandemic 2022 Women's singles [ edit ] Year Gold Silver Bronze Ref. 2007 [REDACTED] Beatričė Rožinskaitė [REDACTED] Paulina Zembrzuska [REDACTED] Yuna Drabysheuskaya 2008 [REDACTED] Sandra Matz [REDACTED] Maria Vaganova [REDACTED] Urszula Reszka 2009 [REDACTED] Rimgailė Meškaitė [REDACTED] Olga Szelc [REDACTED] Deana Adela Vicari 2010 [REDACTED] Cecilia Törn [REDACTED] Inga Janulevičiūtė [REDACTED] Ksenia Bakusheva 2011 [REDACTED] Jennifer Cucinella [REDACTED] Victoria Manni [REDACTED] Marta Grigoryan 2012 [REDACTED] Victoria Hübler [REDACTED] Agata Kryger [REDACTED] Anne Zetsche 2013 [REDACTED] Nikol Gosviani [REDACTED] Agata Kryger [REDACTED] Netta Schreiber 2014 [REDACTED] Netta Schreiber [REDACTED] Daria Batura [REDACTED] Matilda Algotsson 2015 [REDACTED] Elizabet Tursynbayeva [REDACTED] Matilda Algotsson [REDACTED] Kristen Spours 2016 [REDACTED] Ekaterina Kurakova [REDACTED] Diāna Ņikitina [REDACTED] Anastasia Schneider 2017 [REDACTED] Ekaterina Kurakova [REDACTED] Alizée Crozet [REDACTED] Elodie Eudine 2018 [REDACTED] Anastasiia Arkhipova [REDACTED] Lea Serna [REDACTED] Polina Andrejeva 2019 [REDACTED] Julie Froetscher [REDACTED] Selma Valitalo [REDACTED] Mandy Chiang 2020 [REDACTED] Maria Levushkina [REDACTED] Sofia Baranova [REDACTED] Jogaile Aglinskyte 2021 Cancelled due to
5292-1098: The COVID-19 pandemic 2022 Women's singles [ edit ] Year Gold Silver Bronze Ref. 2014 [REDACTED] Agata Kryger [REDACTED] Danielle Montalbano [REDACTED] Marta García 2015 [REDACTED] Angelina Kučvaļska [REDACTED] Kailani Craine [REDACTED] Daša Grm 2016 [REDACTED] Angelina Kučvaļska [REDACTED] Anastasia Galustyan [REDACTED] Amy Lin 2017 [REDACTED] Laurine Lecavelier [REDACTED] Maé-Bérénice Méité [REDACTED] Anastasia Galustyan 2018 [REDACTED] Niki Wories [REDACTED] Eliska Brezinova [REDACTED] Nina Povey 2019 [REDACTED] Marina Piredda [REDACTED] Isadora Williams [REDACTED] Linnea Ceder 2020 [REDACTED] Ekaterina Kurakova [REDACTED] Emily Zhang [REDACTED] Alina Iushchenkova 2021 Cancelled due to
5439-563: The Curzon Line by Stalin . The western border became the Oder-Neisse line . As a result, Poland's territory was reduced by 20%, or 77,500 square kilometres (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced the migration of millions of other people , most of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews. At the insistence of Joseph Stalin , the Yalta Conference sanctioned the formation of
5586-610: The Duke of Milan and queen consort to Sigismund I, made considerable contributions to architecture , cuisine , language and court customs at Wawel Castle . The Union of Lublin of 1569 established the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , a unified federal state with an elective monarchy , but largely governed by the nobility. The latter coincided with a period of prosperity; the Polish-dominated union thereafter becoming
5733-474: The European Film Awards 2014 . On 1 July 2016, Latvia became a member of the OECD . In May 2023, the parliament elected Edgars Rinkēvičs as new President of Latvia , making him the European Union’s first openly gay head of state. After years of debates, Latvia ratified the EU Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence , otherwise known as the Istanbul Convention in November 2023. Latvia lies in Northern Europe, on
5880-407: The European Spring of Nations , Poles took up arms in the Greater Poland Uprising of 1848 to resist Germanisation , but its failure saw duchy's status reduced to a mere province ; and subsequent integration into the German Empire in 1871. In Russia, the fall of the January Uprising (1863–1864) prompted severe political, social and cultural reprisals , followed by deportations and pogroms of
6027-436: The European Union (green) – [ Legend ] Latvia ( / ˈ l æ t v i ə / LAT -vee-ə , sometimes / ˈ l ɑː t v i ə / LAHT -vee-ə ; Latvian : Latvija Latvian pronunciation: [ˈlatvija] ), officially the Republic of Latvia , is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe . It is one of the three Baltic states , along with Estonia to
Mentor Toruń Cup - Misplaced Pages Continue
6174-418: The Freikorps formation Eiserne Division ("Iron Division"). Estonian and Latvian forces defeated the Germans at the Battle of Wenden in June 1919, and a massive attack by a predominantly German force—the West Russian Volunteer Army —under Pavel Bermondt-Avalov was repelled in November. Eastern Latvia was cleared of Red Army forces by Latvian and Polish troops in early 1920 (from the Polish perspective
6321-413: The Grand Duke of Lithuania , thus forming the Jagiellonian dynasty and the Polish–Lithuanian union which spanned the late Middle Ages and early Modern Era . The partnership between Poles and Lithuanians brought the vast multi-ethnic Lithuanian territories into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for its inhabitants, who coexisted in one of the largest European political entities of
6468-409: The Great Depression . Latvia showed signs of economic recovery, and the electorate had steadily moved toward the centre during the parliamentary period. On 15 May 1934, Ulmanis staged a bloodless coup , establishing a nationalist dictatorship that lasted until 1940. After 1934, Ulmanis established government corporations to buy up private firms with the aim of "Latvianising" the economy. Early in
6615-468: The Great Northern War (1700–1721), up to 40 percent of Latvians died from famine and plague. Half the residents of Riga were killed by plague in 1710–1711 . The capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 and the Treaty of Nystad , ending the Great Northern War in 1721, gave Vidzeme to Russia (it became part of the Riga Governorate ). The Latgale region remained part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as Inflanty Voivodeship until 1772, when it
6762-505: The Hanseatic League . Riga became an important point of east–west trading and formed close cultural links with Western Europe . The first German settlers were knights from northern Germany and citizens of northern German towns who brought their Low German language to the region, which shaped many loanwords in the Latvian language. After the Livonian War (1558–1583), Livonia (Northern Latvia & Southern Estonia) fell under Polish and Lithuanian rule. The southern part of Estonia and
6909-1244: The Mentor Cup from 2017 to 2019) is an annual international figure skating competition which is generally held in January in Toruń, Poland . Medals may be awarded in men's singles, women's singles , pair skating , and ice dance at the senior, junior, and novice levels. Senior results [ edit ] Men's singles [ edit ] Year Gold Silver Bronze Ref. 2015 [REDACTED] Romain Ponsart [REDACTED] Chafik Besseghier [REDACTED] Peter Liebers 2016 [REDACTED] Oleksii Bychenko [REDACTED] Slavik Hayrapetyan [REDACTED] Larry Loupolover 2017 [REDACTED] Matteo Rizzo [REDACTED] Peter Liebers [REDACTED] Paul Fentz 2018 [REDACTED] Daniel Grassl [REDACTED] Peter James Hallam [REDACTED] Jari Kessler 2019 [REDACTED] Brendan Kerry [REDACTED] Gabriele Frangipani [REDACTED] Graham Newberry 2020 [REDACTED] Vladimir Litvintsev [REDACTED] Mark Kondratyuk [REDACTED] Brendan Kerry 2021 Cancelled due to
7056-450: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , and the World Trade Organization . The name Latvija is derived from the name of the ancient Latgalians , one of four Indo-European Baltic tribes (along with Curonians , Selonians and Semigallians ), which formed the ethnic core of modern Latvians together with the Finnic Livonians . Henry of Latvia coined
7203-417: The Polish People's Republic was a founding signatory of the Warsaw Pact . Through the emergence and contributions of the Solidarity movement , the communist government was dissolved and Poland re-established itself as a democratic state in 1989, as the first of its neighbors, initiating the fall of the Iron Curtain . Poland is a parliamentary republic with its bicameral legislature comprising
7350-420: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . At the time, the Commonwealth was one of the great powers of Europe, with an elective monarchy and a uniquely liberal political system, which adopted Europe's first modern constitution in 1791. With the passing of the prosperous Polish Golden Age , the country was partitioned by neighbouring states at the end of the 18th century. Poland regained its independence at
7497-553: The Proto-Slavic noun pole meaning field, which in-itself originates from the Proto-Indo-European word *pleh₂- indicating flatland. The etymology alludes to the topography of the region and the flat landscape of Greater Poland. During the Middle Ages , the Latin form Polonia was widely used throughout Europe. The country's alternative archaic name is Lechia and its root syllable remains in official use in several languages, notably Hungarian , Lithuanian , and Persian . The exonym possibly derives from either Lech ,
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#17329247823317644-477: The Second Partition , which left the country deprived of territory and incapable of independent existence. On 24 October 1795, the Commonwealth was partitioned for the third time and ceased to exist as a territorial entity. Stanisław Augustus, the last King of Poland, abdicated the throne on 25 November 1795. The Polish people rose several times against the partitioners and occupying armies. An unsuccessful attempt at defending Poland's sovereignty took place in
7791-438: The Sejm and the Senate . Considered a middle power , it is a developed market and high-income economy that is the sixth largest in the EU by nominal GDP and the fifth largest by GDP (PPP) . Poland enjoys a very high standard of living , safety, and economic freedom , as well as free university education and universal health care . The country has 17 UNESCO World Heritage Sites , 15 of which are cultural. Poland
7938-558: The Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September. On 28 September 1939, Warsaw fell . As agreed in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , Poland was split into two zones, one occupied by Nazi Germany , the other by the Soviet Union . In 1939–1941, the Soviets deported hundreds of thousands of Poles. The Soviet NKVD executed thousands of Polish prisoners of war (among other incidents in the Katyn massacre ) ahead of Operation Barbarossa . German planners had in November 1939 called for "the complete destruction of all Poles" and their fate as outlined in
8085-432: The Supreme Council in the March 1990 democratic elections . On 4 May 1990, the Supreme Council adopted the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia , and the Latvian SSR was renamed Republic of Latvia. However, the central power in Moscow continued to regard Latvia as a Soviet republic in 1990 and 1991. In January 1991, Soviet political and military forces unsuccessfully tried to overthrow
8232-419: The Teutonic Knights to aid in combating the Baltic Prussians; a decision that later led to centuries of warfare with the Knights. In the first half of the 13th century, Henry I the Bearded and Henry II the Pious aimed to unite the fragmented dukedoms, but the Mongol invasion and the death of Henry II in battle hindered the unification. As a result of the devastation which followed, depopulation and
8379-454: The University of Kraków , one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in Europe. Upon his death in 1370, the Piast dynasty came to an end. He was succeeded by his closest male relative, Louis of Anjou , who ruled Poland, Hungary , and Croatia in a personal union . Louis' younger daughter Jadwiga became Poland's first female monarch in 1384. In 1386, Jadwiga of Poland entered a marriage of convenience with Władysław II Jagiełło ,
8526-421: The War of the Fourth Coalition . In accordance with the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit , Napoleon proclaimed the Duchy of Warsaw , a client state ruled by his ally Frederick Augustus I of Saxony . The Poles actively aided French troops in the Napoleonic Wars , particularly those under Józef Poniatowski who became Marshal of France shortly before his death at Leipzig in 1813. In the aftermath of Napoleon's exile,
8673-459: The armistice with Germany in November 1918, Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic . The Second Polish Republic reaffirmed its sovereignty after a series of military conflicts , most notably the Polish–Soviet War , when Poland inflicted a crushing defeat on the Red Army at the Battle of Warsaw . The inter-war period heralded a new era of Polish politics. Whilst Polish political activists had faced heavy censorship in
8820-472: The collapse of communist regimes and parties across Europe . A shock therapy program, initiated by Leszek Balcerowicz in the early 1990s, enabled the country to transform its Soviet-style planned economy into a market economy . As with other post-communist countries , Poland suffered temporary declines in social, economic, and living standards, but it became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989 GDP levels as early as 1995, although
8967-420: The early medieval period the region became inhabited by the West Slavic tribal Polans , who gave Poland its name . The process of establishing statehood coincided with the conversion of a pagan ruler of the Polans to Christianity, under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Church in 966. The Kingdom of Poland emerged in 1025, and in 1569 cemented its long-standing association with Lithuania , thus forming
SECTION 60
#17329247823319114-655: The latinisations of the country's name, "Lettigallia" and "Lethia", both derived from the Latgalians. The terms inspired the variations on the country's name in Romance languages from "Letonia" and in several Germanic languages from "Lettland". Around 3000 BC, the Proto-Baltic ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea . The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium , trading local amber for precious metals. By 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia: Curonians , Latgalians , Selonians , Semigallians (in Latvian: kurši , latgaļi , sēļi and zemgaļi ), as well as
9261-410: The prewar currency . Albeit having experienced a difficult transition to a liberal economy and its re-orientation toward Western Europe, Latvia is one of the fastest growing economies in the European Union. In November 2013, the roof collapsed at a shopping center in Riga, causing Latvia’s worst post-independence disaster with the deaths of 54 rush hour shoppers and rescue personnel. In 2014, Riga
9408-440: The 12th century. The first missionaries, sent by the Pope, sailed up the Daugava River in the late 12th century, seeking converts. The local people, however, did not convert to Christianity as readily as the Church had hoped. German crusaders were sent, or more likely decided to go of their own accord as they were known to do. Saint Meinhard of Segeberg arrived in Ikšķile , in 1184, traveling with merchants to Livonia , on
9555-484: The 1794 Kościuszko Uprising , where a popular and distinguished general Tadeusz Kościuszko , who had several years earlier served under George Washington in the American Revolutionary War , led Polish insurgents. Despite the victory at the Battle of Racławice , his ultimate defeat ended Poland's independent existence for 123 years . In 1806, an insurrection organised by Jan Henryk Dąbrowski liberated western Poland ahead of Napoleon's advance into Prussia during
9702-424: The 1950s. Despite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the pre-war eastern regions of Poland (in particular the cities of Wilno and Lwów ) and agreed to the permanent garrisoning of Red Army units on Poland's territory. Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the Cold War came about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture. In
9849-409: The Allies, providing much of the intelligence from Europe and beyond, Polish code breakers were responsible for cracking the Enigma cipher and Polish scientists participating in the Manhattan Project were co-creators of the American atomic bomb . In the east, the Soviet-backed Polish 1st Army distinguished itself in the battles for Warsaw and Berlin . The wartime resistance movement , and
9996-441: The Brave . In 1000, at the Congress of Gniezno , Bolesław obtained the right of investiture from Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor , who assented to the creation of additional bishoprics and an archdioceses in Gniezno. Three new dioceses were subsequently established in Kraków , Kołobrzeg , and Wrocław . Also, Otto bestowed upon Bolesław royal regalia and a replica of the Holy Lance , which were later used at his coronation as
10143-563: The Couronians, Semigallians, Selonians, Livs, and northern Latgallians assimilated to form the Latvian people , speaking one Latvian language . Throughout all the centuries, however, an actual Latvian state had not been established, so the borders and definitions of who exactly fell within that group are largely subjective. Meanwhile, largely isolated from the rest of Latvia, southern Latgallians adopted Catholicism under Polish/ Jesuit influence. The native dialect remained distinct, although it acquired many Polish and Russian loanwords. During
10290-469: The Duchy of Warsaw was abolished at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and its territory was divided into Russian Congress Kingdom of Poland , the Prussian Grand Duchy of Posen , and Austrian Galicia with the Free City of Kraków . In 1830, non-commissioned officers at Warsaw's Officer Cadet School rebelled in what was the November Uprising . After its collapse, Congress Poland lost its constitutional autonomy , army and legislative assembly. During
10437-400: The European Union were dismantled, allowing for full freedom of movement within most of the European Union. On 10 April 2010, the President of Poland Lech Kaczyński , along with 89 other high-ranking Polish officials died in a plane crash near Smolensk , Russia. In 2011, the ruling Civic Platform won parliamentary elections . In 2014, the Prime Minister of Poland , Donald Tusk ,
10584-654: The European scene, it came to characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations. The new communist government took control with the adoption of the Small Constitution on 19 February 1947. The Polish People's Republic ( Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa ) was officially proclaimed in 1952 . In 1956, after the death of Bolesław Bierut , the régime of Władysław Gomułka became temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. Collectivisation in
10731-473: The Finnic tribe of Livonians ( lībieši ) speaking a Finnic language. In the 12th century in the territory of Latvia, there were lands with their rulers: Vanema , Ventava , Bandava , Piemare , Duvzare , Sēlija , Koknese , Jersika , Tālava and Adzele . Although the local people had contact with the outside world for centuries, they became more fully integrated into the European socio-political system in
10878-608: The German occupation of Poland , including between 50,000 and 100,000 members of the Polish intelligentsia – academics, doctors, lawyers, nobility and priesthood. During the Warsaw Uprising alone, over 150,000 Polish civilians were killed, most were murdered by the Germans during the Wola and Ochota massacres. Around 150,000 Polish civilians were killed by Soviets between 1939 and 1941 during
11025-515: The Germans, began to fight against the new occupier. Anywhere from 120,000 to as many as 300,000 Latvians took refuge from the Soviet army by fleeing to Germany and Sweden. Most sources count 200,000 to 250,000 refugees leaving Latvia, with perhaps as many as 80,000 to 100,000 of them recaptured by the Soviets or, during few months immediately after the end of war, returned by the West. The Soviets reoccupied
11172-607: The Latvian Provisional Government on 26 November. On 18 November, the Latvian People's Council entrusted him to set up the government. He took the office of Minister of Agriculture from 18 November to 19 December. He took a position of prime minister from 19 November 1918 to 13 July 1919. The war of independence that followed was part of a general chaotic period of civil and new border wars in Eastern Europe. By
11319-547: The Polish People's Republic failed. A similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under Edward Gierek , but most of the time persecution of anti-communist opposition groups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the time considered to be one of the least oppressive states of the Eastern Bloc. Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union " Solidarity " (" Solidarność "), which over time became
11466-551: The Polish-Jewish population. Towards the end of the 19th century, Congress Poland became heavily industrialised; its primary exports being coal, zinc , iron and textiles. In the aftermath of World War I , the Allies agreed on the reconstitution of Poland, confirmed through the Treaty of Versailles of June 1919. A total of 2 million Polish troops fought with the armies of the three occupying powers, and over 450,000 died. Following
11613-574: The Protestant religion of the inhabitants. During the 19th century, the social structure changed dramatically. A class of independent farmers established itself after reforms allowed the peasants to repurchase their land, but many landless peasants remained, quite a lot Latvians left for the cities and sought for education, industrial jobs. There also developed a growing urban proletariat and an increasingly influential Latvian bourgeoisie . The Young Latvian ( Latvian : Jaunlatvieši ) movement laid
11760-682: The Prussian rulers to pay tributes . The Jagiellonian dynasty also established dynastic control over the kingdoms of Bohemia (1471 onwards) and Hungary. In the south, Poland confronted the Ottoman Empire (at the Varna Crusade ) and the Crimean Tatars , and in the east helped Lithuania to combat Russia . Poland was developing as a feudal state, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly powerful landed nobility that confined
11907-541: The Red Army which helped the Germans. By 29 June Riga was reached and with Soviet troops killed, captured or retreating, Latvia was left under the control of German forces by early July. The occupation was followed immediately by SS Einsatzgruppen troops, who were to act in accordance with the Nazi Generalplan Ost that required the population of Latvia to be cut by 50 percent. Under German occupation, Latvia
12054-486: The Republic of Latvia authorities by occupying the central publishing house in Riga and establishing a Committee of National Salvation to usurp governmental functions. During the transitional period, Moscow maintained many central Soviet state authorities in Latvia. The Popular Front of Latvia advocated that all permanent residents be eligible for Latvian citizenship, however, universal citizenship for all permanent residents
12201-555: The Russians at Klushino . Sigismund also countered the Ottoman Empire in the southeast; at Khotyn in 1621 Jan Karol Chodkiewicz achieved a decisive victory against the Turks, which ushered the downfall of Sultan Osman II . Sigismund's long reign in Poland coincided with the Silver Age . The liberal Władysław IV effectively defended Poland's territorial possessions but after his death
12348-458: The Soviet KGB. 'The publication, which followed two decades of public debate and the passage of a special law, revealed the names, code names, birthplaces and other data on active and former KGB agents as of 1991, the year Latvia regained its independence from the Soviet Union.' In the second half of the 1980s, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev started to introduce political and economic reforms in
12495-574: The Soviet Union that were called glasnost and perestroika . In the summer of 1987, the first large demonstrations were held in Riga at the Freedom Monument —a symbol of independence. In the summer of 1988, a national movement, coalescing in the Popular Front of Latvia , was opposed by the Interfront . The Latvian SSR, along with the other Baltic Republics was allowed greater autonomy, and in 1988,
12642-714: The Soviet Union's occupation of eastern Poland ( Kresy ), and another estimated 100,000 Poles were murdered by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) between 1943 and 1944 in what became known as the Wołyń Massacres . Of all the countries in the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: around 6 million perished – more than one-sixth of Poland's pre-war population – half of them Polish Jews. About 90% of deaths were non-military in nature. In 1945, Poland's borders were shifted westwards . Over two million Polish inhabitants of Kresy were expelled along
12789-723: The Soviet sphere. A week later, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland ; on 17 September, the Soviet Union invaded Poland as well . After the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, most of the Baltic Germans left Latvia by agreement between Ulmanis's government and Nazi Germany under the Heim ins Reich programme. In total 50,000 Baltic Germans left by the deadline of December 1939, with 1,600 remaining to conclude business and 13,000 choosing to remain in Latvia. Most of those who remained left for Germany in summer 1940, when
12936-524: The Soviets in 1944, which formed the Latvian SSR for the next 45 years. As a result of extensive immigration during the Soviet occupation, ethnic Russians became the most prominent minority in the country. The peaceful Singing Revolution started in 1987 among the Baltic Soviet republics and ended with the restoration of both de facto and official independence on 21 August 1991. Latvia has since been
13083-778: The USSR, which the Soviet Union granted. Latvia, then a puppet government, was headed by Augusts Kirhenšteins . The Soviet Union incorporated Latvia on 5 August 1940, as the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic . The Soviets dealt harshly with their opponents – prior to Operation Barbarossa , in less than a year, at least 34,250 Latvians were deported or killed. Most were deported to Siberia where deaths were estimated at 40 percent. On 22 June 1941, German troops attacked Soviet forces in Operation Barbarossa. There were some spontaneous uprisings by Latvians against
13230-572: The West. There was a pause in fighting, apart from partisan activity, until after the siege of Leningrad ended in January 1944, and the Soviet troops advanced, entering Latvia in July and eventually capturing Riga on 13 October 1944. More than 200,000 Latvian citizens died during World War II, including approximately 75,000 Latvian Jews murdered during the Nazi occupation. Latvian soldiers fought on both sides of
13377-457: The aftermath of World War I . The country became increasingly autocratic after the coup in 1934 established the dictatorship of Kārlis Ulmanis . Latvia's de facto independence was interrupted at the outset of World War II , beginning with Latvia's forcible incorporation into the Soviet Union , followed by the invasion and occupation by Nazi Germany in 1941 and the re-occupation by
13524-466: The anti-Soviet partisan activity. Between 136,000 and 190,000 Latvians, depending on the sources, were imprisoned or deported to Soviet concentration camps (the Gulag ) in the post-war years from 1945 to 1952. In the post-war period, Latvia was made to adopt Soviet farming methods. Rural areas were forced into collectivization . An extensive program to impose bilingualism was initiated in Latvia, limiting
13671-665: The capital of Swedish Livonia and the largest city in the entire Swedish Empire. Fighting continued sporadically between Sweden and Poland until the Truce of Altmark in 1629. In Latvia, the Swedish period is generally remembered as positive; serfdom was eased, a network of schools was established for the peasantry, and the power of the regional barons was diminished. Several important cultural changes occurred during this time. Under Swedish and largely German rule, western Latvia adopted Lutheranism as its main religion. The ancient tribes of
13818-802: The conflict, mainly on the German side, with 140,000 men in the Latvian Legion of the Waffen-SS , The 308th Latvian Rifle Division was formed by the Red Army in 1944. On occasions, especially in 1944, opposing Latvian troops faced each other in battle. In the 23rd block of the Vorverker cemetery, a monument was erected after the Second World War for the people of Latvia who had died in Lübeck from 1945 to 1950. In 1944, when Soviet military advances reached Latvia, heavy fighting took place in Latvia between German and Soviet troops, which ended in another German defeat. In
13965-413: The country in 1944–1945, and further deportations followed as the country was collectivised and Sovietised . On 25 March 1949, 43,000 rural residents (" kulaks ") and Latvian nationalists were deported to Siberia in a sweeping Operation Priboi in all three Baltic states , which was carefully planned and approved in Moscow already on 29 January 1949. This operation had the desired effect of reducing
14112-501: The course of the war, both occupying forces conscripted Latvians into their armies, in this way increasing the loss of the nation's "live resources". In 1944, part of the Latvian territory once more came under Soviet control. The Soviets immediately began to reinstate the Soviet system. After the German surrender, it became clear that Soviet forces were there to stay, and Latvian national partisans , soon joined by some who had collaborated with
14259-403: The decades up until World War I , a new political tradition was established in the country. Many exiled Polish activists, such as Ignacy Jan Paderewski , who would later become prime minister, returned home. A significant number of them then went on to take key positions in the newly formed political and governmental structures. Tragedy struck in 1922 when Gabriel Narutowicz , inaugural holder of
14406-552: The demand for craft labour spurred a migration of German and Flemish settlers into Poland, which was encouraged by the Polish dukes. In 1264, the Statute of Kalisz introduced unprecedented autonomy for the Polish Jews , who came to Poland fleeing persecution elsewhere in Europe. In 1320, Władysław I the Short became the first king of a reunified Poland since Przemysł II in 1296, and
14553-538: The doctrine of the so-called Polish Brethren , who separated from their Calvinist denomination and became the co-founders of global Unitarianism . The European Renaissance evoked under Sigismund I the Old and Sigismund II Augustus a sense of urgency in the need to promote a cultural awakening . During the Polish Golden Age , the nation's economy and culture flourished. The Italian-born Bona Sforza , daughter of
14700-686: The earliest evidence of European cheesemaking (5500 BC) was discovered in Polish Kuyavia , and the Bronocice pot is incised with the earliest known depiction of what may be a wheeled vehicle (3400 BC). The period spanning the Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age (1300 BC–500 BC) was marked by an increase in population density, establishment of palisaded settlements ( gords ) and the expansion of Lusatian culture . A significant archaeological find from
14847-625: The eastern shores of the Baltic Sea and northwestern part of the East European Craton (EEC), between latitudes 55° and 58° N (a small area is north of 58°), and longitudes 21° and 29° E (a small area is west of 21°). Latvia has a total area of 64,559 km (24,926 sq mi) of which 62,157 km (23,999 sq mi) land, 18,159 km (7,011 sq mi) agricultural land, 34,964 km (13,500 sq mi) forest land and 2,402 km (927 sq mi) inland water. The total length of Latvia's boundary
14994-535: The elections organised by the occupying Soviet authorities were falsified and were used to provide a veneer of legitimacy for Soviet hegemony over Polish affairs. The Soviet Union instituted a new communist government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc . As elsewhere in Communist Europe , the Soviet influence over Poland was met with armed resistance from the outset which continued into
15141-581: The end of World War I in 1918 with the creation of the Second Polish Republic , which emerged victorious in various conflicts of the interbellum period. In September 1939, the invasion of Poland by Germany and the Soviet Union marked the beginning of World War II , which resulted in the Holocaust and millions of Polish casualties . Forced into the Eastern Bloc in the global Cold War ,
15288-1035: The ethnic Latvian population had fallen to 62%. Since Latvia had maintained a well-developed infrastructure and educated specialists, Moscow decided to base some of the Soviet Union's most advanced manufacturing in Latvia. New industry was created in Latvia, including a major machinery factory RAF in Jelgava , electrotechnical factories in Riga , chemical factories in Daugavpils , Valmiera and Olaine —and some food and oil processing plants. Latvia manufactured trains, ships, minibuses, mopeds, telephones, radios and hi-fi systems, electrical and diesel engines, textiles, furniture, clothing, bags and luggage, shoes, musical instruments, home appliances, watches, tools and equipment, aviation and agricultural equipment and long list of other goods. Latvia had its own film industry and musical records factory (LPs). However, there were not enough people to operate
15435-497: The first King of Poland in c. 1025 , when Bolesław received permission for his coronation from Pope John XIX . Bolesław also expanded the realm considerably by seizing parts of German Lusatia , Czech Moravia , Upper Hungary , and southwestern regions of the Kievan Rus' . The transition from paganism in Poland was not instantaneous and resulted in the pagan reaction of the 1030s . In 1031, Mieszko II Lambert lost
15582-625: The first elected king, approbated the Henrician Articles which obliged future monarchs to respect the rights of nobles. When he left Poland to become King of France , his successor, Stephen Báthory , led a successful campaign in the Livonian War , granting Poland more lands across the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. State affairs were then headed by Jan Zamoyski , the Crown Chancellor . Stephen's successor, Sigismund III , defeated
15729-516: The first to be crowned at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków. Beginning in 1333, the reign of Casimir III the Great was marked by developments in castle infrastructure , army, judiciary and diplomacy . Under his authority, Poland transformed into a major European power; he instituted Polish rule over Ruthenia in 1340 and imposed quarantine that prevented the spread of Black Death . In 1364, Casimir inaugurated
15876-581: The former Soviet block state and was active in Latvia joining both NATO and the European Union in 2004. Latvia signed the Schengen agreement on 16 April 2003 and started its implementation on 21 December 2007. Approximately 72% of Latvian citizens are Latvian, while 20% are Russian. The government denationalized private property confiscated by the Soviets, returning it or compensating the owners for it, and privatized most state-owned industries, reintroducing
16023-635: The genocidal Generalplan Ost . Poland made the fourth-largest troop contribution in Europe, and its troops served both the Polish Government in Exile in the west and Soviet leadership in the east . Polish troops played an important role in the Normandy , Italian , North African Campaigns and Netherlands and are particularly remembered for the Battle of Britain and Battle of Monte Cassino . Polish intelligence operatives proved extremely valuable to
16170-690: The groundwork for nationalism from the middle of the century, many of its leaders looking to the Slavophiles for support against the prevailing German-dominated social order. The rise in use of the Latvian language in literature and society became known as the First National Awakening . Russification began in Latgale after the Polish led the January Uprising in 1863: this spread to the rest of what
16317-400: The interior of Russia in 1915, radical land reform was the central political question for the young state. In 1897, 61.2% of the rural population had been landless; by 1936, that percentage had been reduced to 18%. By 1923, the extent of cultivated land surpassed the pre-war level. Innovation and rising productivity led to rapid growth of the economy, but it soon suffered from the effects of
16464-588: The largest port in the Russian Empire), railways built; new factories, banks, and a university were established; many residential, public (theatres and museums), and school buildings were erected; new parks formed; and so on. Riga's boulevards and some streets outside the Old Town date from this period. Numeracy was also higher in the Livonian and Courlandian parts of the Russian Empire, which may have been influenced by
16611-477: The morning of 24 August 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression pact, called the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . The pact contained a secret protocol, revealed only after Germany's defeat in 1945, according to which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet " spheres of influence ". In the north, Latvia, Finland and Estonia were assigned to
16758-426: The new Prime Minister leading a coalition made up of Civic Coalition , Third Way , and The Left . Law and Justice became the leading opposition party. Poland covers an administrative area of 312,722 km (120,743 sq mi), and is the ninth-largest country in Europe . Approximately 311,895 km (120,423 sq mi) of the country's territory consists of land, 2,041 km (788 sq mi)
16905-484: The newly built factories. To maintain and expand industrial production, skilled workers were migrating from all over the Soviet Union, decreasing the proportion of ethnic Latvians in the republic. The population of Latvia reached its peak in 1990 at just under 2.7 million people. In late 2018 the National Archives of Latvia released a full alphabetical index of some 10,000 people recruited as agents or informants by
17052-571: The nobility. The failed attempts at government restructuring as well as the domestic turmoil provoked its neighbours to invade. In 1772, the First Partition of the Commonwealth by Prussia, Russia and Austria took place; an act which the Partition Sejm , under considerable duress, eventually ratified as a fait accompli . Disregarding the territorial losses, in 1773 a plan of critical reforms
17199-403: The north and Lithuania to the south. It borders Russia to the east and Belarus to the southeast, and shares a maritime border with Sweden to the west. Latvia covers an area of 64,589 km (24,938 sq mi), with a population of 1.9 million. The country has a temperate seasonal climate . Its capital and largest city is Riga . Latvians belong to the ethnolinguistic group of
17346-502: The northeast, Belarus and Ukraine to the east, Slovakia and the Czech Republic to the south, and Germany to the west. The territory is characterised by a varied landscape, diverse ecosystems, and temperate transitional climate. Poland is composed of sixteen voivodeships and is the fifth most populous member state of the European Union (EU), with over 38 million people, and the fifth largest EU country by land area, covering
17493-651: The northern part of Latvia were ceded to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and formed into the Duchy of Livonia ( Ducatus Livoniae Ultradunensis ). Gotthard Kettler , the last Master of the Order of Livonia , formed the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia . Though the duchy was a vassal state to the Lithuanian Grand Duchy and later of the Polish and Lithuanian commonwealth, it retained a considerable degree of autonomy and experienced
17640-410: The old pre-war Flag of Latvia flew again, replacing the Soviet Latvian flag as the official flag in 1990. In 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution on the Occupation of the Baltic states , in which it declared the occupation "not in accordance with law", and not the "will of the Soviet people". Pro-independence Popular Front of Latvia candidates gained a two-thirds majority in
17787-484: The period known as Golden Liberty , when the state was ruled by the seemingly free and equal Polish nobles . The 16th century saw Protestant Reformation movements making deep inroads into Polish Christianity, which resulted in the establishment of policies promoting religious tolerance, unique in Europe at that time. This tolerance allowed the country to avoid the religious turmoil and wars of religion that beset Europe. In Poland, Nontrinitarian Christianity became
17934-407: The population to private manorial farmstead known as folwarks . In 1493, John I Albert sanctioned the creation of a bicameral parliament composed of a lower house, the Sejm , and an upper house, the Senate . The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish General Sejm in 1505, transferred most of the legislative power from the monarch to the parliament, an event which marked the beginning of
18081-516: The population. They have no citizenship of any country , and cannot participate in the parliamentary elections. Children born to non-nationals after the re-establishment of independence are automatically entitled to citizenship. The Republic of Latvia declared the end of the transitional period and restored full independence on 21 August 1991, in the aftermath of the failed Soviet coup attempt . Latvia resumed diplomatic relations with Western states, including Sweden. The Saeima , Latvia's parliament,
18228-414: The presence of Roman Legions sent to protect the amber trade . The Polish tribes emerged following the second wave of the Migration Period around the 6th century AD; they were Slavic and may have included assimilated remnants of peoples that earlier dwelled in the area. Beginning in the early 10th century, the Polans would come to dominate other Lechitic tribes in the region, initially forming
18375-444: The present-day Latvian territory especially increased in the second half of the 13th century following the decline and fall of the Crusader States in the Middle East . Together with southern Estonia, these conquered areas formed the crusader state that became known as Terra Mariana ( Medieval Latin for "Land of Mary ") or Livonia. In 1282, Riga, and later the cities of Cēsis , Limbaži , Koknese and Valmiera , became part of
18522-400: The presidency, was assassinated at the Zachęta Gallery in Warsaw by a painter and right-wing nationalist Eligiusz Niewiadomski . In 1926, the May Coup , led by the hero of the Polish independence campaign Marshal Józef Piłsudski , turned rule of the Second Polish Republic over to the nonpartisan Sanacja ( Healing ) movement to prevent radical political organisations on both the left and
18669-407: The protohistory of Poland is a fortified settlement at Biskupin , attributed to the Lusatian culture of the Late Bronze Age (mid-8th century BC). Throughout antiquity (400 BC–500 AD), many distinct ancient populations inhabited the territory of present-day Poland, notably Celtic , Scythian , Germanic , Sarmatian , Baltic and Slavic tribes. Furthermore, archaeological findings confirmed
18816-441: The right from destabilizing the country. By the late 1930s, due to increased threats posed by political extremism inside the country, the Polish government became increasingly heavy-handed, banning a number of radical organisations, including communist and ultra-nationalist political parties, which threatened the stability of the country. World War II began with the Nazi German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, followed by
18963-412: The serfs took place in Courland in 1817 and in Vidzeme in 1819. In practice, however, the emancipation was actually advantageous to the landowners and nobility, as it dispossessed peasants of their land without compensation, forcing them to return to work at the estates "of their own free will". During these two centuries Latvia experienced economic and construction boom – ports were expanded (Riga became
19110-446: The spring of 1919, there were actually three governments: the Provisional government headed by Kārlis Ulmanis , supported by the Tautas padome and the Inter-Allied Commission of Control ; the Latvian Soviet government led by Pēteris Stučka , supported by the Red Army ; and the Provisional government headed by Andrievs Niedra , supported by Baltic-German forces composed of the Baltische Landeswehr ("Baltic Defence Force") and
19257-562: The summer of 1944 it initiated Operation Tempest , of which the Warsaw Uprising that began on 1 August 1944 is the best-known operation. Nazi German forces under orders from Adolf Hitler set up six German extermination camps in occupied Poland, including Treblinka , Majdanek and Auschwitz . The Germans transported millions of Jews from across occupied Europe to be murdered in those camps. Altogether, 3 million Polish Jews – approximately 90% of Poland's pre-war Jewry – and between 1.8 and 2.8 million ethnic Poles were killed during
19404-442: The time. In the Baltic Sea region, the struggle of Poland and Lithuania with the Teutonic Knights continued and culminated at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, where a combined Polish-Lithuanian army inflicted a decisive victory against them. In 1466, after the Thirteen Years' War , king Casimir IV Jagiellon gave royal consent to the Peace of Thorn , which created the future Duchy of Prussia under Polish suzerainty and forced
19551-561: The title of king and fled amidst the violence. The unrest led to the transfer of the capital to Kraków in 1038 by Casimir I the Restorer . In 1076, Bolesław II re-instituted the office of king, but was banished in 1079 for murdering his opponent, Bishop Stanislaus . In 1138, the country fragmented into five principalities when Bolesław III Wrymouth divided his lands among his sons. These were Lesser Poland , Greater Poland, Silesia , Masovia and Sandomierz , with intermittent hold over Pomerania . In 1226, Konrad I of Masovia invited
19698-433: The unemployment rate increased. Poland became a member of the Visegrád Group in 1991, and joined NATO in 1999. Poles then voted to join the European Union in a referendum in June 2003, with Poland becoming a full member on 1 May 2004, following the consequent enlargement of the organisation . Poland has joined the Schengen Area in 2007, as a result of which, the country's borders with other member states of
19845-468: The use of Latvian language in official uses in favor of using Russian as the main language. All of the minority schools (Jewish, Polish, Belarusian, Estonian, Lithuanian) were closed down leaving only two media of instructions in the schools: Latvian and Russian. An influx of new colonists, including laborers, administrators, military personnel and their dependents from Russia and other Soviet republics started. By 1959 about 400,000 Russian settlers arrived and
19992-405: The vast Commonwealth began declining from internal disorder and constant warfare. In 1648, the Polish hegemony over Ukraine sparked the Khmelnytsky Uprising , followed by the decimating Swedish Deluge during the Second Northern War , and Prussia's independence in 1657. In 1683, John III Sobieski re-established military prowess when he halted the advance of an Ottoman Army into Europe at
20139-469: Was administered as part of Reichskommissariat Ostland . Latvian paramilitary and Auxiliary Police units established by the occupation authority participated in the Holocaust and other atrocities. 30,000 Jews were shot in Latvia in the autumn of 1941. Another 30,000 Jews from the Riga ghetto were killed in the Rumbula Forest in November and December 1941, to reduce overpopulation in the ghetto and make room for more Jews being brought in from Germany and
20286-423: Was again elected in 1993. Russia ended its military presence by completing its troop withdrawal in 1994 and shutting down the Skrunda-1 radar station in 1998. The major goals of Latvia in the 1990s, to join NATO and the European Union , were achieved in 2004. The NATO Summit 2006 was held in Riga. Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga was President of Latvia from 1999 until 2007. She was the first female head of state in
20433-494: Was chosen to be President of the European Council , and resigned as prime minister. The 2015 and 2019 elections were won by the national-conservative Law and Justice Party (PiS) led by Jarosław Kaczyński , resulting in increased Euroscepticism and increased friction with the European Union. In December 2017, Mateusz Morawiecki was sworn in as the Prime Minister, succeeding Beata Szydlo , in office since 2015. President Andrzej Duda , supported by Law and Justice party,
20580-410: Was established, in which the Commission of National Education , the first government education authority in Europe, was inaugurated. Corporal punishment of schoolchildren was officially prohibited in 1783. Poniatowski was the head figure of the Enlightenment , encouraged the development of industries, and embraced republican neoclassicism . For his contributions to the arts and sciences he was awarded
20727-454: Was extensively funded by his sponsor and former lover, Empress Catherine II of Russia . The new king maneuvered between his desire to implement necessary modernising reforms, and the necessity to remain at peace with surrounding states. His ideals led to the formation of the 1768 Bar Confederation , a rebellion directed against the Poniatowski and all external influence, which ineptly aimed to preserve Poland's sovereignty and privileges held by
20874-405: Was incorporated into Russia. The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia , a vassal state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth , was annexed by Russia in 1795 in the Third Partition of Poland , bringing all of what is now Latvia into the Russian Empire . All three Baltic provinces preserved local laws, German as the local official language and their own parliament, the Landtag . The emancipation of
21021-591: Was not adopted. Instead, citizenship was granted to persons who had been citizens of Latvia on the day of loss of independence in 1940 as well as their descendants. As a consequence, the majority of ethnic non-Latvians did not receive Latvian citizenship since neither they nor their parents had ever been citizens of Latvia, becoming non-citizens or citizens of other former Soviet republics. By 2011, more than half of non-citizens had taken naturalization exams and received Latvian citizenship, but in 2015 there were still 290,660 non-citizens in Latvia, which represented 14.1% of
21168-432: Was re-elected in the 2020 presidential election . As of November 2023 , the Russian invasion of Ukraine had led to 17 million Ukrainian refugees crossing the border to Poland. As of November 2023 , 0.9 million of those had stayed in Poland. In October 2023, the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) party won the largest share of the vote in the election , but lost its majority in parliament. In December 2023, Donald Tusk became
21315-400: Was the European Capital of Culture , Latvia joined the eurozone and adopted the EU single currency euro as the currency of the country and Latvian Valdis Dombrovskis was named vice-president of the European Commission . In 2015 Latvia held the presidency of Council of the European Union . Big European events have been celebrated in Riga such as the Eurovision Song Contest 2003 and
21462-447: Was to become Poland approximately 500,000 years ago, though the ensuing hostile climate prevented early humans from founding more permanent encampments. The arrival of Homo sapiens and anatomically modern humans coincided with the climatic discontinuity at the end of the Last Glacial Period ( Northern Polish glaciation 10,000 BC), when Poland became habitable. Neolithic excavations indicated broad-ranging development in that era;
21609-412: Was under the protection of the Apostolic See . The country's early origins were described by Gallus Anonymus in Gesta principum Polonorum , the oldest Polish chronicle. An important national event of the period was the martyrdom of Saint Adalbert , who was killed by Prussian pagans in 997 and whose remains were reputedly bought back for their weight in gold by Mieszko's successor, Bolesław I
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