144-457: The tomato ( US : / t ə m eɪ t oʊ / , UK : / t ə m ɑː t oʊ / ), Solanum lycopersicum , is a plant whose fruit is an edible berry that is eaten as a vegetable. The tomato is a member of the nightshade family that includes tobacco , potato , and chili peppers . It originated from and was domesticated in western South America . It was introduced to the Old World by
288-698: A cot–caught merger , which is rapidly spreading throughout the whole country. However, the South, Inland North, and a Northeastern coastal corridor passing through Rhode Island, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore typically preserve an older cot–caught distinction. For that Northeastern corridor, the realization of the THOUGHT vowel is particularly marked , as depicted in humorous spellings, like in tawk and cawfee ( talk and coffee ), which intend to represent it being tense and diphthongal : [oə] . A split of TRAP into two separate phonemes , using different
432-520: A pronunciations for example in gap [æ] versus gas [eə] , further defines New York City as well as Philadelphia–Baltimore accents. Most Americans preserve all historical /r/ sounds, using what is known as a rhotic accent . The only traditional r -dropping (or non-rhoticity) in regional U.S. accents variably appears today in eastern New England , New York City , and some of the former plantation South primarily among older speakers (and, relatedly, some African-American Vernacular English across
576-613: A French misreading of the Italian pomo dei Mori ("the Moors' apple") as pomme d'amour , ("apple of love"). The tomato was introduced to cultivation in the Middle East by John Barker , British consul in Aleppo c. 1799 to 1825 . Nineteenth century descriptions of its consumption are uniformly as an ingredient in a cooked dish. In 1881, it is described as only eaten in the region "within
720-467: A basal or terminal group of leaves or neither of these types. The leaves are generally alternate or alternate to opposed (that is, alternate at the base of the plant and opposed towards the inflorescence ). The leaves can be herbaceous, leathery, or transformed into spines . The leaves are generally petiolate or subsessile, rarely sessile. They are frequently inodorous, but some are aromatic or fetid. The foliar lamina can be either simple or compound, and
864-537: A case of convergent evolution ) in the cultivated tomato. The analysis predicts that var. cerasiforme appeared around 78,000 years ago, while the cultivated tomato originated around 7,000 years ago (5,000 BCE), with substantial uncertainty, making it unclear how humans may have been involved in the process. The Spanish first introduced tomatoes to Europe, where they became used in Spanish food. Elsewhere in Europe, its first use
1008-600: A column surrounding the pistil 's style. The anthers bend into a cone-like structure, surrounding the stigma. The flowers are 1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 in) across, yellow, with five pointed lobes on the corolla ; they are borne in a cyme of three to twelve together. The fruit develops from the ovary of the plant after fertilization, its flesh comprising the pericarp walls. The fruit contains locules , hollow spaces full of seeds. These vary among cultivated varieties. Some smaller varieties have two locules; globe-shaped varieties typically have three to five; beefsteak tomatoes have
1152-616: A complex phenomenon of "both convergence and divergence": some accents are homogenizing and leveling , while others are diversifying and deviating further away from one another. Having been settled longer than the American West Coast, the East Coast has had more time to develop unique accents, and it currently comprises three or four linguistically significant regions, each of which possesses English varieties both different from each other as well as quite internally diverse: New England ,
1296-447: A consonant, such as in pearl , car and fort . Non-rhotic American accents, those that do not pronounce ⟨r⟩ except before a vowel, such as some accents of Eastern New England , New York City , and African-Americans , and a specific few (often older ones) spoken by Southerners , are often quickly noticed by General American listeners and perceived as sounding especially ethnic, regional, or antiquated. Rhoticity
1440-784: A diverse range of alkaloids. To humans, these alkaloids can be desirable, toxic, or both. The tropanes are the most well-known of the alkaloids found in the Solanaceae. The plants that contain these substances have been used for centuries as poisons. However, despite being recognized as poisons, many of these substances have invaluable pharmaceutical properties. Many species contain a variety of alkaloids that can be more or less active or poisonous, such as scopolamine , atropine , hyoscyamine , and nicotine . They are found in plants such as henbane ( Hyoscyamus albus ), belladonna ( Atropa belladonna ), jimson weed ( Datura stramonium ), mandrake ( Mandragora autumnalis ), tobacco , and others. Some of
1584-570: A few (two pairs in each locule in Grabowskia , one pair in each locule in Lycium ) and very occasionally only one ovule is in each locule as for example in Melananthus . The fruits of the great majority of the Solanaceae are berries or capsules (including pyxidia) and less often drupes. Berries are common in the subfamilies Cestroideae, Solanoideae (with the exception of Datura , Oryctus , Grabowskia and
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#17328582348921728-449: A great number of different ecosystems , from deserts to rainforests , and are often found in the secondary vegetation that colonizes disturbed areas. In general, plants in this family are of tropical and temperate distribution. The potato tuber moth ( Phthorimaea operculella ) is an oligophagous insect that prefers to feed on plants of the family Solanaceae, especially the potato plant ( Solanum tuberosum ). Female P. operculella use
1872-451: A great number of small locules; and plum tomatoes have very few, very small locules. For propagation, the seeds need to come from a mature fruit, and must be lightly fermented to remove the gelatinous outer coating and then dried before use. The tomato has a mutualistic relationship with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi such as Rhizophagus irregularis . Scientists use the tomato as a model species for investigating such symbioses. Like
2016-549: A hypogynous disk. The calyx is gamosepalous (as the sepals are joined forming a tube), with the (4)5(6) segments equal, it has five lobes, with the lobes shorter than the tube, it is persistent and often accrescent. The corolla usually has five petals that are also joined forming a tube. Flower shapes are typically rotate (wheel-shaped, spreading in one plane, with a short tube) or tubular (elongated cylindrical tube), campanulated, or funnel-shaped. The androecium has (2)(4)5(6) free stamens within its opposite sepals (they alternate with
2160-402: A lighter green, and reducing sugar in the resulting ripe fruit by 10–15%. Perhaps more importantly, the fruit chloroplasts are remodelled during ripening into chlorophyll-free chromoplasts that synthesize and accumulate the carotenoids lycopene , β-carotene , and other metabolites that are sensory and nutritional assets of the ripe fruit. The potent chloroplasts in the dark-green shoulders of
2304-586: A merger with the THOUGHT ( caught ) set. Having taken place prior to the unrounding of the cot vowel, it results in lengthening and perhaps raising, merging the more recently separated vowel into the THOUGHT vowel in the following environments: before many instances of /f/ , /θ/ , and particularly /s/ (as in Austria, cloth, cost, loss, off, often, etc.), a few instances before /ŋ/ (as in strong, long, wrong ), and variably by region or speaker in gone , on , and certain other words. Unlike American accents,
2448-934: A name for the fruit. The usual pronunciations of tomato are / t ə ˈ m eɪ t oʊ / (in North American English ) and / t ə ˈ m ɑː t oʊ / (in British English ). The British pronunciation was like the American until the Great Vowel Shift . The word's dual pronunciations were immortalized in Ira and George Gershwin 's 1937 song " Let's Call the Whole Thing Off " ("You like / p ə ˈ t eɪ t oʊ / and I like / p ə ˈ t ɑː t oʊ / / You like / t ə ˈ m eɪ t oʊ / and I like / t ə ˈ m ɑː t oʊ / "). The likely wild ancestor of
2592-636: A nice day , for sure); many are now distinctly old-fashioned (swell, groovy). Some English words now in general use, such as hijacking, disc jockey , boost, bulldoze and jazz , originated as American slang. American English has always shown a marked tendency to use words in different parts of speech and nouns are often used as verbs . Examples of nouns that are now also verbs are interview, advocate, vacuum, lobby, pressure, rear-end, transition, feature, profile, hashtag, head, divorce, loan, estimate, X-ray, spearhead, skyrocket, showcase, bad-mouth, vacation , major, and many others. Compounds coined in
2736-454: A number of ornamental plants such as Petunia , Browallia , and Lycianthes , and sources of psychoactive alkaloids, Datura , Mandragora (mandrake), and Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade). Certain species are widely known for their medicinal uses, their psychotropic effects, or for being poisonous. This family has a worldwide distribution, being present on all continents except Antarctica . The greatest diversity in species
2880-417: A period of 3 days. Other shrub species that are grown for their attractive flowers are Lycianthes rantonnetii (Blue Potato Bush or Paraguay Nightshade) with violet-blue flowers and Nicotiana glauca ("Tree Tobacco") Other solanaceous species and genera that are grown as ornamentals are the petunia (Petunia × hybrida) , Lycium , Solanum , Cestrum , Calibrachoa × hybrida and Solandra . There
3024-475: A process of extensive dialect mixture and leveling in which English varieties across the colonies became more homogeneous compared with the varieties in Britain. English thus predominated in the colonies even by the end of the 17th century's first immigration of non-English speakers from Western Europe and Africa. Additionally, firsthand descriptions of a fairly uniform American English (particularly in contrast to
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#17328582348923168-657: A series of other vowel shifts in the same region, known by linguists as the " Inland North ". The Inland North shares with the Eastern New England dialect (including Boston accents ) a backer tongue positioning of the GOOSE /u/ vowel (to [u] ) and the MOUTH /aʊ/ vowel (to [ɑʊ~äʊ] ) in comparison to the rest of the country. Ranging from northern New England across the Great Lakes to Minnesota, another Northern regional marker
3312-409: A serrated margin; both the stem and leaves are densely glandular-hairy. Tomato flowers are bisexual and are able to self fertilize. As tomatoes were moved from their native areas, their traditional pollinators (probably a species of halictid bee ) did not move with them. The trait of self-fertility became an advantage, and domestic cultivars of tomato have been selected to maximize this trait. This
3456-453: A staple of the peasant population because they were not as filling as other crops. Additionally, both toxic and inedible varieties discouraged many people from attempting to consume or prepare any other varieties. In certain areas of Italy, such as Florence, the fruit was used solely as a tabletop decoration, until it was incorporated into the local cuisine in the late 17th or early 18th century. The earliest discovered cookbook with tomato recipes
3600-635: A strong savoury umami flavor, and is an important ingredient in cuisines around the world. It is used in pizzas , pasta sauces, soups such as gazpacho , curries including dhansak and rogan josh , as juice, and in Bloody Mary cocktails . Tomato festivals are held annually in Buñol , Spain, in Reynoldsburg, Ohio , and in Närpes , Finland. The word tomato comes from the Spanish tomate , which in turn comes from
3744-514: A survey, completed in 2003, polling English speakers across the United States about their specific everyday word choices, hoping to identify regionalisms. The study found that most Americans prefer the term sub for a long sandwich, soda (but pop in the Great Lakes region and generic coke in the South) for a sweet and bubbly soft drink , you or you guys for the plural of you (but y'all in
3888-453: A variation of American English in these islands. In 2021, about 245 million Americans, aged 5 or above, spoke English at home: a majority of the United States total population of roughly 330 million people. The United States has never had an official language at the federal level, but English is commonly used at the federal level and in states without an official language. 32 of the 50 states, in some cases as part of what has been called
4032-466: Is entomophilous . The flowers can be solitary or grouped into terminal, cymose, or axillary inflorescences. The flowers are medium-sized, fragrant ( Nicotiana ), fetid ( Anthocercis ), or inodorous. The flowers are usually actinomorphic , slightly zygomorphic , or markedly zygomorphic (for example, in flowers with a bilabial corolla in Schizanthus species). The irregularities in symmetry can be due to
4176-459: Is tobacco mosaic virus . Handling cigarettes and other infected tobacco products can transmit the virus to tomato plants. A serious disease is curly top , carried by the beet leafhopper , which interrupts the lifecycle. As the name implies, it has the symptom of making the top leaves of the plant wrinkle up and grow abnormally. Bacterial wilt is another common disease impacting yield. Wang et al. , 2019 found phage combination therapies to reduce
4320-642: Is also associated with the United States, perhaps mostly in the Midwest and the South. American accents that have not undergone the cot–caught merger (the lexical sets LOT and THOUGHT ) have instead retained a LOT – CLOTH split : a 17th-century distinction in which certain words (labeled as the CLOTH lexical set ) separated away from the LOT set. The split, which has now reversed in most British English, simultaneously shifts this relatively recent CLOTH set into
4464-637: Is also home to a creole language known commonly as Hawaiian Pidgin , and some Hawaii residents speak English with a Pidgin-influenced accent. American English also gave rise to some dialects outside the country, for example, Philippine English , beginning during the American occupation of the Philippines and subsequently the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands ; Thomasites first established
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4608-526: Is common in most American accents despite being now rare in England because, during the 17th-century British colonization, nearly all dialects of English were rhotic, and most North American English simply remained that way. The preservation of rhoticity in North America was also supported by continuing waves of rhotic-accented Scotch-Irish immigrants, most intensely during the 18th century (and moderately during
4752-499: Is even a hybrid between Petunia and Calibrachoa (which constitutes a new nothogenus called × Petchoa G. Boker & J. Shaw) that is being sold as an ornamental. Many other species, in particular those that produce alkaloids, are used in pharmacology and medicine ( Nicotiana , Hyoscyamus , and Datura ). Many of the species belonging to this family, among them tobacco and the tomato, are model organisms that are used for research into fundamental biological questions. One of
4896-523: Is explosive. In terms of fruit type, the Schizanthoidae retain the plesiomorphic fruit form of the family Solanaceae, capsules , which rely on an anemochorous , abiotic form of dispersal. This is present in Schizanthoidae due both to the genetic constraints of early divergence (see below) as well as Schizanthus evolution and presence in open habitats. The embryo is curved. The basic chromosome number
5040-528: Is found in South America and Central America . In 2017, scientists reported on their discovery and analysis of a fossil species belonging to the living genus Physalis , Physalis infinemundi , found in the Patagonian region of Argentina, dated to 52 million years ago. The finding has pushed back the earliest appearance of the plant family Solanaceae. Most of the economically important genera are contained in
5184-484: Is increasing, providing fruit during those times of the year when field-grown fruit is not readily available. Smaller fruit (cherry and grape), or cluster tomatoes (fruit-on-the-vine) are the fruit of choice for the large commercial greenhouse operators while the beefsteak varieties are the choice of owner-operator growers. Tomatoes are also grown using hydroponics . To facilitate transportation and storage, tomatoes are often picked unripe (green) and ripened in storage with
5328-470: Is located in an oblique position relative to the flower's median plane. They have one style and one stigma ; the latter is simple or bilobate. Each locule has one to 50 ovules that are anatropous or hemianatropous with axillar placentation. The development of the embryo sack can be the same as for Polygonum or Allium species. The embryo sack's nuclear poles become fused before fertilization . The three antipodes are usually ephemeral or persistent as in
5472-400: Is not the same as self-pollination , despite the common claim that tomatoes do so. That tomatoes pollinate themselves poorly without outside aid is clearly shown in greenhouse situations, where pollination must be aided by artificial wind, vibration of the plants, or by cultured bumblebees . The flowers develop on the apical meristem . They have the anthers fused along the edges, forming
5616-485: Is not used because it violates the International Code of Nomenclature barring the use of tautonyms in botanical nomenclature. The corrected name Lycopersicon lycopersicum (Nicolson 1974) was technically valid, because Miller's genus name and Linnaeus's species name differ in exact spelling. As Lycopersicon esculentum has become so well known, it was officially listed as a nomen conservandum in 1983, and would be
5760-420: Is often identified by Americans as a "country" accent, and is defined by the /aɪ/ vowel losing its gliding quality : [aː] , the initiation event for a complicated Southern vowel shift, including a " Southern drawl " that makes short front vowels into distinct-sounding gliding vowels . The fronting of the vowels of GOOSE , GOAT , MOUTH , and STRUT tends to also define Southern accents as well as
5904-445: Is the common language at home, in public, and in government. Nightshade The Solanaceae ( / ˌ s ɒ l ə ˈ n eɪ s i . iː , - ˌ aɪ / ), or the nightshades , is a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines , lianas , epiphytes , shrubs , and trees , and includes a number of agricultural crops, medicinal plants , spices , weeds , and ornamentals . Many members of
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6048-635: Is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United States. English is the most widely spoken language in the United States ; the de facto common language used in government, education, and commerce; and an official language in 32 of the 50 U.S. states . Since the late 20th century, American English has become the most influential form of English worldwide. Varieties of American English include many patterns of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and particularly spelling that are unified nationwide but distinct from other English dialects around
6192-463: Is the variable fronting of /ɑ/ before /r/ , for example, appearing four times in the stereotypical Boston shibboleth Park the car in Harvard Yard . Several other phenomena serve to distinguish regional U.S. accents. Boston , Pittsburgh , Upper Midwestern , and Western U.S. accents have fully completed a merger of the LOT vowel with the THOUGHT vowel ( /ɑ/ and /ɔ/ , respectively):
6336-424: Is x=10. Schizanthus is a somewhat atypical genus among the Solanaceae due to its strongly zygomorphic flowers and basic chromosome number. Morphological and molecular data suggest Schizanthus is a sister genus to the other Solanaceae and diverged early from the rest, probably in the late Cretaceous or in the early Cenozoic , 50 million years ago. The great diversity of flower types within Schizanthus has been
6480-433: Is x=12. It includes four genera and some 30 species distributed throughout South America. The following genera have not yet been placed in any of the recognized subfamilies within the solanaceas ( incertae sedis ) The Solanaceae contain 98 genera and some 2,700 species. Despite this immense richness of species, they are not uniformly distributed between the genera. The eight most important genera contain more than 60% of
6624-579: The Classical Latin word solanum , referring to nightshades (especially Solanum nigrum ), "probably from sol , 'sun', + -anum , neuter of -anus ." Even though members of the Solanaceae are found on all continents except Antarctica, the greatest variety of species are found in Central America and South America . Centers of diversity also occur in Australia and Africa . Solanaceae occupy
6768-674: The Columbian exchange ; certainly the tomato was being grown in Europe within a few years of that event. The earliest discussion of the tomato in European literature appeared in Pietro Andrea Mattioli 's 1544 herbal . He suggested that a new type of eggplant had been brought to Italy. He stated that it was blood red or golden color when mature, and could be divided into segments and eaten like an eggplant—that is, cooked and seasoned with salt, black pepper, and oil. Ten years later Mattioli named
6912-476: The English-only movement , have adopted legislation granting official or co-official status to English. Typically only "English" is specified, not a particular variety like American English. (From 1923 to 1969, the state of Illinois recognized its official language as "American", meaning American English.) Puerto Rico is the largest example of a United States territory in which another language – Spanish –
7056-608: The Mid-Atlantic states (including a New York accent as well as a unique Philadelphia–Baltimore accent ), and the South . As of the 20th century, the middle and eastern Great Lakes area , Chicago being the largest city with these speakers, also ushered in certain unique features, including the fronting of the LOT /ɑ/ vowel in the mouth toward [a] and tensing of the TRAP /æ/ vowel wholesale to [eə] . These sound changes have triggered
7200-466: The Nahuatl word tomatl [ˈtomat͡ɬ] pronunciation . The specific name lycopersicum , meaning "wolf peach", originated with Galen , who used it to denote a plant that has never been identified. Luigi Anguillara speculated in the 16th century that Galen's lycopersicum might be the tomato, and despite the impossibility of this identification, lycopersicum entered scientific use as
7344-544: The Native American languages . Examples of such names are opossum , raccoon , squash , moose (from Algonquian ), wigwam , and moccasin . American English speakers have integrated traditionally non-English terms and expressions into the mainstream cultural lexicon; for instance, en masse , from French ; cookie , from Dutch ; kindergarten from German , and rodeo from Spanish . Landscape features are often loanwords from French or Spanish, and
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#17328582348927488-512: The androecium , to the perianth , or both at the same time. In the great majority of species, the flowers have a differentiated perianth with a calyx and corolla (with five sepals and five petals, respectively) an androecium with five stamens and two carpels forming a gynoecium with a superior ovary (they are therefore referred to as pentamers and tetracyclic). The stamens are epipetalous and are typically present in multiples of four or five, most commonly four or eight. They usually have
7632-714: The francophile tastes of the 19th century Victorian era Britain (for example they preferred programme for program , manoeuvre for maneuver , cheque for check , etc.). AmE almost always uses -ize in words like realize . BrE prefers -ise , but also uses -ize on occasion (see: Oxford spelling ). There are a few differences in punctuation rules. British English is more tolerant of run-on sentences , called " comma splices " in American English, and American English prefers that periods and commas be placed inside closing quotation marks even in cases in which British rules would place them outside. American English also favors
7776-647: The potato , tomatoes belong to the genus Solanum , which is a member of the nightshade family, the Solanaceae . That is a diverse family of flowering plants, often poisonous, that includes the mandrake ( Mandragora ), deadly nightshade ( Atropa ), and tobacco ( Nicotiana ), as shown in the outline phylogenetic tree (many branches omitted). many garden flowers and other species Nicotiana (tobacco) Atropa (nightshades) Mandragora (mandrake) (sweet and bell peppers) S. lycopersicum (tomato) S. tuberosum (potato) In 1753, Linnaeus placed
7920-515: The psychoactive species of the family. The Solanaceae family includes a number of commonly collected or cultivated species. The most economically important genus of the family is Solanum , which contains the potato ( S. tuberosum , in fact, another common name of the family is the "potato family"), the tomato ( S. lycopersicum ), and the eggplant or aubergine ( S. melongena ). Another important genus, Capsicum , produces both chili peppers and bell peppers . The genus Physalis produces
8064-411: The tomato bug , stink bugs , cutworms , tomato hornworms and tobacco hornworms , aphids , cabbage loopers , whiteflies , tomato fruitworms , flea beetles , red spider mite , slugs , and Colorado potato beetles . The tomato russet mite , Aculops lycopersici , feeds on foliage and young fruit of tomato plants, causing shrivelling and necrosis of leaves, flowers, and fruit, possibly killing
8208-694: The "U" phenotype are beneficial here, but have the disadvantage of leaving green shoulders near the stems of the ripe fruit, and even cracked yellow shoulders. This is apparently because of oxidative stress due to overload of the photosynthetic chain in direct sunlight at high temperatures. Hence, genetic design of a commercial variety that combines the advantages of types "u" and "U" requires fine tuning, but may be feasible. Breeders strive to produce tomato plants with improved yield, shelf life, size, and resistance to environmental pressures, including disease. These efforts have yielded unintended negative consequences on various fruit attributes. For instance, linkage drag ,
8352-458: The 1540s. It was probably eaten shortly after it was introduced, and was certainly being used as food by the early 17th century in Spain, as documented in the 1618 play La octava maravilla by Lope de Vega with "lovelier than ... a tomato in season". The tomato was introduced to China, likely via the Philippines or Macau, in the 16th century. It was given the name 番茄 fānqié (foreign eggplant), as
8496-759: The 18th century; apartment , shanty in the 19th century; project, condominium , townhouse , mobile home in the 20th century; and parts thereof ( driveway , breezeway, backyard ) . Industry and material innovations from the 19th century onwards provide distinctive new words, phrases, and idioms through railroading (see further at rail terminology ) and transportation terminology, ranging from types of roads ( dirt roads , freeways ) to infrastructure ( parking lot , overpass , rest area ), to automotive terminology often now standard in English internationally. Already existing English words—such as store , shop , lumber —underwent shifts in meaning; others remained in
8640-534: The 20th century. The use of English in the United States is a result of British colonization of the Americas . The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America during the early 17th century, followed by further migrations in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, dialects from many different regions of England and the British Isles existed in every American colony, allowing
8784-459: The Americas. The genus Cestrum is the most important, as it contains 175 of the 195 species in the subfamily. The Cestreae tribe is unusual because it includes taxa with long chromosomes (from 7.21 to 11.511 μm in length), when the rest of the family generally possesses short chromosomes (for example between 1.5 and 3.52 μm in the Nicotianoideae). This subfamily is characterized by
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#17328582348928928-622: The British form is a back-formation , such as AmE burglarize and BrE burgle (from burglar ). However, while individuals usually use one or the other, both forms will be widely understood and mostly used alongside each other within the two systems. While written American English is largely standardized across the country and spoken American English dialects are highly mutually intelligible, there are still several recognizable regional and ethnic accents and lexical distinctions. The regional sounds of present-day American English are reportedly engaged in
9072-604: The Chinese named many foodstuffs introduced from abroad, but referring specifically to early introductions. In 1548, when the house steward of Cosimo de' Medici , the grand duke of Tuscany , wrote to the Medici private secretary informing him that the basket of tomatoes sent from the grand duke's Florentine estate at Torre del Gallo "had arrived safely". Tomatoes were grown mainly as ornamentals early on after their arrival in Italy. For example,
9216-413: The East Coast (perhaps in imitation of 19th-century London speech), even the East Coast has gradually begun to restore rhoticity, due to it becoming nationally prestigious in the 20th century. The pronunciation of ⟨r⟩ is a postalveolar approximant [ ɹ̠ ] or retroflex approximant [ ɻ ] , but a unique "bunched tongue" variant of the approximant r sound
9360-493: The Florentine aristocrat Giovanvettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty", and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. The tomato's ability to mutate and create new and different varieties helped contribute to its success and spread throughout Italy. However, in areas where the climate supported growing tomatoes, their habit of growing close to the ground suggested low status. They were not adopted as
9504-565: The Inland North. Rather than one particular accent, General American is best defined as an umbrella covering an American accent that does not incorporate features associated with some particular region, ethnicity, or socioeconomic group. Typical General American features include rhoticity , the father–bother merger , Mary–marry–merry merger , pre-nasal "short a " tensing , and other particular vowel sounds . General American features are embraced most by Americans who are highly educated or in
9648-555: The Solanaceae have 2n=24 chromosomes , but the number may be a higher multiple of 12 due to polyploidy . Wild potatoes , of which there are about 200, are predominantly diploid (2 × 12 = 24 chromosomes), but triploid (3 × 12 = 36 chromosomes), tetraploid (4 × 12 = 48 chromosomes), pentaploid (5 × 12 = 60) and even hexaploid (6 × 12 = 72 chromosome) species or populations exist. The cultivated species Solanum tuberosum has 4 × 12 = 48 chromosomes. Some Capsicum species have 2 × 12 = 24 chromosomes, while others have 26 chromosomes. Despite
9792-454: The Solanaceae, including subfamilies, tribes and genera, is based on the most recent molecular phylogenetics studies of the family: This subfamily is characterised by the presence of pericyclic fibres, an androecium with four or five stamens, frequently didynamous. The basic chromosome numbers are highly variable, from x=7 to x=13. The subfamily consists of eight genera (divided into three tribes) and about 195 species distributed throughout
9936-560: The South), sneakers for athletic shoes (but often tennis shoes outside the Northeast), and shopping cart for a cart used for carrying supermarket goods. American English and British English (BrE) often differ at the levels of phonology, phonetics, vocabulary, and, to a much lesser extent, grammar and orthography. The first large American dictionary, An American Dictionary of the English Language , known as Webster's Dictionary ,
10080-572: The Spanish in the Columbian exchange in the 16th century. Tomato plants are vines, largely annual and vulnerable to frost, though sometimes living longer in greenhouses. The flowers are able to self-fertilise. Modern varieties have been bred to ripen uniformly red, in a process that has impaired the fruit's sweetness and flavor. There are thousands of cultivars, varying in size, color, shape, and flavor. Tomatoes are attacked by many insect pests and nematodes, and are subject to diseases caused by viruses and by mildew and blight fungi. The tomato has
10224-528: The U.S. Several verbs ending in -ize are of U.S. origin; for example, fetishize, prioritize, burglarize, accessorize, weatherize , etc.; and so are some back-formations (locate, fine-tune, curate, donate, emote, upholster and enthuse). Among syntactic constructions that arose are outside of, headed for, meet up with, back of, etc. Americanisms formed by alteration of some existing words include notably pesky, phony, rambunctious, buddy, sundae , skeeter, sashay and kitty-corner. Adjectives that arose in
10368-563: The U.S. are for instance foothill , landslide (in all senses), backdrop , teenager , brainstorm , bandwagon , hitchhike , smalltime, and a huge number of others. Other compound words have been founded based on industrialization and the wave of the automobile: five-passenger car, four-door sedan, two-door sedan, and station-wagon (called an estate car in British English). Some are euphemistic ( human resources , affirmative action , correctional facility ). Many compound nouns have
10512-662: The U.S. are, for example, lengthy, bossy, cute and cutesy, punk (in all senses), sticky (of the weather), through (as in "finished"), and many colloquial forms such as peppy or wacky . A number of words and meanings that originated in Middle English or Early Modern English and that have been in everyday use in the United States have since disappeared in most varieties of British English; some of these have cognates in Lowland Scots . Terms such as fall ("autumn"), faucet ("tap"), diaper ("nappy"; itself unused in
10656-530: The U.S. while changing in Britain. Science, urbanization, and democracy have been important factors in bringing about changes in the written and spoken language of the United States. From the world of business and finance came new terms ( merger , downsize , bottom line ), from sports and gambling terminology came, specific jargon aside, common everyday American idioms, including many idioms related to baseball . The names of some American inventions remained largely confined to North America ( elevator [except in
10800-427: The U.S.), candy ("sweets"), skillet , eyeglasses , and obligate are often regarded as Americanisms. Fall for example came to denote the season in 16th century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year." Gotten ( past participle of get ) is often considered to be largely an Americanism. Other words and meanings were brought back to Britain from
10944-541: The U.S., especially in the second half of the 20th century; these include hire ("to employ"), I guess (famously criticized by H. W. Fowler ), baggage , hit (a place), and the adverbs overly and presently ("currently"). Some of these, for example, monkey wrench and wastebasket , originated in 19th century Britain. The adjectives mad meaning "angry", smart meaning "intelligent", and sick meaning "ill" are also more frequent in American (and Irish) English than British English. Linguist Bert Vaux created
11088-531: The United States and the United Kingdom suggest that, while spoken American English deviated away from period British English in many ways, it is conservative in a few other ways, preserving certain features 21st-century British English has since lost. Full rhoticity (or "R-fulness") is typical of American accents, pronouncing the phoneme /r/ (corresponding to the letter ⟨r⟩ ) in all environments, including in syllable-final position or before
11232-596: The West and Midwest, and New York Latino English , spoken in the New York metropolitan area . Additionally, ethnic varieties such as Yeshiva English and " Yinglish " are spoken by some American Orthodox Jews , Cajun Vernacular English by some Cajuns in southern Louisiana , and Pennsylvania Dutch English by some Pennsylvania Dutch people. American Indian Englishes have been documented among diverse Indian tribes. The island state of Hawaii , though primarily English-speaking,
11376-547: The accents spoken in the " Midland ": a vast band of the country that constitutes an intermediate dialect region between the traditional North and South. Western U.S. accents mostly fall under the General American spectrum. Below, ten major American English accents are defined by their particular combinations of certain vowel sounds: In 2010, William Labov noted that Great Lakes, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and West Coast accents have undergone "vigorous new sound changes" since
11520-505: The aeronautical sense ], gasoline ) as did certain automotive terms ( truck , trunk ). New foreign loanwords came with 19th and early 20th century European immigration to the U.S.; notably, from Yiddish ( chutzpah , schmooze, bupkis, glitch ) and German ( hamburger , wiener ). A large number of English colloquialisms from various periods are American in origin; some have lost their American flavor (from OK and cool to nerd and 24/7 ), while others have not ( have
11664-403: The aspects of the solanaceas' genomics is an international project that is trying to understand how the same collection of genes and proteins can give rise to a group of organisms that are so morphologically and ecologically different. The first objective of this project was to sequence the genome of the tomato. In order to achieve this each of the 12 chromosomes of the tomato's haploid genome
11808-449: The biochemistry (many of the alkaloids common to other Solanum species are conspicuously absent from the tomato). On the other hand, hybrids of tomato and diploid potato can be created in the lab by somatic fusion , and are partially fertile, providing evidence of the close relationship between these species. An international consortium of researchers from 10 countries began sequencing the tomato genome in 2004. A prerelease version of
11952-413: The brightest red to the deepest yellow. Sahagún mentioned Aztecs cooking various sauces, some with tomatoes of different sizes, serving them in city markets: "foods sauces, hot sauces; ... with tomatoes, ... sauce of large tomatoes, sauce of ordinary tomatoes, ..." The Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés 's capture of Tenochtitlan in 1521 initiated the widespread cultural and biological interchange called
12096-573: The case of Atropa . The fruit can be a berry as in the case of the tomato or wolfberry, or a dehiscent capsule as in Datura , or a drupe . The fruit has axial placentation . The capsules are normally septicidal or rarely loculicidal or valvate. The seeds are usually endospermic, oily (rarely starchy), and without obvious hairs. The seeds of most Solanaceae are round and flat, about 2–4 mm (0.079–0.157 in) in diameter. The embryo can be straight or curved, and has two cotyledons. Most species in
12240-449: The coralline tube or exserted. The plants demonstrate simultaneous microsporogenesis, the microspores are tetrad, tetrahedral, or isobilateral. The pollen grains are bicellular at the moment of dehiscence, usually open and angular. The gynoecium is bicarpelar (rarely three- or five-locular) with a superior ovary and two locules , which may be secondarily divided by false septa , as is the case for Nicandreae and Datureae. The gynoecium
12384-472: The correct name for the tomato in classifications which do not place the tomato in the genus Solanum . Genetic evidence shows that Linnaeus was correct to put the tomato in the genus Solanum , making S. lycopersicum the correct name. Both names, however, will probably be found in the literature for some time. Two of the major reasons for considering the genera separate are the leaf structure (tomato leaves are markedly different from any other Solanum ), and
12528-406: The country), though the vowel-consonant cluster found in "bird", "work", "hurt", "learn", etc. usually retains its r pronunciation, even in these non-rhotic American accents. Non-rhoticity among such speakers is presumed to have arisen from their upper classes' close historical contact with England, imitating London's r -dropping, a feature that has continued to gain prestige throughout England from
12672-439: The culinary use of the tomato included Michele Felice Cornè and Robert Gibbon Johnson . Many Americans considered tomatoes to be poisonous at this time and, in general, they were grown more as ornamental plants than as food. In 1897, W. H. Garrison stated, "The belief was once transmitted that the tomato was sinisterly dangerous." He recalled in his youth tomatoes were dubbed "love-apples or wolf-apples" and shunned as "globes of
12816-493: The devil". When Alexander W. Livingston (1821–1898) began developing the tomato as a commercial crop, his aim had been to grow tomatoes smooth in contour, uniform in size, and sweet in flavor. He eventually developed over seventeen varieties. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's 1937 yearbook declared that "half of the major varieties were a result of the abilities of the Livingstons to evaluate and perpetuate superior material in
12960-519: The direct ancestor of some modern cultivated tomatoes. The Aztecs raised several varieties of tomato, with red tomatoes called xitomatl and green tomatoes (physalis) called tomatl ( tomatillo ). Bernardino de Sahagún reported seeing a great variety of tomatoes in the Aztec market at Tenochtitlán (Mexico City): "large tomatoes, small tomatoes, leaf tomatoes, sweet tomatoes, large serpent tomatoes, nipple-shaped tomatoes", and tomatoes of all colors from
13104-614: The diverse regional dialects of British English) became common after the mid-18th century, while at the same time speakers' identification with this new variety increased. Since the 18th century, American English has developed into some new varieties, including regional dialects that retain minor influences from waves of immigrant speakers of diverse languages, primarily European languages. Some racial and regional variation in American English reflects these groups' geographic settlement, their de jure or de facto segregation, and patterns in their resettlement. This can be seen, for example, in
13248-742: The double quotation mark ("like this") over the single ('as here'). Vocabulary differences vary by region. For example, autumn is used more commonly in the United Kingdom, whereas fall is more common in American English. Some other differences include: aerial (United Kingdom) vs. antenna, biscuit (United Kingdom) vs. cookie/cracker, car park (United Kingdom) vs. parking lot, caravan (United Kingdom) vs. trailer, city centre (United Kingdom) vs. downtown, flat (United Kingdom) vs. apartment, fringe (United Kingdom) vs. bangs, and holiday (United Kingdom) vs. vacation. AmE sometimes favors words that are morphologically more complex, whereas BrE uses clipped forms, such as AmE transportation and BrE transport or where
13392-428: The early blight pathogen Alternaria solani . However, this tactic has limitations, since selection for traits such as pathogen resistance can negatively impact other favorable traits such as fruit production. The tomato is grown worldwide for its edible fruits , with thousands of cultivars . Greenhouse tomato production in large-acreage commercial greenhouses and owner-operator stand-alone or multiple-bay greenhouses
13536-452: The family contain potent alkaloids , and some are highly toxic , but many—including tomatoes , potatoes , eggplant , bell , and chili peppers —are used as food . The family belongs to the order Solanales , in the asterid group and class Magnoliopsida ( dicotyledons ). The Solanaceae consists of about 98 genera and some 2,700 species, with a great diversity of habitats , morphology and ecology . The name Solanaceae derives from
13680-510: The following two centuries) when this ethnic group eventually made up one-seventh of the colonial population. Scotch-Irish settlers spread from Delaware and Pennsylvania throughout the larger Mid-Atlantic region, the inland regions of both the South and North, and throughout the West: American dialect areas that were all uninfluenced by upper-class non-rhoticity and that consequently have remained consistently rhotic. While non-rhoticity spread on
13824-604: The fresh market and for canning and processing. The University of California, Davis 's C.M. Rick Tomato Genetics Resource Center maintains a gene bank of wild relatives, monogenic mutants and genetic stocks. Research on processing tomatoes is also conducted by the California Tomato Research Institute in Escalon, California . In California, growers have used a method of cultivation called dry-farming , especially with Early Girl tomatoes. This technique encourages
13968-621: The fruits in print as pomi d'oro , or "golden apples". After the Spanish colonization of the Americas , the Spanish distributed the tomato throughout their colonies in the Caribbean . They brought it to the Philippines , from where it spread to southeast Asia and then the whole of Asia. The Spanish brought the tomato to Europe, where it grew easily in Mediterranean climates ; cultivation began in
14112-498: The genera originated in Patagonia. Benthamiella , Combera , and Pantacantha form a clade that can be categorized as a tribe (Benthamielleae) that should be in the subfamily Goetzeoideae. The Schizanthoideae include annual and biennial plants with tropane alkaloids, without pericyclic fibres, with characteristic hair and pollen grains. The flowers are zygomorphic. The androecium has two stamens and three staminodes, anther dehiscence
14256-581: The genome was made available in December 2009. The complete genome for the cultivar Heinz 1706 was published on 31 May 2012 in Nature . The latest reference genome published in 2021 had 799 MB and encodes 34,384 (predicted) proteins, spread over 12 chromosomes. The first commercially available genetically modified food was a tomato called Flavr Savr , which was engineered to have a longer shelf life. It could be vine ripened without compromising shelf life . However,
14400-496: The genus Solanum . The etymology of the Latin word is unclear. The name may come from a perceived resemblance of certain solanaceous flowers to the sun and its rays. At least one species of Solanum is known as the "sunberry". Alternatively, the name could originate from the Latin verb solare , meaning "to soothe", presumably referring to the soothing pharmacological properties of some of
14544-939: The hospital , BrE to hospital ; contrast, however, AmE actress Elizabeth Taylor , BrE the actress Elizabeth Taylor ). Often, these differences are a matter of relative preferences rather than absolute rules; and most are not stable since the two varieties are constantly influencing each other, and American English is not a standardized set of dialects. Differences in orthography are also minor. The main differences are that American English usually uses spellings such as flavor for British flavour , fiber for fibre , defense for defence , analyze for analyse , license for licence , catalog for catalogue and traveling for travelling . Noah Webster popularized such spellings in America, but he did not invent most of them. Rather, "he chose already existing options on such grounds as simplicity, analogy or etymology." Other differences are due to
14688-716: The impact of bacterial wilt, sometimes by reducing bacterial abundance and sometimes by selecting for resistant but slow growing genetics. Tomatoes, with their umami flavor, are extensively used in Mediterranean cuisine as a key ingredient in pizza and many pasta sauces. Tomatoes are used in Spanish gazpacho and Catalan pa amb tomàquet . The tomato is a crucial and ubiquitous part of Middle Eastern cuisine , served fresh in salads (e.g., Arab salad , Israeli salad , Shirazi salad and Turkish salad ), grilled with kebabs and other dishes, made into sauces, and so on. American English American English , sometimes called United States English or U.S. English ,
14832-656: The influence of 18th-century Protestant Ulster Scots immigrants (known in the U.S. as the Scotch-Irish ) in Appalachia developing Appalachian English and the 20th-century Great Migration bringing African-American Vernacular English to the Great Lakes urban centers. Any phonologically unmarked North American accent falls under an umbrella known as General American. This section mostly refers to such General American features. Studies on historical usage of English in both
14976-550: The introduction of an undesired trait during backcrossing , has altered the metabolism of the fruit. This trait is physically close to the desired allele along the chromosome. Breeding for traits like larger fruit has thus unintentionally altered nutritional value and flavor. Breeders have turned to wild tomato species as a source of alleles to introduce beneficial traits into modern varieties. For example, wild relatives may possess higher amounts of fruit solids (associated with greater sugar content), or resistance to diseases such as to
15120-677: The last forty years". The earliest reference to tomatoes being grown in British North America is from 1710, when herbalist William Salmon saw them in what is today South Carolina , perhaps introduced from the Caribbean. By the mid-18th century, they were cultivated on some Carolina plantations, and probably in other parts of the Southeast. Thomas Jefferson , who ate tomatoes in Paris, sent some seeds back to America. Some early American advocates of
15264-438: The late 18th century onwards, but which has conversely lost prestige in the U.S. since at least the early 20th century. Non-rhoticity makes a word like car sound like cah or source like sauce . New York City and Southern accents are the most prominent regional accents of the country, as well as the most stigmatized and socially disfavored. Southern speech, strongest in southern Appalachia and certain areas of Texas,
15408-464: The latter can be either pinnatifid or ternate. The leaves have reticulated venation and lack a basal meristem . The laminae are generally dorsiventral and lack secretory cavities. The stomata are generally confined to one of a leaf's two sides; they are rarely found on both sides. The flowers are generally hermaphrodites , although some are monoecious , andromonoecious , or dioecious species (such as some Solanum or Symonanthus ). Pollination
15552-412: The leaves to lay their eggs and the hatched larvae will eat away at the mesophyll of the leaf. After feeding on the foliage, the larvae will then delve down and feed on the tubers and roots of the plant. Alkaloids are nitrogenous organic substances produced by plants as a secondary metabolite and which have an intense physiological action on animals even at low doses. Solanaceae are known for having
15696-428: The main types of alkaloids are: The family Solanaceae contains such important food species as the potato ( Solanum tuberosum ), the tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum ), the pepper ( Capsicum annuum ) and the aubergine or eggplant ( Solanum melongena ). Nicotiana tabacum , originally from South America, is now cultivated throughout the world to produce tobacco. Many solanaceas are important weeds in various parts of
15840-427: The mid-nineteenth century onwards, so they "are now more different from each other than they were 50 or 100 years ago", while other accents, like of New York City and Boston, have remained stable in that same time-frame. However, a General American sound system also has some debated degree of influence nationwide, for example, gradually beginning to oust the regional accent in urban areas of the South and at least some in
15984-617: The most formal contexts, and regional accents with the most General American native features include North Midland, Western New England, and Western accents. Although no longer region-specific, African-American Vernacular English , which remains the native variety of most working- and middle-class African Americans , has a close relationship to Southern dialects and has greatly influenced everyday speech of many Americans, including hip hop culture . Hispanic and Latino Americans have also developed native-speaker varieties of English. The best-studied Latino Englishes are Chicano English , spoken in
16128-454: The objective of developing a biological control through the use of insects. A wide variety of plant species and their cultivars belonging to the Solanaceae are grown as ornamental trees, shrubs, annuals and herbaceous perennials Examples include Brugmansia × candida ("angel's trumpet") grown for its large pendulous trumpet-shaped flowers, or Brunfelsia latifolia , whose flowers are very fragrant and change colour from violet to white over
16272-813: The ovary is usually the same as the number of carpels. However, some species occur in which the numbers are not the same due to the existence of false septa (internal walls that subdivide each locule), such as in Datura and some members of the Lycieae (the genera Grabowskia and Vassobia ). The ovules are generally inverted, folded sharply backwards (anatropous), but some genera have ovules that are rotated at right angles to their stalk (campilotropous) as in Phrodus , Grabowskia or Vassobia ), or are partially inverted (hemitropous as in Cestrum , Capsicum , Schizanthus and Lycium ). The number of ovules per locule also varies from
16416-402: The past forms of a few verbs (for example, AmE/BrE: learned / learnt , burned / burnt , snuck/sneaked , dove/dived ) although the purportedly "British" forms can occasionally be seen in American English writing as well; different prepositions and adverbs in certain contexts (for example, AmE in school, BrE at school ); and whether or not a definite article is used, in very few cases (AmE to
16560-526: The petals). They are usually fertile or, in some cases (for example in Salpiglossideae) they have staminodes . In the latter case, there is usually either one staminode ( Salpiglossis ) or three ( Schizanthus ). The anthers touch on their upper end forming a ring, or they are completely free, dorsifixed, or basifixed with poricide dehiscence or through small longitudinal cracks. The stamen's filament can be filiform or flat. The stamens can be inserted inside
16704-401: The plant hormone ethylene . At industrial scale, such as for canning, tomatoes are picked mechanically. The machine cuts the whole vine and uses sensors to separate ripe tomatoes from the rest of the plant, which is returned to the farm for use either as green manure or to be grazed by livestock . In 2022, world production of tomatoes was 186 million tonnes , with China accounting for 37% of
16848-419: The plant to send roots deep to find existing moisture. Tomato plants are vines, becoming decumbent , and can grow up to 3 m (9.8 ft); bush varieties are generally no more than 100 cm (3 ft 3 in) tall. They are tender perennials, often grown as annuals. Tomato plants are dicots . They grow as a series of branching stems, with a terminal bud at the tip that does the actual growing. When
16992-428: The plant. After an insect attack tomato plants produce systemin , a plant peptide hormone . This activates defensive mechanisms, such as the production of protease inhibitors to slow the growth of insects. The hormone was first identified in tomatoes. Tomato cultivars vary widely in their resistance to disease. Modern hybrids focus on improving disease resistance over the heirloom plants . A common tomato disease
17136-470: The presence of drupes as fruit and seeds with curved embryos and large fleshy cotyledons. The basic chromosome number is x=13. It includes four genera and five species distributed throughout the Greater Antilles . Some authors suggest their molecular data indicate the monotypic genera Tsoala Bosser & D'Arcy should be included in this subfamily, endemic to Madagascar , and Metternichia to
17280-664: The previous description, the Solanaceae exhibit a large morphological variability, even in their reproductive characteristics. Examples of this diversity include: In general, the Solanaceae have a gynoecium (the female part of the flower) formed of two carpels. However, Melananthus has a monocarpelar gynoecium, there are three or four carpels in Capsicum , three to five in Nicandra , some species of Jaborosa and Trianaea and four carpels in Iochroma umbellatum . The number of locules in
17424-503: The product of the species' adaptation to the different types of pollinators that existed in the Mediterranean, high alpine, and desert ecosystems then present in Chile and adjacent areas of Argentina. Annual plants with pericyclic fibres, their flowers are zygomorphic, the androecium has four didynamous stamens or three staminodes; the embryo is straight and short. The basic chromosome number
17568-407: The product was not commercially successful, and was sold only until 1997. The poor taste and lack of sugar in modern garden and commercial tomato varieties resulted from breeding tomatoes to ripen uniformly red. This change occurred after discovery of a mutant "u" phenotype in the mid-20th century, so named because the fruits ripened uniformly. This was widely cross-bred to produce red fruit without
17712-524: The singularity of their appearance", while their use in cooking was associated with exotic Italian or Jewish cuisine. For example, in Elizabeth Blackwell 's A Curious Herbal , it is described under the name "Love Apple ( Amoris Pomum )" as being consumed with oil and vinegar in Italy, similar to consumption of cucumbers in the UK. In 1963, The New York Times gave an explanation of the name 'Love Apple' as
17856-526: The so-called groundcherries, as well as the tomatillo ( Physalis philadelphica ) and Physalis peruviana (Cape gooseberry). Alkekengi officinarum (Chinese Lantern) was previously included in the genus Physalis (as Physalis alkekengi ), until molecular and genetic evidence placed it as the type species of a new genus. The genus Lycium contains the boxthorns and the goji berry, Lycium barbarum . Nicotiana contains, among other species, tobacco . Some other important members of Solanaceae include
18000-606: The southeast of Brazil . Goetzeaceae Airy Shaw is considered as a synonym of this subfamily. Molecular phylogenetics indicates that Petunioideae is the sister clade of the subfamilies with chromosome number x=12 ( Solanoideae and Nicotianoideae ). They contain calistegins, alkaloids similar to the tropanes. The androecium is formed of four stamens (rarely five), usually with two different lengths. The basic chromosome number of this subfamily can be x=7, 8, 9 or 11. It consists of 13 genera and some 160 species distributed throughout Central and South America. Molecular data suggest
18144-536: The species, as shown in the table below. Solanum – the genus that typifies the family – includes nearly 50% of the total species of the Solanacea. The name "Solanaceae" ( US : / ˌ s oʊ l ə ˈ n eɪ s i , - s i ˌ aɪ , - s i ˌ eɪ , - s i ˌ iː / ) comes to international scientific vocabulary from Neo-Latin , from Solanum , the type genus , + -aceae , a standardized suffix for plant family names in modern taxonomy. The genus name comes from
18288-657: The subfamily Solanoideae , with the exceptions of tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum , Nicotianoideae) and petunia ( Petunia × hybrida , Petunioideae). Many of the Solanaceae, such as tobacco and petunia, are used as model organisms in the investigation of fundamental biological questions at the cellular , molecular , and genetic levels. Plants in the Solanaceae can take the form of herbs, shrubs , trees , vines and lianas, and sometimes epiphytes . They can be annuals , biennials , or perennials , upright or decumbent. Some have subterranean tubers . They do not have laticifers , nor latex , nor coloured saps . They can have
18432-588: The tip eventually stops growing, whether because of pruning or flowering, lateral buds take over and grow into new, fully functional, vines. Tomato vines are typically pubescent, meaning covered with fine short hairs. The hairs facilitate the vining process, turning into roots wherever the plant is in contact with the ground and moisture, especially if the vine's connection to its original root has been damaged or severed. The leaves are 10–25 cm (4–10 in) long, odd pinnate , with five to nine leaflets on petioles , each leaflet up to 8 cm (3 in) long, with
18576-410: The tomato in the genus Solanum (alongside the potato) as Solanum lycopersicum . In 1768, Philip Miller moved it to its own genus, naming it Lycopersicon esculentum . The name came into wide use, but was technically in breach of the plant naming rules because Linnaeus's species name lycopersicum still had priority. Although the name Lycopersicum lycopersicum was suggested by Karsten (1888), it
18720-474: The tomato was eaten in Spain and Italy. Nonetheless, he believed it was poisonous. Gerard's views were influential, and the tomato was considered unfit for eating for many years in Britain and its North American colonies . By 1820, tomatoes were described as "to be seen in great abundance in all our vegetable markets" and to be "used by all our best cooks", reference was made to their cultivation in gardens still "for
18864-586: The tomato, the red-fruited Solanum pimpinellifolium , is native to western South America, where it was probably first domesticated. The resulting domesticated plant, ancestral to the modern large-fruited tomato varieties, was probably the cherry tomato, S. lycopersicum var. cerasiforme . However, genomic analysis suggests that the domestication process may have been more complex than this. S. lycopersicon var. cerasiforme may have existed before domestication, while traits supposedly typical of domestication may have been reduced in that variety and then reselected (in
19008-749: The tomato." Livingston's first breed of tomato, the Paragon, was introduced in 1870. In 1875, he introduced the Acme, said to be in the parentage of most cultivars for the next twenty-five years. Other early breeders included Henry Tilden in Iowa and a Dr. Hand in Baltimore. Because of the tomato's need for heat and a long growing season, several states in the Sun Belt became major producers, particularly Florida and California . In California, tomatoes are grown under irrigation for both
19152-649: The total, followed by India , Turkey , and the United States as major producers (table). The world dedicated 4.8 million hectares in 2012 for tomato cultivation and the total production was about 161.8 million tonnes . The average world farm yield for tomato was 33.6 tonnes per hectare in 2012. Tomato farms in the Netherlands were the most productive in 2012, with a nationwide average of 476 tonnes per hectare, followed by Belgium (463 tonnes per hectare) and Iceland (429 tonnes per hectare). Common tomato pests include
19296-570: The traditional standard accent of (southern) England, Received Pronunciation (RP), has evolved a trap–bath split . Moreover, American accents preserve /h/ at the start of syllables, while perhaps a majority of the regional dialects of England participate in /h/ dropping , particularly in informal contexts. However, General American is also innovative in a number of its own ways: The process of coining new lexical items started as soon as English-speaking British-American colonists began borrowing names for unfamiliar flora, fauna, and topography from
19440-465: The tribe Hyoscyameae) and the tribe Juanulloideae (with the exception of Markea ). Capsules are characteristic of the subfamilies Cestroideae (with the exception of Cestrum ) and Schizanthoideae, the tribes Salpiglossoideae and Anthocercidoideae, and the genus Datura . The tribe Hyoscyameae has pyxidia. Drupes are typical of the Lycieae tribe and in Iochrominae. The following taxonomic synopsis of
19584-422: The typical green ring around the stem on un-crossbred varieties. Before this, most tomatoes produced more sugar during ripening, and were sweeter and more flavorful. 10–20% of the total carbon fixed in the fruit can be produced by photosynthesis in the developing fruit of the normal U phenotype. The u mutation encodes a factor that produces defective chloroplasts with lower density in developing fruit, making them
19728-417: The verb-and-preposition combination: stopover, lineup, tryout, spin-off, shootout , holdup, hideout, comeback, makeover , and many more. Some prepositional and phrasal verbs are in fact of American origin ( win out, hold up, back up/off/down/out, face up to and many others). Noun endings such as -ee (retiree), -ery (bakery), -ster (gangster) and -cian (beautician) are also particularly productive in
19872-433: The well known and highly prized San Marzano tomato grown in that region, with a European protected designation of origin certification. Tomatoes were not grown in England until the 1590s. One of the earliest cultivators was John Gerard , a barber-surgeon . Gerard's Herbal , published in 1597, and largely plagiarized from continental sources, is also one of the earliest discussions of the tomato in England. Gerard knew
20016-772: The word corn , used in England to refer to wheat (or any cereal), came to denote the maize plant, the most important crop in the U.S. Most Mexican Spanish contributions came after the War of 1812 , with the opening of the West, like ranch (now a common house style ). Due to Mexican culinary influence, many Spanish words are incorporated in general use when talking about certain popular dishes: cilantro (instead of coriander), queso, tacos, quesadillas, enchiladas, tostadas, fajitas, burritos, and guacamole. These words usually lack an English equivalent and are found in popular restaurants. New forms of dwelling created new terms ( lot , waterfront) and types of homes like log cabin , adobe in
20160-609: The world. Any American or Canadian accent perceived as lacking noticeably local, ethnic, or cultural markers is known in linguistics as General American ; it covers a fairly uniform accent continuum native to certain regions of the U.S. but especially associated with broadcast mass media and highly educated speech. However, historical and present linguistic evidence does not support the notion of there being one single mainstream American accent . The sound of American English continues to evolve, with some local accents disappearing, but several larger regional accents having emerged in
20304-711: The world. Their importance lies in the fact that they can host pathogens or diseases of the cultivated plants, therefore their presence increases the loss of yield or the quality of the harvested product. An example of this can be seen with Acnistus arborescens and Browalia americana that host thrips , which cause damage to associated cultivated plants, and certain species of Datura that play host to various types of virus that are later transmitted to cultivated solanaceas. Some species of weeds such as, Solanum mauritianum in South Africa represent such serious ecological and economic problems that studies are being carried out with
20448-506: Was ornamental, not least because it was understood to be related to the nightshades and assumed to be poisonous. The exact date of domestication is unknown; by 500 BC, it was already being cultivated in southern Mexico and probably other areas. The Pueblo people believed that tomato seeds could confer powers of divination . The large, lumpy variety of tomato, a mutation from a smoother, smaller fruit, originated in Mesoamerica, and may be
20592-525: Was published in Naples in 1692, though the author had apparently obtained these recipes from Spanish sources. Varieties were developed over the following centuries for drying, for sauce, for pizzas, and for long-term storage. These varieties are usually known for their place of origin as much as by a variety name. For example, there is the Pomodorino del Piennolo del Vesuvio , the "hanging tomato of Vesuvius", and
20736-469: Was written by Noah Webster in 1828, codifying several of these spellings. Differences in grammar are relatively minor, and do not normally affect mutual intelligibility; these include: typically a lack of differentiation between adjectives and adverbs, employing the equivalent adjectives as adverbs he ran quick / he ran quickly ; different use of some auxiliary verbs ; formal (rather than notional) agreement with collective nouns ; different preferences for
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