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157-624: Tirpitz developed a "Risk Theory" whereby, if the German Imperial Navy reached a certain level of strength relative to the British Royal Navy , the British would try to avoid confrontation with Germany (that is, maintain a fleet in being ). If the two navies fought, the German Navy would inflict enough damage on the British that the latter ran a risk of losing their naval dominance. Because

314-582: A coup d'etat against the German government, to be led by Hindenburg and Ludendorff, even against the Kaiser if necessary. Tirpitz's experience with the Navy League and with mass political agitation convinced him that the means for a coup was at hand. Tirpitz considered that one of the main aims of the war must be annexation of new territory in the west, to allow Germany to develop into a world power. This meant holding

471-497: A 'Medical Corps'. In July 1879 a separate 'Torpedo Engineer Corps' was created dealing with torpedoes and mines. In May 1872 a ten-year building programme was instituted to modernise the fleet. This called for eight armoured frigates , six armoured corvettes , twenty light corvettes, seven monitors , two floating batteries , six avisos , eighteen gunboats and twenty-eight torpedo boats , at an estimated cost of 220 million gold marks . The building plan had to be approved by

628-583: A building programme, but failed to gain funding for enough ships to satisfy anyone. Imperial Chancellor Hohenlohe saw no sense in naval enlargement and reported back that the Reichstag opposed it. Admiral Gustav von Senden-Bibran , Chief of the Naval Cabinet, advised that the only possibility lay in replacing Hollmann: Wilhelm impulsively decided to appoint Tirpitz. Meanwhile, however, Hollmann had obtained funding for one battleship and three large cruisers. It

785-477: A campaign to maintain a higher construction rate. Four battleships of the Helgoland class were laid down in 1909–10, with displacements of 22,800 tons, twelve 30.5 cm (12.0 in) guns in 6 turrets, reciprocating engines generating a maximum speed of 21 knots, and a price tag of 46 million marks. Again, the turret configuration was dictated by the need to use the centre of the ship for machinery, despite

942-580: A change in attitude amongst military planners that a land war in Europe was increasingly likely, and a turning away from Tirpitz's scheme for worldwide expansion using the navy. In 1912 General von Moltke commented, "I consider war to be unavoidable, and the sooner the better." The Kaiser's younger brother, Admiral Prince Heinrich of Prussia , considered that the cost of the navy was now too great. In Britain, Churchill announced an intention to build two capital ships for every one constructed by Germany, and reorganised

1099-497: A closer relationship with France, including naval cooperation. Tirpitz saw this once again as an opportunity to press for naval expansion and the continuation of the four capital ships per year building rate into 1912. The January 1912 elections brought a Reichstag where the Social Democrats, opposed to military expansion, became the largest party. The German army, mindful of the steadily increasing proportion of spending going to

1256-525: A co-founder of the Pan-Germanic and nationalist Fatherland Party ( Deutsche Vaterlandspartei ). The party was organised jointly by Heinrich Claß , Konrad Freiherr von Wangenheim , Tirpitz as chairman and Wolfgang Kapp as his deputy. The party attracted the opponents of a negotiated peace; it organised opposition to the parliamentary majority in the Reichstag, which was seeking peace negotiations. It sought to bring together outside parliament all parties on

1413-556: A depth of 50 metres (160 ft), though could go to 80 metres (260 ft). Spending on the navy increased inexorably year by year. In 1909 Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow and Treasury Secretary Reinhold von Sydow attempted to pass a new budget boosting taxes in an attempt to reduce the deficit. The Social Democratic parties refused to accept the increased taxes on goods, while the conservatives opposed increases in inheritance taxes. Bülow and Sydow resigned in defeat and Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg became Chancellor. His attempted solution

1570-542: A fleet could take on the Royal Navy was insanity and anyone saying it belonged in the madhouse. Yet by the end of the debates the country was convinced that the bill would and should be passed. On 26 March 1898 it did so, by a majority of 212 to 139. All those around the Kaiser were ecstatic at their success. Tirpitz as navy minister was elevated to a seat on the Prussian Ministry of State. His influence and importance as

1727-539: A grand admiral's baton or the associated insignia. Despite the building programme he oversaw, he believed that the war had come too soon for a successful surface challenge to the Royal Navy, as the Fleet Act of 1900 had included a seventeen-year timetable. Unable to direct naval operations from his purely administrative position, Tirpitz became a vocal spokesman for unrestricted U-boat warfare, which he felt could strangle Britain's supply of food and force them to terms. While

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1884-526: A guaranteed proportion of expenditure for the army, but failed when army officers refused to support him publicly. Tirpitz argued for six new capital ships, and got three, together with 15,000 additional sailors in a new combined military budget passed in April 1912. The new ships, together with the existing reserve flagship and four reserve battleships were to become one new squadron for the High Seas Fleet. In all

2041-477: A joint committee with the Treasury State Secretary to discuss finance, which never discussed anything. Meanwhile, he continued his best efforts to convince the Kaiser and Chancellor, so that in due course he could announce the issues had already been decided at a higher level and thereby avoid debate. Once the bill was nearly complete Tirpitz started a round of visits to obtain support. First he visited

2198-605: A margin of superiority. More capital ships were stationed in British home waters. A treaty with Japan in 1902 meant that ships could be withdrawn from East Asia, while the Entente Cordiale with France in 1904 meant that Britain could concentrate on guarding Channel waters, including the French coast, while France would protect British interests in the Mediterranean . By 1906 it was considered that Britain's only likely naval enemy

2355-496: A mixed fleet including cruisers for long-distance operations overseas. Tirpitz believed that in a war no number of cruisers would be safe unless backed up by sufficient battleships. Kapitän zur See (captain at sea) Tirpitz became chief of the naval staff in 1892 and was made a Konteradmiral (rear admiral) in 1895. In autumn 1895, frustrated by the non-adoption of his recommendations, Tirpitz asked to be replaced. The Kaiser, not wishing to lose him, asked instead that he prepare

2512-481: A naval artillery school was established at Sonderburg (north of Kiel). This aimed to address the difficulties with the new generation of guns, which with potentially greater range required aiming devices capable of directing them at targets at those extreme ranges. By 1914, experiments were being conducted with guns in increasing sizes up to 51 cm (20 in). Capital ships were fitted with spotting tops high up on masts with range finding equipment, while ship design

2669-574: A new naval air division was created at Johannisthal , near Berlin. However, in September 1913 L 1 was destroyed in a storm , while the following month L 2 was lost in a gas explosion . Orders for the undelivered machines were cancelled, leaving the navy with one machine, the L 3 . In 1910 Prince Heinrich had learned to fly and supported the cause of naval aviation. In 1911 experiments took place with Albatros seaplanes and in 1912 Tirpitz authorized 200,000 marks for seaplane trials. The Curtiss seaplane

2826-526: A policy of appeasement of neutrals at the expense of vital German interests, and begging for peace. He called for vigorous warfare without regard for diplomatic and commercial consequences and supported the most extreme use of weapons, especially unrestricted submarine warfare. The Fatherland Party had ceased its operations by February 1919. From 1908 to 1918 Tirpitz served as a member of the Prussian House of Lords . After Germany's defeat Tirpitz supported

2983-622: A quick-loading design and more powerful secondary armaments. Costs rose to 21 million marks each, as had size to 11,500 tons. In 1892 Germany had launched the protected cruiser SMS  Kaiserin Augusta , the first navy ship to have triple propellers. She was succeeded by five Victoria Louise -class protected cruisers, the last 'protected', as distinct from 'armoured' cruiser class constructed by Germany. The ships, completed between 1898 and 1900, had deck armour but not side armour and were intended for overseas duties. Shortages of funding meant it

3140-647: A reliable supply of fuel oil. Two more ships of the class were later laid down, but never completed. Three light cruisers commenced construction in German yards in 1912–1913 ordered by the Russian Navy, costing around 9 million marks. The ships were seized at the outbreak of World War I becoming SMS  Regensburg , SMS  Pillau and SMS  Elbing . Two larger cruisers, SMS  Wiesbaden and SMS  Frankfurt were also commenced and entered service in 1915. More torpedo boats were constructed, with gradually increasing sizes having reached 800 tons for

3297-618: A result Tirpitz had set up a special commission to develop turbines. No reliable German design was available by 1903, so British Parsons turbines were purchased. In 1899, the Imperial Naval High Command was replaced by the German Imperial Admiralty Staff ( Admiralstab ) responsible for planning, the training of officers, and naval intelligence. In time of war it was to assume overall command, but in peace acted only advisory. Direct control of various elements of

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3454-421: A second risk: that Britain might see the growing German fleet and attack before it grew to a dangerous size. A similar course had been taken before when Lord Nelson sank Danish ships at Copenhagen to prevent them falling into French hands. Tirpitz calculated this danger period would end in 1904 or 1905. In the event, Britain responded to the increased German building programme by building more ships herself and

3611-570: A set of recommendations for ship construction. This was delivered on 3 January 1896, but the timing was bad as it coincided with raids into the Transvaal in Southern Africa by pro-British forces against the pro-German Boers . The Kaiser immediately set his mind to demanding cruisers which could operate at a distance and influence the war. Hollman was tasked with obtaining money from the Reichstag for

3768-501: A ship to a catastrophic magazine explosion from an above-water attack, although the elderly pre-dreadnought SMS  Pommern sank rapidly at Jutland after a magazine explosion was caused by an underwater attack. The unification of Germany under Prussian leadership was the defining point for the creation of the Imperial Navy in 1871. The newly created emperor, Wilhelm I , as King of Prussia , had previously been head of state of

3925-466: A speed around 24 knots. SMS  Dresden cost 7.5 million marks, and SMS  Emden 6 million marks. Four Kolberg -class cruiser were produced between 1907 and 1911 at 4,400 tons and around 8 million marks each. These had turbines, twelve 10.5 cm guns as main armament, but were also equipped to carry and lay 100 mines. From 1907 onward, all torpedo boats were constructed using turbine engines. Despite their ultimate importance,

4082-433: A speed of 22 knots, costing 50 million marks. Guns were arranged in the same pattern as the preceding battle-cruisers, but were now increased to 38 cm (15 in) diameter. The ships had four 8.8 cm anti-aircraft and also sixteen 15 cm lighter guns, but were coal fuelled. It was considered that coal bunkers at the sides of the ship added to protection against penetrating shells, but Germany also did not have

4239-481: A world power, rather than lose the empire at the cost of keeping Germany less powerful. This theory sparked a naval arms race between the German and British Empires in the first decade of the 20th century. This theory was based on the assumption that Britain would have to send its fleet into the North Sea to blockade the German ports (blockading Germany was the only way the Royal Navy could seriously harm Germany), where

4396-580: Is seen in the Anglo-Japanese treaty of 1902 that enabled the battleships of the China squadron to be re-allocated back to Europe. The Japanese fleet, largely constructed in British shipyards, then proceeded to utterly destroy the Russian Navy in the war of 1904–05 , removing Russia as a credible maritime opponent. The necessity to reduce the Mediterranean Fleet in order to reinforce the navy in home waters

4553-585: The Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) was the navy of the German Empire , which existed between 1871 and 1919. It grew out of the small Prussian Navy (from 1867 the North German Federal Navy ), which was mainly for coast defence. Kaiser Wilhelm II greatly expanded the navy. The key leader was Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , who greatly expanded the size and quality of the navy, while adopting

4710-630: The Prinz Adalbert class were commissioned in 1904, followed by two similar Roon -class armoured cruisers commissioned in 1905 and 1906, at costs around 17 million marks each. SMS  Scharnhorst and SMS  Gneisenau followed, between 1904 and 1908, and cost an estimated for 20.3 million marks. Main armament was eight 21 cm (8.3 in) guns, but with six 15 cm (5.9 in) and eighteen 8.8 cm (3.5 in) guns for smaller targets. Eight Bremen -class light cruisers were constructed between 1902 and 1907, developed from

4867-475: The Reichstag , which controlled the allocation of funds, although one-quarter of the money came from French war reparations. In 1883 Stosch was replaced by another general, Count Leo von Caprivi . At this point the navy had seven armoured frigates and four armoured corvettes, 400 officers and 5,000 ratings. The objectives of coastal defence remained largely unchanged, but there was a new emphasis on development of

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5024-572: The Battle of Coronel , it inflicted the first major defeat on the Royal Navy in over one hundred years, although the German squadron of ships was subsequently defeated at the Battle of the Falkland Islands , only one ship escaping destruction. The Navy also emerged from the fleet action of the Battle of Jutland having destroyed more ships than it lost, although the strategic value of both of these encounters

5181-588: The Belgian ports of Zeebrugge and Ostend , with an eye to the main enemy, the United Kingdom. He proposed a separate peace treaty with Russia, giving them access to the ocean. Germany would be a great continental state but could maintain its world position only by expanding world trade and continuing the fight against the UK. He complained of indecision and ambiguity in German policy, humanitarian ideas of self-preservation,

5338-666: The Boer War broke out between the British and Boers in South Africa . In January 1900 a British cruiser intercepted three German mail steamers and searched them for war supplies intended for the Boers. Germany was outraged and the opportunity presented itself for a second Naval Bill. The second bill doubled the number of battleships from nineteen to thirty-eight. This would form four squadrons of eight ships, plus two flagships and four reserves. The bill now spanned seventeen years from 1901 to 1917 with

5495-488: The Empire . It was argued that colonies overseas were essential, and Germany deserved her "place in the sun". League membership grew from 78,000 in 1898, to 600,000 in 1901 and 1.1 million by 1914. Special attention was given to members of the budget committee who would consider the bill in detail. Their interests and connections were analysed to find ways to influence them. Steel magnate Fritz Krupp and shipowner Albert Ballin of

5652-589: The English Channel and the area between Bergen and the Shetland Islands . Faced with this option a German Admiral commented, "If the British do that, the role of our navy will be a sad one," correctly predicting the role the surface fleet would have during the First World War . Additionally the plan had domestic political concerns in mind, mainly the preservation of the political status quo and combatting

5809-449: The First World War . Politically and strategically, Tirpitz's risk theory ensured its own failure. By its very nature it forced Britain into measures that would have been previously unacceptable to the British establishment. The necessity to concentrate the fleet against the German threat involved Britain making arrangements with other powers that enabled her to return the bulk of her naval forces to home waters . The first evidence of this

5966-522: The Franco-Prussian War the Prussian Navy was greatly outnumbered and so the ship spent the duration of the war at anchor, much to the embarrassment of the navy. During the early years of Tirpitz's career, Prussia and Great Britain were on good terms and the Prussian Navy spent much time in British ports. Tirpitz reported that Plymouth was more hospitable to German sailors than was Kiel, while it

6123-546: The German Imperial Naval Office , the powerful administrative branch of the German Imperial Navy from 1897 until 1916. Prussia never had a major navy, nor did the other German states before the German Empire was formed in 1871. Tirpitz took the modest Imperial Navy and, starting in the 1890s, turned it into a world-class force that could threaten Britain's Royal Navy . However, during World War I , his High Seas Fleet proved unable to end Britain's command of

6280-498: The Hamburg-America Line were invited to speak on the benefits of the bill to trade and industry. Objections were raised that the bill surrendered one of the most important powers of the Reichstag, that of annually scrutinising expenditure. Conservatives felt that expenditure on the navy was wasted, and that if money was available it should go to the army, which would be the deciding factor in any likely war. Eugen Richter of

6437-680: The Kiel Canal was commenced in June 1887, which connected the North Sea with the Baltic through the Jutland peninsula, allowing German ships to travel between the two seas avoiding waters controlled by other countries. This shortened the journey for commercial ships, but specifically united the two areas principally of concern to the German navy, at a cost of 150 million marks. Later, the protection of German maritime trade routes became important. This soon involved

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6594-471: The König class were completed between August and November 1914, and two Bayern -class battleships entered service in 1916. The battlecruisers Derfflinger , Lützow , and Hindenburg were completed in September 1914, March 1916, and May 1917, respectively. All but the latest pre-Dreadnoughts were soon decommissioned, so that their crews could be transferred to more useful vessels. The main fighting forces of

6751-545: The Moltke design, reaching a maximum speed of 29 knots. All cruisers were equipped with turbine engines from 1908 onwards. Between 1910 and 1912 four Magdeburg -class light cruisers were constructed of 4,600 tons, at around 7.4 million marks each. The ships were fitted with oil burners to improve the effectiveness of their main coal fueling. These were followed by the similar but slightly enlarged and marginally faster Karlsruhe and Graudenz -class light cruisers. In 1907

6908-477: The sea power theories of American strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan . The result was a naval arms race with Britain , as the German navy grew to become one of the greatest maritime forces in the world, second only to the Royal Navy . The German surface navy proved ineffective during the First World War ; its only major engagement, the Battle of Jutland , was a draw, but it kept the surface fleet largely in port for

7065-469: The British relied on their navy to maintain control over the British Empire , Tirpitz felt they would opt to maintain naval supremacy in order to safeguard their empire, and let Germany become a world power, rather than lose the empire as the price of keeping Germany less powerful. This theory sparked a naval arms race between Germany and Great Britain in the first decade of the 20th century. This theory

7222-445: The British would try to avoid confrontation with Germany (that is, maintain a fleet in being ). If the two navies fought, the German Navy would inflict enough damage on the British that the latter ran a risk of losing their naval dominance. Because the British relied on their navy to maintain control over the British Empire , Tirpitz felt they would opt to maintain naval supremacy in order to safeguard their empire, and let Germany become

7379-487: The British. This all contributed to growing opposition in the Reichstag to any further expansion, particularly when it was clear that Britain intended to match and exceed any German expansion program. In the fleet itself, complaints were beginning to be made in 1908 about underfunding and shortages of crews for the new ships. The State Secretary of the Treasury, Hermann von Stengel , resigned because he could see no way to resolve

7536-532: The French home port of Cherbourg-en-Cotentin . Tirpitz later described his time with torpedo boats as "the eleven best years of my life". In 1887 the torpedo boats escorted Prince Wilhelm to attend the Golden Jubilee celebrations of his grandmother, Queen Victoria . This was the first time Tirpitz met Wilhelm. In July 1888 Caprivi was succeeded by Alexander von Monts . Torpedo boats were no longer considered important, and Tirpitz requested transfer, commanding

7693-460: The German Navy abandoned the observance of cruiser rules in 1915, this policy was reversed following the outcry over the Lusitania 's sinking . Tirpitz, a popular figure ("on account of his aggressiveness and his beard", according to US ambassador Gerard), had agitated against all restrictions using the German press, and threats to resign, and began to fall out with the Kaiser as a result. When

7850-478: The German Navy could force a battle. However, due to Germany's geographic location, Britain could blockade Germany by closing the entrance to the North Sea in the English Channel and the area between Bergen and the Shetland Islands . Faced with this option a German admiral commented, "If the British do that, the role of our navy will be a sad one", correctly predicting the role the surface fleet would have during

8007-466: The German fleet to a strength where it could contemplate challenging France or Russia, but would remain clearly inferior to the world's largest fleet, the Royal Navy. Following the Boxer Rebellion in China and the Boer War , a second navy bill was passed on 14 June 1900. This approximately doubled the allocated number of ships to 38 battleships, 20 armoured cruisers, 38 light cruisers. Significantly,

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8164-514: The German navy declined to take up the cause of another experiment, the submarine, until 1904. The first submarine, U-1 was delivered in December 1906, built by Krupp's Germania yard in Kiel. The first submarine had 238 ton displacement on the surface and 283 tons submerged. The kerosene engine developed 10 knots on the surface with a range of 1,500 nautical miles (2,800 km; 1,700 mi). Submerged,

8321-560: The Howaldt engine could not be developed in time. Luitpold had a top speed of 20 knots as a result, compared to 22 knots for the other ships. The ships were larger than the preceding class at 24,700 tons, but cheaper at 45 million marks. They formed part of the third squadron of the High Seas Fleet as it was constituted for World War I. Between 1908 and 1912 two Moltke -class battlecruisers were constructed, adding an extra turret on

8478-504: The Kaiser himself). At that time, the German Imperial Navy had only four ranks for admirals: rear admiral, ( Konteradmiral , equal to a Generalmajor in the army, with no pips on the shoulders); vice admiral ( Vizeadmiral , equal to a Generalleutnant , with one pip); admiral (equal to a General der Infanterie , with two pips), and grand admiral (equal to a field marshal). Tirpitz's shoulder boards had four pips, but he never received

8635-523: The Kaiser's intentions been widely known. Instead, he proceeded with a plan to expand the navy slowly, justifying enlargement step by step. In July 1888 Wilhelm II appointed Vice-Admiral Alexander von Monts as head of the admiralty. Monts oversaw the design of the Brandenburg -class battleship, four of which were constructed by 1894 at a cost of 16 million marks each and displacement of 10,000 tons. In 1889 Wilhelm II reorganised top level control of

8792-522: The Kaiser. This brought him into conflict with the Navy State Secretary, Admiral Friedrich von Hollmann . Hollmann was responsible for procurement of ships, and had a policy of collecting ships as funding permitted. Tirpitz had concluded that the best fighting arrangement was a squadron of eight identical battleships, rather than any other combination of ships with mixed abilities. Further ships should then be added in groups of eight. Hollmann favoured

8949-426: The Kiel canal, all of which would be enormously expensive. Estimated cost for new dreadnoughts was placed at 36.5 million marks for 19,000 tons displacement ships (larger than Dreadnought at 17,900 tons), and 27.5 million marks for battle-cruisers. 60 million mark was allocated for dredging the canal. The Reichstag was persuaded to agree to the program and passed a Novelle (a supplementary law) amending

9106-480: The Liberal Radical Union opposing the bill observed that if it was intended for Germany now to seriously take up the trident to match its other forces, then such a small force would not suffice, and there would be no end to ship building. August Bebel of the Social Democrats argued that there existed a number of deputies who were Anglophobes and wished to pick a fight with Britain, but that to imagine such

9263-563: The Mediterranean Fleet in order to reinforce the navy in home waters was also a powerful influence in its détente and Entente Cordiale with the French. By forcing the British to come to terms with its most traditional opponent, Tirpitz scuttled his own policy. Britain was no longer at 'risk' from France, and the Japanese destruction of the Russian fleet removed that nation as a naval threat. In

9420-614: The Naval Defence Act of 1889, was to maintain a navy superior to Britain's two largest rivals combined. The British Admiralty estimated that the German navy would be the world's second largest by 1906. Major reforms of the Royal Navy were undertaken, particularly by Fisher as First Sea Lord from 1904 to 1909. 154 older ships, including 17 battleships, were scrapped to make way for newer vessels. Reforms in training and gunnery were introduced to make good perceived deficiencies, which in part Tirpitz had counted upon to provide his ships with

9577-575: The Royal Navy deployed against its own fleet, and Britain committed to her list of potential enemies. The Tirpitz risk theory made it more probable that, in any future conflict between the European powers, Britain would be on the side of Germany's foes, and that the full force of the most powerful navy in the world would be concentrated against her fleet. Tirpitz had been made a Großadmiral (grand admiral) in 1911, without patent (the document that accompanied formal promotions personally signed at this level by

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9734-455: The Royal Navy had done against the Danish navy in 1801 and 1807." Tirpitz argued that if the fleet could achieve two-thirds the number of capital ships possessed by Britain then it stood a chance of winning in a conflict. Britain had to maintain a fleet throughout the world and consider other naval powers, whereas the German fleet could be concentrated in German waters. Attempts were made to play down

9891-608: The V-25 to V-30 craft constructed by AG Vulcan in Kiel before 1914. In 1912 Germany created a Mediterranean squadron consisting of the battlecruiser Goeben and light cruiser Breslau . Naval trials of balloons began in 1891, but the results were unsatisfactory and none were purchased by the navy. In 1895 Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin attempted to interest both the army and navy in his new rigid airships , but without success. The Zeppelin rigids were considered too slow and there were concerns with their reliability operating over water. In 1909

10048-501: The arms race by expanding the capabilities of its new battleships. The five 1912 Queen Elizabeth class of 32,000 tons would have 15 in (380 mm) guns and would be completely oil-fuelled, allowing a speed of 25 knots. For 1912–13 Germany concentrated on battlecruisers, with three Derfflinger -class ships of 27,000 tons and 26–27 knots maximum speed, costing 56–59 million marks each. These had four turrets mounting two 30.5 cm guns arranged in two turrets either end, with

10205-410: The army. Either an enormous sum now had to be found to develop the navy further, or naval expansion had to be abandoned. The decision to continue was taken by Tirpitz in September 1905 and agreed by Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow and the Kaiser, while Dreadnought was still at the planning stage. The larger ships would naturally be more expensive, but also would require enlargement of harbours, locks and

10362-422: The battleship total to 45, a target which rose to 48 by 1909. Tirpitz's ultimate goal was a fleet capable of rivaling the Royal Navy . As British public opinion was turned against Germany, Admiral Sir John Fisher twice – in 1904 and 1908 – proposed using Britain's current naval superiority to ' Copenhagen ' the German fleet, that is, to launch pre-emptive strikes against the Kiel and Wilhelmshaven naval bases as

10519-631: The beginning of 1916, he was dismissed from office and never regained power. Following his dismissal, he would become Chairman of the far-right German Fatherland Party , an ideological precursor to the German National People's Party . Tirpitz was born in Küstrin (today Kostrzyn in Poland ) in the Prussian province of Brandenburg , the son of lawyer and later judge Rudolf Tirpitz (1811–1905). His mother

10676-413: The bill set no overall cost limit for the building program. Expenditure for the navy was too great to be met from taxation: the Reichstag had limited powers to extend taxation without entering into negotiations with the constituent German states, and this was considered politically unviable. Instead, the bill was financed by massive loans. Tirpitz, in 1899 was already exploring the possibilities for extending

10833-502: The bill. Tours of ships and shipyards were arranged. The Kaiser and Chancellor stressed that the fleet was only intended for protection of Germany, but so that even a first class power might think twice before attacking. Highlights from a letter Prince Bismarck wrote were read out in the Reichstag, though not mentioning passages where he expressed reservations. Papers were circulated showing the relative size of foreign fleets, and how much Germany had fallen behind, particularly when considering

10990-569: The budget deficit. The elections of 1907 had returned a Reichstag more favourable to military exploits, following the refusal of the previous parliament to grant funds to suppress uprisings in colonies in German South-West Africa . Despite the difficulties, Tirpitz persuaded the Reichstag to pass a further Novelle in March 1908. This reduced the service life for ships from 25 years to 20 years, allowing for faster modernisation, and increased

11147-476: The building rate to four capital ships per year. Tirpitz's target was a fleet of 16 battleships and 5 battlecruisers by 1914, and 38 battleships and 20 battlecruisers by 1920. There were also to be 38 light cruisers, and 144 torpedo boats. The bill contained a restriction, that building would fall to two ships per year in 1912, but Tirpitz was confident of changing this at a later date. He anticipated that German industry, now heavily involved in shipbuilding, would back

11304-415: The bulk of her naval forces to Home Waters . The first evidence of this is seen in the Anglo-Japanese treaty of 1902 that enabled the battleships of the China squadron to be re-allocated back to Europe. The Japanese fleet, largely constructed in British shipyards, then proceeded to utterly destroy the Russian navy in the war of 1904–06, removing Russia as a credible maritime opponent. The necessity to reduce

11461-400: The calibre of the large guns, while ships were increasingly divided internally into watertight compartments to make them more resistant to flooding when damaged. The design was hampered by the necessity to use reciprocating engines instead of the smaller turbines, since no sufficiently powerful design was available and acceptable to the German navy. Turrets could not be placed above the centre of

11618-509: The centre line astern, raised above the aft turret, but still using 28 cm guns. SMS  Moltke became part of the High Seas Fleet, but SMS  Goeben became part of the Mediterranean squadron and spent World War I as part of the Ottoman navy . The ships cost 42.6 and 41.6 million marks, with maximum speed of 28 knots. Seydlitz was constructed as a slightly enlarged version of

11775-461: The councils of the Hanseatic towns. On 19 October the draft bill was sent to the printers for presentation to the Reichstag. Tirpitz's approach was to be as accommodating with the deputies as he could. He was patient and good humoured, proceeding on the assumption that if everything was explained carefully, then the deputies would naturally be convinced. Groups were invited to private meetings to discuss

11932-463: The disadvantage of the turret layout. The ships were now equipped with 50 cm (20 in) torpedoes. The Kaiser -class battleships built between 1909 and 1913 introduced a change in design as turbine engines were finally approved. The ships had ten 30.5 cm guns, losing two of the centre side turrets but gaining an additional turret astern on the centre line. As with the Von der Tann design, which

12089-458: The earlier Gazelle class . The ships had ten 10.5 centimetres (4.1 in) guns and were named after German towns. SMS  Lübeck was the first German cruiser to be fitted with turbine engines , which were also trialled in torpedo boat S-125 . Turbines were faster, quieter, lighter, more reliable and more fuel efficient at high speeds. The first British experimental design (the destroyer HMS  Velox ) had been constructed in 1901 and as

12246-474: The experience in A Mother's War . Tirpitz joined the Prussian Navy more by accident than design when a friend announced that he was doing so. Tirpitz decided he liked the idea and with the consent of his parents became a naval cadet at the age of 16, on 24 April 1865. He attended Kiel Naval School. Within a year Prussia was at war with Austria. Tirpitz became a midshipman ( Seekadett ) on 24 June 1866 and

12403-434: The final ships being completed by 1920. This would constitute the second-largest fleet in the world and although no mention was made in the bill of specific enemies, it made several general mentions of a greater power which it was intended to oppose. There was only one navy which could be meant. On 5 December 1899 Tirpitz was promoted to Vizeadmiral (vice admiral). The bill passed on 20 June 1900. Specifically written into

12560-474: The first Navy Bill was passed by the Reichstag . It authorised the maintenance of a fleet of 19 battleships, 8 armoured cruisers, 12 large cruisers and 30 light cruisers to be constructed by 1 April 1904. Existing ships were counted in the total, but the bill provided for ships to be replaced every 25 years on an indefinite basis. Five million marks annually was allocated to run the navy, with a total budget of 408 million marks for shipbuilding. This would bring

12717-501: The fleet to move battleships from the Mediterranean to Channel waters. A policy was introduced of promoting British naval officers by merit and ability rather than time served, which saw rapid promotions for Jellicoe and Beatty , both of whom had important roles in the forthcoming World War I. By 1913 the French and British had plans in place for joint naval action against Germany, and France moved its Atlantic fleet from Brest to Toulon , replacing British ships. Britain also escalated

12874-407: The fleet was subordinated to officers commanding those elements, accountable to the Kaiser. The reorganisations suited the Kaiser who wanted to maintain direct control of his ships. A disadvantage was that it split apart the integrated military command structure which before had balanced the importance of the navy within overall defence considerations. It suited Alfred von Tirpitz, because it removed

13031-636: The fleet were less than impressive; out of four taking part one crashed, one was unable to take off and only one succeeded in all tasks. The most successful aircraft had been the British design, and indeed experiments in Britain had been proceeding with the support of Winston Churchill, and included converting ferries and liners into seaplane carriers . By the start of the First World War, the German Imperial Navy possessed 22 pre-Dreadnoughts, 14 dreadnought battleships and 4 battle-cruisers. A further three ships of

13188-418: The fleet would have five squadrons of eight battleships, twelve large cruisers and thirty small, plus additional cruisers for overseas duties. Tirpitz intended that with the rolling program of replacements, the existing coastal defence squadron of old ships would become a sixth fleet squadron, while the eight existing battle-cruisers would be joined by eight more as replacements for the large cruisers presently in

13345-444: The fleet. German foreign policy as espoused by Otto von Bismarck had been to deflect the interest of great powers abroad while Germany consolidated her integration and military strength. Now Germany was to compete with the rest. Tirpitz started with a publicity campaign aimed at popularising the navy. He created popular magazines about the navy, arranged for Alfred Thayer Mahan's The Influence of Sea Power upon History , which argued

13502-508: The fleet. The second followed fears of British encroachment, and reduced the replacement time which a ship would remain in service from 25 to 20 years. The third was caused by the Agadir Crisis where again Germany had to draw back. This time three more battleships were added. The first naval law caused little alarm in the United Kingdom. There was already in force a dual power standard defining

13659-574: The former chancellor and elder statesman, Prince Bismarck . Armed with the announcement that the Kaiser intended to name the next ship launched Furst Bismarck , he persuaded the former chancellor, who had been dismissed from office for disagreement with Wilhelm II, to modestly support the proposals. Tirpitz now visited the King of Saxony , the Prince Regent of Bavaria , the Grand Duke of Baden and Oldenburg and

13816-504: The great power of her army compared to others. A press bureau was created in the Navy Ministry to ensure journalists were thoroughly briefed, and to politely answer any and all objections. Pre-written articles were provided for the convenience of journalists. University professors were invited to speak on the importance of protecting German trade. The Navy League was formed to popularise the idea of world naval power and its importance to

13973-501: The hull intended to stop torpedoes, but these reduced maximum speed to an impractical 8 knots and were later removed. Construction began in 1910 of the first submarine powered by twin diesel engines. U-19 was twice the size of the first German submarine, had five times the range at 7,600 nautical miles (14,100 km; 8,700 mi) cruising at 8 knots, or 15 knots maximum. There were now two bow and two stern torpedo tubes, with six torpedoes carried. The ships were designed to operate at

14130-592: The importance of naval forces, to be translated into German and serialised in newspapers, arranged rallies in support and invited politicians and industrialists to naval reviews. Various pressure groups were formed to lobby politicians and spread publicity. One such organisation, the navy league or Flottenverein , was organized by principals in the steel industry ( Alfred Krupp ), ship yards and banks, gaining more than one million members. Political parties were offered concessions, such as taxes on imported grain, in exchange for their support for naval bills. On 10 April 1898

14287-499: The influence of the admiralty staff from naval planning, but left him the possibility, in wartime, to reorganise command around himself. Wilhelm II, however, never agreed to relinquish direct control of his fleet. On 3 December 1906 the Royal Navy received a new battleship, HMS  Dreadnought . She became famous as the first of a new concept in battleship design, using all big gun, single size of calibre armament. She used turbine propulsion for greater speed and less space required by

14444-416: The inner turret superfiring over the outer. SMS  Derfflinger was the first German ship to have anti-aircraft guns fitted. In 1913, Germany responded to the British challenge by laying down two Bayern class battleships. These did not enter service until after the Battle of Jutland, so failed to take part in any major naval action of the war. They had displacement of 28,600 tons, a crew of 1,100 and

14601-522: The intention of doing for the navy what his grandfather Wilhelm I had done for the army. The creation of a maritime empire to rival the British and French empires became an ambition to mark Germany as a truly global great power . Wilhelm became Grand Admiral of the German Navy, but also was awarded honorific titles from all over Europe, becoming admiral in the British, Russian, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Austro-Hungarian and Greek navies. On one occasion he wore

14758-476: The ironclads SMS  Preussen and then SMS  Württemberg . He was promoted to captain ( Kapitän zur See ) 24 November 1888 and in 1890 became chief of staff of the Baltic Squadron. On one occasion the Kaiser was attending dinner with the senior naval officers at Kiel and asked their opinion on how the navy should develop. Finally the question came to Tirpitz and he advised building battleships . This

14915-426: The machinery, and guns arranged so that three times as many could be brought to bear when firing ahead, and twice as many when firing broadside. The design was not a uniquely British concept as similar ships were being built around the world, nor was it uniquely intended as a counter to German naval expansion, but the effect was to immediately require Germany to reconsider its naval building program. The battleship design

15072-541: The main task of the new Imperial Navy was coastal protection, with France and Russia seen as Germany's most likely future enemies. The Imperial Navy's tasks were then to prevent any invasion force from landing and to protect coastal towns from possible bombardment. In March 1872 a German Imperial Naval Academy was created at Kiel for training officers, followed in May by the creation of a 'Machine Engineer Corps', and in February 1873

15229-529: The man who had accomplished this miracle was assured and he was to remain at the centre of government for the next nineteen years. One year after the passage of the bill Tirpitz appeared before the Reichstag and declared his satisfaction with it. The specified fleet would still be smaller than the French or British, but would be able to deter the Russians in the Baltic . Within another year all had changed. In October 1899

15386-416: The navy bills and allocating 940 million marks for a dreadnought program and the necessary infrastructure. Two dreadnoughts and one battlecruiser were to be built each year. Construction of four Nassau -class battleships began in 1907 under the greatest possible secrecy. The chief German naval designer was Hans Bürkner. A principle was introduced that the thickness of side armour on a ship would equal

15543-542: The navy by creating a Navy Cabinet ( Marine-Kabinett ) equivalent to the German Imperial Military Cabinet which had previously functioned in the same capacity for both the army and navy. The Head of the navy cabinet was responsible for promotions, appointments, administration and issuing orders to naval forces. Captain Gustav von Senden-Bibran was appointed as its first head and remained so until 1906, when he

15700-501: The navy rejected proposals for aircraft to be launched from ships, and again in 1910 declined Zeppelin's airships. Finally in 1911, trials with aircraft began and in 1912 Tirpitz agreed to purchase the first airship for naval reconnaissance at a cost of 850,000 marks. The machine had insufficient range (1,440 km (890 mi)) to operate over Britain, but had machine guns for use against aircraft and experimental 80 kg (180 lb) bombs. The following year ten more were ordered and

15857-539: The navy were to become the High Seas Fleet and the U-boat fleet. Smaller fleets were deployed to the German overseas protectorates, the most prominent being assigned to the East Asia Squadron at Qingdao . Alfred von Tirpitz Alfred Peter Friedrich von Tirpitz ( German pronunciation: [ˈalfʁeːt fɔn ˈtɪʁpɪt͡s] ; 19 March 1849 – 6 March 1930) was a German grand admiral and State Secretary of

16014-633: The navy, demanded an increase of 136,000 men to bring its size closer to that of France. In February 1912 the British war minister, Viscount Haldane , came to Berlin to discuss possible limits to naval expansion. Meanwhile, in Britain, the First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill made a speech describing the German navy as a 'luxury', which was considered an insult when reported in Germany. The talks came to nothing, ending in recriminations over who had offered what. Bethmann Hollweg argued for

16171-465: The outbreak of World War I, one billion marks had been added to Germany's national debt because of naval expenditures. While each German ship was more expensive than the last, the British managed to reduce the cost of the succeeding generations of Bellerophon (3 ships) and St. Vincent (3) battleships. Successive British battlecruisers were more expensive, but less so than their German equivalents. Overall, German ships were some 30% more expensive than

16328-399: The overseas squadrons. The plan envisaged a main fleet of 100,000 men, 49 battleships and 28 battlecruisers by 1920. The Kaiser commented of the British, "... we have them up against the wall." Although Tirpitz had succeeded in getting more ships, the proportion of military expenditure on the navy declined in 1912 and thereafter, from 35% in 1911 to 33% in 1912 and 25% in 1913. This reflected

16485-446: The perceived threat to Britain, but once the German fleet reached the position of equalling the other second-rank navies, it became impossible to avoid mention of the one great fleet it was intended to challenge. Tirpitz hoped that other second-rank powers might ally with Germany, attracted by its navy. The policy of commencing what amounted to a naval arms race did not properly consider how Britain might respond. British policy, stated in

16642-463: The political right, which had not previously been done. At its peak, in the summer of 1918, the party had around 1,250,000 members. It proposed both Generalfeldmarschall Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff as "people's emperors" of a military state whose legitimacy was based on war and on war aims instead of on the parliamentary government of the Reich . Internally, there were calls for

16799-540: The preamble was an explanation of Tirpitz's risk theory. Although the German fleet would be smaller, it was likely that an enemy with a world spanning empire would not be able to concentrate all its forces in local waters. Even if it could, the German fleet would still be sufficiently powerful to inflict significant damage in any battle, sufficient damage that the enemy would be unable to maintain its other naval commitments and must suffer irreparable harm. Thus no such enemy would risk an engagement. Privately, Tirpitz acknowledged

16956-511: The principal area of conflict to be that between Heligoland and the Thames . Cruiser warfare around the globe was deemed impractical because Germany had few bases to resupply ships, while the chief need was for as many battleships as possible to take on the British fleet. A target was outlined for two squadrons of eight battleships, plus a fleet flagship and two reserves. This was to be completed by 1905 and cost 408 million marks, or 58 million per year,

17113-614: The rest of the war. The submarine fleet was greatly expanded and threatened the British supply system during the U-boat campaign . As part of the Armistice , the Imperial Navy's main ships were ordered to be turned over to the Allies but they were instead scuttled by their own crews. All ships of the Imperial Navy bore the title SMS , for Seiner Majestät Schiff (His Majesty's Ship). The Imperial Navy achieved some important operational feats. At

17270-549: The restrictions on the submarine war were not lifted, he finally resigned on 15 March 1916. He was replaced as State Secretary of the Imperial Naval Office by Eduard von Capelle . Despite his support for unrestricted U-boat warfare, Tirpitz placed a low priority on submarine construction during his leadership of the Imperial Naval Office. Ultimately, this decision would result in a severe shortage of newly built U-boats by 1917. In September 1917 Grand Admiral Tirpitz became

17427-450: The rise of the Social Democrats. Tirpitz believed that the development of maritime power would advance Germany's economic interests and so serve as a "palliative against educated and uneducated Social Democrats". While Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow , wrote that the plan would "mobilize the best patriotic forces" and "appeal to the highest national emotions" which would in turn "keep the non-Socialist workers away from Social Democracy" and pull

17584-415: The same as the existing budget. The proposal was innovative in several ways. It made a clear statement of naval needs, whereas before the navy had grown piecemeal. It set out the programme for seven years ahead, which neither the Reichstag nor the navy should change. It defined a change in German foreign policy so as to justify the existence of the fleet: Great Britain up to this point had been friendly, now it

17741-473: The sea and its chokehold on Germany's economy. The one great engagement at sea, the Battle of Jutland , ended in a narrow German tactical victory but a strategic failure. As the High Seas Fleet's limitations became increasingly apparent during the war, Tirpitz became an outspoken advocate for unrestricted submarine warfare , a policy which would ultimately bring Germany into conflict with the United States. By

17898-449: The setting up of some overseas supply stations, so called Auswärtige Stationen (foreign stations) and in the 1880s the Imperial Navy played a part in helping to secure the establishment of German colonies and protectorates in Africa, Asia and Oceania. In June 1888 Wilhelm II became Emperor after the death of his father Frederick III , who ruled for only 99 days. He started his reign with

18055-641: The ship and instead had to be placed at the side, meaning two of the six turrets would always be on the wrong side of the ship when firing broadsides. Main armament was twelve 28 cm guns. The ships were all completed by 1910, over budget, averaging 37.4 million marks each. In 1910 they were transferred from Kiel to Wilhelmshaven, where two new large docks had been completed and more were under construction. The first German battlecruiser— SMS  Von der Tann —was commenced March 1908. Four Parsons turbines were used, improving speed to 27 knots and reducing weight. Four twin turrets mounted 28 cm guns; although

18212-414: The ship could manage 50 nautical miles at 5 knots using battery electric propulsion. The ships followed a design by Maxime Laubeuf first used successfully in 1897, having a double hull and flotation tanks around the outside of the main crew compartments. The submarine had just one torpedo tube at the front and a total of three torpedoes. The early engines were noisy and smoky, so that a considerable boost to

18369-443: The size of the British fleet as at least that of the next two largest fleets combined. There was now a new player, but her fleet was similar in size to the other two possible threats, Russia and France, and a number of battleships were already under construction. The second naval law, however, caused serious alarm: eight King Edward VII -class battleships were ordered in response. It was the regularity and efficiency with which Germany

18526-507: The space of a few years, Germany was faced with virtually the whole strength of the Royal Navy deployed against its own fleet, and Britain committed to her list of potential enemies. The Tirpitz 'risk theory' made it more probable that, in any future conflict between the European powers, Britain would be on the side of Germany's foes, and that the full force of the most powerful navy in the world would be concentrated against her fleet. German Imperial Navy The Imperial German Navy or

18683-569: The strongest state forming part of the new empire. The navy remained the same as that operated by the empire's predecessor organisation in the unification of Germany, the North German Confederation , which itself in 1867 had inherited the navy of the Kingdom of Prussia . Article 53 of the new Empire's constitution recognised the existence of the Navy as an independent organisation, but until 1888 it

18840-487: The theoretical danger period extended itself to beyond the start of the Great War. As a reward for the successful bill Tirpitz was ennobled with the hereditary article von before his name in 1900. Tirpitz noted the difficulties in his relationship with the Kaiser. Wilhelm respected him as the only man who had succeeded in persuading the Reichstag to start and then increase a world class navy, but he remained unpredictable. He

18997-509: The time of Nelson and began to look for allies against the growing threat from Germany. Ships were withdrawn from around the world and brought back to British waters, while construction of new ships increased. Tirpitz's design to achieve world power status through naval power, while at the same time addressing domestic issues, is referred to as the Tirpitz Plan . Politically, the Tirpitz Plan

19154-431: The torpedo, which offered the possibility of relatively small ships successfully attacking much larger ones. In October 1887 the first torpedo division was created at Wilhelmshaven and the second torpedo division based at Kiel. In 1887 Caprivi requested the construction of ten armoured frigates. Greater importance was placed at this time on development of the army, which was expected to be more important in any war. However,

19311-585: The two centre turrets were still placed one either side of the ship, they were offset so could now fire either side. The design was considered a success, but the cost at 35.5 million marks was significantly above the 1906 allocation. Light cruiser development continued with the Dresden -class light cruisers, which were to become famous for their actions in the start of World War I in the Pacific. The ships were 3,300 tons, and armed with ten 10.5 cm rapid fire guns and

19468-417: The uniform of a British admiral to receive the visiting British ambassador. At this time the Imperial Navy had 534 officers and 15,480 men. The concept of expanding naval power, inevitably at the cost of not expanding other forces, was opposed by the three successive heads of the German armed forces, Waldersee , Schlieffen and Moltke between 1888 and 1914. It would also have been more widely opposed, had

19625-409: The usefulness of the submarine came with the introduction of quieter and cleaner diesel engines in 1910, which were much more difficult for an enemy to detect. German expenditure on ships was steadily rising. In 1907, 290 million marks was spent on the fleet, rising to 347 million marks or 24 percent of the national budget in 1908, with a predicted budget deficit of 500 million marks. By

19782-453: The worker away from "the ensnarements of the socialists and accustom him to the monarchical order". Politically and strategically, Tirpitz's Risk Theory ensured its own failure. By its very nature it forced Britain into measures that would have been previously unacceptable to the British establishment. The necessity to concentrate the fleet against the German threat involved Britain making arrangements with other powers that enabled her to return

19939-644: Was Germany. Five battleships of the Wittelsbach class were constructed from 1899 to 1904 at a cost of 22 million marks per ship. Five ships of the Braunschweig class were built between 1901 and 1906 for the slightly greater 24 million marks each. Technological improvements meant that rapid fire guns could be made larger, so the Braunschweig class had a main armament of 28 cm (11 in) guns. Due to torpedo improvements in range and accuracy, emphasis

20096-542: Was adopted. By 1913 there were four aeroplanes, now including a British Sopwith, and long-term plans to create six naval air stations by 1918. By 1914, the Marine-Fliegerabteilung , the naval counterpart to the well-established Fliegertruppe land-based aviation units of the Army , comprised twelve seaplanes and one landplane and disposed of a budget of 8.5 million marks. Trials in 1914 using seaplanes operating with

20253-519: Was agreed for five battleships of the Kaiser Friedrich III class , completed by 1902. The ships were innovative for their time, introducing a complex system of watertight compartments and storing coal along the sides of the ship to help absorb explosions. However, the ships went against the trend for increasingly larger main guns, having smaller diameter guns than the Brandenburg design, but with

20410-409: Was also a powerful influence in its détente and Entente Cordiale with the French. By forcing the British to come to terms with its most traditional opponent, Tirpitz scuttled his own policy. Britain was no longer at risk from France, and the Japanese destruction of the Russian fleet removed that nation as a naval threat. In the space of a few years, Germany was faced with virtually the whole strength of

20567-402: Was also easier to obtain equipment and supplies there, which were of better quality than available at home. At this time the British Royal Navy was pleased to assist that of Prussia in its development and Prussian officers had considerable respect for their British counterparts. Unification of Germany in 1871 again meant a change of name, to the German Imperial Navy . On 25 May 1872 Tirpitz

20724-487: Was altered to place turrets on the centre line of the ship for improved accuracy. The four König -class battleships were commenced between October 1911 and May 1912 and entered service in 1914 at a cost of 45 million marks, forming the other part of the Third Squadron of the High Seas Fleet. They were 28,500 tons, with a maximum speed of 21 knots from three triple-stage Brown-Boverie-Parsons turbines. Main armament

20881-413: Was an answer which appealed to the Kaiser, and nine months later he was transferred to Berlin to work on a new strategy for creating a high seas fleet. Tirpitz appointed a staff of officers he had known from his time with the torpedo boats and collected together all sorts of vessels as stand-in battleships to conduct exercises to test out tactics. On 1 December 1892 he made a presentation of his findings to

21038-497: Was as likely to miss a target as to hit it. On 17 September 1881 he became Korvettenkapitän (corvette captain). From developing torpedoes, Tirpitz moved on to developing torpedo boats to deliver them. The State Secretary for the Navy, Leo von Caprivi , was a distant relation, and Tirpitz now worked with him on the development of tactics. Caprivi envisioned that the boats would be used defensively against their most likely enemy, France, but Tirpitz set about developing plans to attack

21195-458: Was based on the assumption that Great Britain would have to send its fleet into the German Bight for a close blockade of the ports (blockading Germany was the only way that the Royal Navy could seriously harm Germany), where the German Navy could force a battle. However, due to Germany's geographic location, Great Britain could employ a distant blockade by closing the entrance to the North Sea in

21352-772: Was commanded by army officers and initially adopted the same regulations as the Prussian army. Supreme command was vested in the emperor, but its first appointed chief was General der Infanterie (General of the Infantry) Albrecht von Stosch . Kiel on the Baltic Sea and Wilhelmshaven on the North Sea served as the Navy's principal naval bases. The former Navy Ministry became the Imperial Admiralty on 1 February 1872, while Stosch became formally an admiral in 1875. Initially

21509-416: Was complemented by the introduction of a variant with lighter armour and greater speed, which became the battlecruiser . The revolution in design, together with improvements in personnel and training severely brought into question the German assumption that a fleet of two-thirds the size of the Royal Navy would at least stand a chance in an engagement. By 1906 Germany was already spending 60% of revenue upon

21666-552: Was drawn up at a similar time, all guns could be fired either side in broadsides, meaning more guns could come to bear than with the Helgoland design, despite having fewer in total. Five ships were constructed rather than the usual four, one to act as a fleet flagship. One ship, the SMS ; Prinzregent Luitpold , was equipped with only two turbines rather than three, with the intention of having an additional diesel engine for cruising, but

21823-534: Was elevated to the Prussian nobility, becoming von Tirpitz. He had four children: Max, Wolfgang, Ilse (born 1885) and Margot (born 1888). His son, Oberleutnant zur See Wolfgang von Tirpitz, was taken prisoner of war after the sinking of SMS  Mainz in the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914. Ilse married diplomat Ulrich von Hassell who was executed in 1944 as an anti-Hitler activist. Their daughter Fey von Hassell  [ de ] and her young sons were then taken as hostages. She wrote of

21980-584: Was fanatical about the navy, but would come up with wild ideas for improvements, which Tirpitz had to deflect to maintain his objectives. Each summer Tirpitz would go to St Blasien with his aides to work on naval plans, then in September he would travel to the Kaiser's retreat at Rominten , where Tirpitz found he would be more relaxed and willing to listen to a well argued explanation. Three supplementary naval bills ( Novelles ) were passed, in June 1906, April 1908 and June 1912. The first followed German diplomatic defeats over Morocco , and added six large cruisers to

22137-613: Was felt that replacing him before the bill had completed approval through the Reichstag would be a mistake. Instead, Tirpitz was placed in charge of the German East Asia Squadron in the Far East but with a promise of appointment as secretary at a suitable moment. The cruiser squadron operated from British facilities in Hong Kong which were far from satisfactory as the German ships always took second place for available docks. Tirpitz

22294-475: Was five double turrets housing twin 30.5 cm guns, arranged with two turrets fore and aft and one in the centre of the ship. The second turret at either end was raised higher than the outer so that it could fire over the top ( superfiring ). As with Prinzregent Luitpold , the ships were originally intended to have one diesel engine for cruising, but these were never developed and turbines were fitted instead. The ships were equipped with torpedo nets, trailed along

22451-522: Was instructed to find a suitable site for a new port, selecting four possible sites. Although he initially favoured the bay at Kiautschou/Tsingtao , others in the naval establishment advocated a different location and even Tirpitz wavered on his commitment in his final report. A "lease" on the land was acquired in 1898 after it was fortuitously occupied by German forces. On 12 March 1896 the Reichstag cut back Hollmann's appropriation of 70 million marks to 58 million, and Hollman offered his resignation. Tirpitz

22608-519: Was marked by the Fleet Acts of 1898, 1900, 1908 and 1912. By 1914, they had given Germany the second-largest naval force in the world (roughly 40% smaller than the Royal Navy). It included seventeen modern dreadnoughts , five battlecruisers , twenty-five cruisers and twenty pre-dreadnought battleships as well as over forty submarines . Although including fairly unrealistic targets, the expansion programme

22765-417: Was minimal. The Imperial Navy was the first to operate submarines successfully on a large scale in wartime, with 375 submarines commissioned by the end of the First World War , and it also operated zeppelins . Although it was never able to match the number of ships of the Royal Navy, it had technological advantages, such as better shells and propellant for much of the Great War, meaning that it never lost

22922-585: Was not possible to create several designs of cruisers specialised for long range work, or more heavily armoured for fleet work. Work commenced on an armoured cruiser design, SMS  Fürst Bismarck started in 1896 and commissioned in 1900. On 18 June 1897 Rear-Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz was appointed State Secretary of the Navy, where he remained for nineteen years. Tirpitz advocated the cause of an expanded navy necessary for Germany to defend her territories abroad. He had great success in persuading parliament to pass successive Navy bills authorising expansions of

23079-424: Was now building ships, which were seen to be as good as any in the world, which raised concern. Information about the design of the new battleships suggested they were only intended to operate within a short range of a home base and not to stay at sea for extended periods. They seemed designed only for operations in the North Sea . The result was that Britain abandoned its policy of isolation which had held force since

23236-558: Was officially an enemy. The Kaiser agreed to the plan and Tirpitz retired to St Blasien in the Black Forest with a team of naval specialists to draft a naval bill for presentation to the Reichstag. Information about the plan leaked out to Admiral Knorr , head of the Naval High Command . Tirpitz agreed to a joint committee to discuss changes in the navy, but then arranged that it never receive any information. Similarly, he arranged

23393-455: Was placed on a secondary armament of smaller guns to defend against them. The five Deutschland -class battleships constructed between 1903 and 1908 had similar armament as the Braunschweig class, but heavier armour, for the slightly greater sum of 24.5 million marks each. Development of armoured cruisers also continued. Fürst Bismarck ' s design was improved upon in the subsequent Prinz Heinrich , completed in 1902. Two ships of

23550-400: Was posted to a sailing ship patrolling the English Channel . In 1866 Prussia became part of the North German Confederation , the navy officially became that of the confederation and Tirpitz joined the new institution on 24 June 1869. On 22 September 1869 he had obtained the rank of Unterleutnant zur See (sub-lieutenant) and served on board the ironclad SMS  König Wilhelm . During

23707-542: Was promoted to Leutnant zur See (lieutenant at sea) and on 18 November 1875 to Kapitänleutnant (captain-lieutenant). In 1877 he was chosen to visit the Whitehead Torpedo development works at Fiume and afterwards was placed in charge of the German torpedo section, later renamed the Torpedo Inspectorate. By 1879 a working device had been produced, but even under demonstration conditions Tirpitz reckoned it

23864-629: Was replaced by the long-serving Admiral Georg Alexander von Müller . The existing Imperial admiralty was abolished and its responsibilities divided between two organisations. A new position of Chief of the Imperial Naval High Command was created, being responsible for ship deployments, strategy and tactics, an equivalent to the supreme commander of the Army. Vice admiral Max von der Goltz was appointed in 1889 and remained in post until 1895. Construction and maintenance of ships and obtaining supplies

24021-454: Was sufficient to alarm the British, starting a costly naval arms race and pushing the British into closer ties with the French. Tirpitz believed that the development of maritime power would advance Germany's economic interests and so serve as a "palliative against educated and uneducated Social Democrats". Tirpitz developed a "risk theory" whereby, if the German Imperial Navy reached a certain level of strength relative to Britain's Royal Navy,

24178-480: Was summoned home and offered the post of secretary of the Imperial Navy office ( Reichsmarineamt ). He went home the long way, touring the United States on the way and arriving in Berlin 6 June 1897. He was pessimistic of his chances of succeeding with the Reichstag. On 15 June Tirpitz presented a memorandum on the makeup and purpose of the German fleet to the Kaiser. This defined the principal enemy as Great Britain, and

24335-580: Was the daughter of a doctor. Tirpitz grew up in Frankfurt (Oder) . He recorded in his memoirs that as a child he was a mediocre pupil. Tirpitz spoke English fluently and was sufficiently at home in Britain that he sent his two daughters Ilse and Margot to Cheltenham Ladies' College . On 18 November 1884 he married Maria Augusta Lipke (born 11 October 1860 in Schwetz, West Prussia, died after 1941). On 12 June 1900 he

24492-522: Was the responsibility of the State Secretary of the Imperial Navy Office ( Reichsmarineamt ), responsible to the chancellor and advising the Reichstag on naval matters. The first appointee was Rear Admiral Karl Eduard Heusner , followed shortly by Rear Admiral Friedrich von Hollmann from 1890 to 1897. Each of these three heads of department reported separately to Wilhelm II. In 1895 funding

24649-532: Was to initiate negotiations with Britain for an agreed slow down in naval building. Negotiations came to nothing when in 1911 the Agadir Crisis brought France and Germany into conflict. Germany attempted to 'persuade' France to cede territory in the Middle Congo in return for giving France a free hand in Morocco. The effect was to raise concerns in Britain over Germany's expansionist aims, and encouraged Britain to form

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