The Thracian Goths , also known as Moesogoths or Moesian Goths , refers to the branches of Goths who settled in Thrace and Moesia , Roman provinces in the Balkans . These Goths were mentioned in the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries.
104-718: Emperor Valens (r. 364–378) settled Goths in Moesia and planned to use them for protection. In 382, the Thervingi received land in Moesia by treaty with Roman emperor Theodosius I . In the 460s, the Thracian Goths were recognized foederati (barbarian military aid to the Romans) of the Eastern Roman Empire , and seem to have prospered. They had an annual subsidy, and some influence due to their proximity to Constantinople. In 471,
208-570: A coup staged by Leo's widow to put her brother Basiliscus on the throne; however, Zeno won back power in 476 with his Isaurian troops. In 476/77, Zeno allied himself with Theodoric Strabo's rival, Theoderic the Great or Theoderic the Amal (r. 474–526), the successor of Theodemir, and ordered him to attack Strabo. The leader of the Thracian Goths sent an embassy to the Byzantine emperor, offering peace and blaming
312-531: A general disaffection and to the acceptability of a revolution. With the emperor absent from the imperial city, Procopius , a maternal cousin of Julian, declared himself augustus on 28 September 365. Procopius had held office under Constantius II and Julian and was rumored to have been Julian's intended successor, despite how he had died without naming one. Jovian, aside from depriving him of his command, took no measures against this potential rival, but Valentinian regarded Procopius with hostility. Procopius met
416-696: A great influence on the Armenian alphabet. The Armenian alphabet was created by Saint Mesrop Mashtots and Isaac of Armenia (Sahak Partev) in AD 405, primarily for a Bible translation into the Armenian language . Traditionally, the following phrase translated from Solomon 's Book of Proverbs is said to be the first sentence to be written down in Armenian by Mashtots: Ճանաչել զիմաստութիւն եւ զխրատ, իմանալ զբանս հանճարոյ : Čanačʿel zimastutʿiun yev zxrat, imanal zbans hančaroy. To know wisdom and instruction; to perceive
520-779: A significant part of the Armenian Highlands was the Kingdom of Urartu , also known as the Kingdom of Van or Ararat and called Biainili in the Urartian language used by its rulers. The kingdom competed with Assyria over supremacy in the highlands of Ararat and the Fertile Crescent . Both kingdoms fell to Iranian invaders from the east (the Medes , followed by the Achaemenid Persians ) in
624-508: The Arsacid dynasty of Armenia was founded when Tiridates I , a member of the Parthian Arsacid dynasty, was proclaimed King of Armenia in 52. Throughout most of its history during this period, Armenia was heavily contested between Rome and Parthia, and the Armenian nobility was divided among pro-Roman, pro-Parthian or neutral factions. From 114 to 118, Armenia briefly became a province of
728-630: The Balkan Mountains (Sondis), and were then told that their Roman gold awaited south of the mountain. Theoderic the Amal did not find the Roman reinforcement army he expected, but Theoderic Strabo's army instead, in a strongly fortified camp. Strabo provoked the Amal, running in front of the Moesian Gothic camp and claiming that the leadership of the Amal had reduced the Goths to fighting each other, and only for
832-534: The Carpathian Mountains , and the campaign ended with no decisive conclusion. The following spring, a Danube flood prevented Valens from crossing; instead the Emperor occupied his troops with the construction of fortifications. In 369, Valens crossed again, from Noviodunum , and by devastating the country forced Athanaric into giving battle . Valens was victorious, and took the title Gothicus Maximus in time for
936-681: The Cilician Gates into Syria . His first reaction was despair, and he considered abdication and perhaps even suicide. Procopius quickly gained control of the provinces of Asia and Bithynia , winning increasing support for his insurrection. Valens recovered his nerve and sent an army to Constantinople; according to Ammianus Marcellinus, the soldiers defected to Procopius, whose use of his Constantinian hostages had met with some success. Having reappointed Salutius, Valens dispatched more troops under veteran generals, Arinthaeus and Arbitio , to march on Procopius. According to Ammianus Marcellinus and
1040-696: The Hellenistic kingdoms of the Seleucid Empire . Under the Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC), the Armenian throne was divided in two—Greater Armenia (state) and Sophene —both of which passed to members of the Artaxiad dynasty in 189 BC. During the Roman Republic 's eastern expansion, the Kingdom of Armenia, under Tigranes the Great , reached its peak, from 83 to 69 BC, after it reincorporated Sophene and conquered
1144-527: The Huns to cross the river in the rear of Saturninus's ranged defenses. The Romans then fell back, incapable of containing the irruption, though with an elite force of his best soldiers the general Sebastian was able to fall upon and destroy several of the smaller predatory bands. By 378, Valens himself was ready to march west from his eastern base in Antioch . He withdrew all but a skeletal force—some of them Goths—from
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#17328444680181248-583: The Kingdom of Greater Armenia or simply Greater Armenia or Armenia Major (Armenian: Մեծ Հայք Mets Hayk ; Latin : Armenia Maior ), sometimes referred to as the Armenian Empire under Tigranes II , was a kingdom in the Ancient Near East which existed from 331 BC to 428 AD. Its history is divided into the successive reigns of three royal dynasties : Orontid (331 BC–200 BC), Artaxiad (189 BC–12 AD), and Arsacid (52–428). The root of
1352-554: The Marzpanate period over Persian Armenia . Those parts of historical Armenia remained firmly under Persian control until the Muslim conquest of Persia , while the Byzantine parts remained until being conquered, also by invading Arabic armies, in the 7th century. In 885, after years of Roman, Persian, and Arab rule, Armenia regained its independence under the Bagratuni dynasty . The army of
1456-508: The Persians in June 363, and his successor Jovian died the following February while traveling home to Constantinople. The Latin historian Ammianus Marcellinus relates that Valentinian was summoned to Nicaea by a council of military and civil officials, who acclaimed him augustus on 25 February 364. Valentinian appointed his brother Valens tribunus stabulorum (or stabuli ) on 1 March 364. It
1560-508: The Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan . The Kingdom of Armenia often served as a client state or vassal at the frontier of the two large empires and their successors, the Byzantine and Sassanid empires. In 301, Tiridates III proclaimed Christianity as the state religion of Armenia, making the Armenian kingdom the first state in history to embrace Christianity officially. In 387, Armenia
1664-581: The Seleucid Empire virtually at an end—and ruled peacefully for 17 years. During the zenith of his rule, Tigranes the Great extended Armenia's territory outside of the Armenian Highland over parts of the Caucasus and the area that is now south-eastern Turkey , Iran , Syria and Lebanon , becoming one of the most powerful states in the Roman East. Armenia became a Roman client kingdom in 66 BC, after
1768-488: The Seleucid Empire , he reunited Tmorik. Artaxias I was not able to reunite Lesser Armenia , Corduene , and Sophene , something completed by his grandson Tigranes the Great . At its peak, under Tigranes the Great, it incorporated, besides Armenia Major, Iberia , Albania , Cappadocia , Cilicia , Armenian Mesopotamia , Osroene , Adiabene , Syria , Assyria , Commagene , Sophene , Judea and Atropatene . Parthia and also some Arab tribes were vassals of Tigranes
1872-710: The 3rd century or in the beginning of the 4th century. The Armenian Second Legion had a permanent camp in one of the Northern provinces of the Orient, and built a camp in Satala . The Armenian Second legion is mentioned in the year 360 AD as a part of the garrison of Bezabda (anciently called Phoencia) in upper Tigris. In Bezabde the Armenian Second Legion served together with the Legions Parthica and II Flavia. In 390 AD Bezabde
1976-516: The 6th century BC. Its territory was reorganized into a satrapy called Armenia . The Orontid dynasty ruled as satraps of the Achaemenid Empire for three centuries until the empire was defeated by Alexander the Great 's Macedonian Empire at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, a Macedonian general named Neoptolemus obtained Armenia until he died in 321 BC and
2080-489: The Amal. Zeno believed that this offering was hiding further conspiracies, and obtained that the Byzantine senate and army declare Strabo a public enemy. Zeno planned to have the two Theoderics attack each other. He sent the Amal against Strabo, with the promise of a huge East Roman force as reinforcement (478). The Ostrogoths under king Theoderic advanced as far as Marcianopolis in Thrace in 478. The Moesian Goths prepared to cross
2184-414: The Armenian sparapet (general) Mushegh Mamikonian at Bagavan and Gandzak . Valens had overstepped the 363 treaty and then successfully defended his transgression. A truce settled after the 371 victory held as a quasi-peace for the next five years while Shapur was forced to deal with a Kushan invasion on his eastern frontier. Meanwhile, troubles broke out with the boy-king Pap, who purportedly had
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#17328444680182288-456: The Armenian patriarch Nerses assassinated and demanded control of a number of Roman cities, including Edessa . Controversy also ensued over the issue of the appointment of a new patriarch of Armenia, with Pap appointing a candidate without the traditional approval from Caesarea. Pressed by his generals and fearing that Pap would defect to the Persians, Valens made an unsuccessful attempt to capture
2392-557: The Gothic camp sometime before the left wing arrived. It was a very hot day and the Roman cavalry was engaged without strategic support, wasting its efforts and suffering in the heat. Meanwhile, Fritigern once again sent an emissary of peace in his continued manipulation of the situation. The resultant delay meant that the Romans present on the field began to succumb to the heat. The army's resources were further diminished when an ill-timed attack by
2496-498: The Goths after inviting them into his territory, and compared unfavourably with Gratian as a military commander. Valens decided to advance at once and win a victory on his own. According to the Latin historians Ammianus Marcellinus and Paulus Orosius , on 9 August 378, Valens and most of his army were killed fighting the Goths near Hadrianopolis in Thrace (Adrianople, Edirne ). Ammianus is
2600-618: The Great was brought to power by the Roman armies. After Gregory the Illuminator 's spreading of Christianity in Armenia, Tiridates accepted Christianity and made it his kingdom's official religion. The date of Armenia's conversion to Christianity is traditionally held to be 301, preceding the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great 's conversion and the Edict of Milan by a dozen years.In 387,
2704-452: The Kingdom of Armenia reached its peak under the reign of Tigranes the Great . According to the author of Judith , his army included chariots and 12,000 cavalrymen, most likely heavy cavalry or cataphracts , a unit also commonly used by Seleucids and Parthians. His army consisted mainly of 120,000 infantrymen and 12,000 mounted archers , also an important feature of the Parthian army . Like
2808-567: The Kingdom of Armenia was split between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sassanid Empire. Western Armenia first became a province of the Roman Empire under the name of Armenia Minor , and later Byzantine Armenia ; Eastern Armenia remained a kingdom within Persia until, in 428, the local nobility overthrew the king, and the Sassanids installed a marzban ( governor ) in his place, beginning
2912-483: The Kingdom of Armenia was the Kur River, which was also the border between Caucasian Albania and Kingdom of Armenia. After 331 BC, Armenia was divided into Lesser Armenia (a region of the Kingdom of Pontus ), the Kingdom of Armenia (corresponding to Armenia Major) and the Kingdom of Sophene . In 189 BC when Artashes I 's reign began, many neighboring countries ( Media , Caucasian Iberia , Seleucid Empire ) exploiting
3016-582: The Macedonian Empire, the last Orontid king, Orontes IV , was overthrown in 201/200 BC and the kingdom was taken over by a commander of the Seleucid Empire , Artaxias (Artashes) I , who is presumed to have been related to the Orontid dynasty himself. The Seleucid Empire 's influence over Armenia had weakened after it was defeated by the Romans in the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC. A Hellenistic Armenian state
3120-532: The Orontids returned, not as satraps, but as kings. Orontes III and the ruler of Lesser Armenia , Mithridates, recognized themselves independent, thus elevating the former Armenian satrapy into a kingdom, giving birth to the kingdoms of Armenia and Lesser Armenia. Orontes III also defeated the Thessalian commander Menon , who wanted to capture Sper 's gold mines. Weakened by the Seleucid Empire which succeeded
3224-417: The Roman archers made it necessary to recall Valens's emissary, comes Richomeres. The archers were beaten and retreated in humiliation. Returning from foraging to find the battle in full swing, Gothic cavalry under the command of Alatheus and Saphrax now struck and, in what was probably the most decisive event of the battle, the Roman cavalry fled. From here, Ammianus gives two accounts of Valens's demise. In
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3328-812: The Roman gain, to have none of the wealth for which they had moved from their territories. With this speech recalling the common interest of the Goths, Strabo forced the Amal to ask for peace. The two Theodorics agreed to put forward a joint request to the Emperor, in order to extend Moesian Gothic territory to the south. According to Jordanes ( fl. 551), the Moesian Goths were taught to write by Ulfilas (311–383). They were, according to him, still present in Moesia, "numerous, but poor and unwarlike, rich in nothing save flocks of various kids and pasture-lands for cattle and forests for wood ... Most of them drink milk". Valens Valens ( Ancient Greek : Ουάλης , romanized : Ouálēs ; 328 – 9 August 378)
3432-484: The Romans from stopping a Danube crossing by a group of Ostrogoths and yet later on by Huns and Alans . What started out as a controlled resettlement might any moment turn into a major invasion. But the situation was worsened by corruption in the Roman administration, as Valens's generals accepted bribes rather than depriving the Goths of their weapons as Valens had stipulated and then proceeded to enrage them by such exorbitant prices for food that they were soon driven to
3536-515: The Romans. After gaining Armenia in 60, then losing it in 62, the Romans sent the Legio XV Apollinaris from Pannonia to Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo , legatus of Syria . In 63, strengthened further by the legions III Gallica , V Macedonica , X Fretensis and XXII , General Corbulo entered into the territories of Vologases I of Parthia , who then returned the Armenian kingdom to Tiridates , king Vologases I's brother. An agreement
3640-503: The Seleucids, the bulk of Tigranes' army were foot soldiers. The Jewish historian Josephus talks of 500,000 men in total, including camp followers. These followers consisted of camels, donkeys, and mules used for baggage, sheep, cattle, and goats for food, said to be stocked in abundance for each man, and hoards of gold and silver. As a result, the marching Armenian army was listed as "a huge, irregular force, too many to count, like locusts or
3744-677: The Thracian Goths under Theodoric Strabo revolted after fearing they would be removed, Emperor Leo having come under the influence of his son-in-law, general Zeno . Two years later the Pannonian Goths ( Ostrogoths ) under Theodemir decided to move into Thrace, presumably wanting to share the benefits of the Thracian Goths. Leo made agreements with both Gothic groups, settling the Goths under Theodemir in Macedonia and renewing Strabo's subsidy and elevating him to magister militium . Zeno succeeded Leo after his death in 474, while Strabo supported
3848-712: The adoption of Christianity in the early 4th century, Zoroastrianism's influence in the kingdom gradually started to decline. Little is known about pre-Christian Armenian literature. Many literature pieces known to us were saved and then presented to us by Moses of Chorene . This is a pagan Armenian song, telling about the birth of Vahagn : Armenian version Երկնէր երկին, երկնէր երկիր, Երկնէր եւ ծովն ծիրանի, Երկն ի ծովուն ունէր և զկարմրիկն եղեգնիկ։ Ընդ եղեգան փող ծուխ ելանէր, Ընդ եղեգան փող բոց ելանէր, Եւ ի բոցոյն վազէր խարտեաշ պատանեկիկ։ Նա հուր հեր ունէր, Բոց ունէր մօրուս, Եւ աչքունքն էին արեգակունք։ Translation In travail were heaven and earth, In travail, too,
3952-674: The affairs of the pagans. Valens and his brother Valentinian were born, in 328 and 321 respectively, to an Illyrian family resident in Cibalae ( Vinkovci ) in Pannonia Secunda . Their father Gratianus Funarius , a native of Cibalae, had served as a senior officer in the Roman army and as comes Africae . The brothers grew up on estates purchased by Gratianus in Africa and Britain . Both were Christians, but favored different sects: Valentinian
4056-566: The aqueducts of Rome . In 376–77, the Gothic War broke out, following a mismanaged attempt to settle the Goths in the Balkans. Valens returned from the east to fight the Goths in person, but lack of coordination with his nephew, the western emperor Gratian (Valentinian I's son), as well as poor battle tactics, led to Valens and much of the eastern Roman army dying in a battle near Adrianople in 378. A capable administrator who significantly relieved
4160-613: The army on the Danube proclaimed augustus without consulting Gratian or Valens. Migrations of the Huns began to displace the Goths, who sought Roman protection. Valens allowed the Goths led by Fritigern to cross the Danube , but the Gothic settlers were abused by Roman officials and revolted in 377, seeking help from the Huns and the Alans and beginning the Gothic War (376–382) . Valens returned from
4264-472: The battle incapacitated the government. Emperor Gratian, nineteen years old, was unable to deal with the catastrophe, until he appointed Theodosius I . The total defeat cost the administration important precious metal resources, as bullion had been centralized with the imperial court. Valens was deified by consecratio as Latin: Divus Valens , lit. 'the Divine Valens';. "Valens
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4368-428: The battle was over, two-thirds of the eastern army lay dead. Many of their best officers had also perished. What was left of the army of Valens was led from the field under the cover of night by comes Richomeres and general Victor. J. B. Bury , a noted historian of the period, provides a specific interpretation on the significance of the battle: it was "a disaster and disgrace that need not have occurred." For Rome,
4472-556: The beauty of their horses and armor". Horses in Armenia, since ancient times were considered as the most important part and pride of the warrior. Since antiquity, Kingdom of Armenia had a cavalary called "Azatavrear", which consisted mainly of elite Armenians. "Azatavrear" cavalry made up the main part of the king's court. In medieval times, the cavalry were collected from nobles (usually the youngest sons of Armenian lords), and were known as Ayrudzi, or "horsemen." During times of peace, Armenian cavalry were divided into small groups which took
4576-643: The building of Artaxata. The new city was laid on a strategic position at the juncture of trade routes that connected the Ancient Greek world with Bactria , India and the Black Sea which permitted the Armenians to prosper. Tigranes the Great saw an opportunity for expansion in the constant civil strife to the south. In 83 BC, at the invitation of one of the factions in the interminable civil wars, he entered Syria, and soon established himself as ruler of Syria—putting
4680-442: The burden of taxation on the population, Valens is also described as indecisive, impressionable, a mediocre general and overall "utterly undistinguished". His suspicious and fearful disposition resulted in numerous treason trials and executions which heavily stained his reputation. In religious matters, Valens favored a compromise between Nicene Christianity and the various non-trinitarian Christian sects, and interfered little in
4784-548: The capital. Sohaemus , a Roman citizen of Armenian heritage, was installed as the new client king . But during an epidemic within the Roman forces, Parthians retook most of their lost territory in 166. Sohaemus retreated to Syria, and the Arsacid dynasty was restored to power in Armenia. After the fall of the Arsacid dynasty in Persia, the succeeding Sassanid Empire aspired to reestablish Persian control. The Sassanid Persians occupied Armenia in 252. However, in 287, Tiridates III
4888-591: The celebration of his quinquennalia . Athanaric and his forces were able to withdraw in good order and pleaded for peace. Fortunately for the Goths, Valens expected a new war with the Sasanid Empire in the Middle East and was therefore willing to come to terms. In early 370 Valens and Athanaric met in the middle of the Danube and agreed to a treaty that ended the war. The treaty seems to have largely cut off relations between Goths and Romans, confining trade and
4992-513: The combined barbarian group spread out to devastate the country before combining to meet Roman advance forces under Traianus and Richomeres . In a sanguinary battle at Ad Salices , the Goths were momentarily checked, and Saturninus , now Valens's lieutenant in the province, undertook a strategy of hemming them in between the lower Danube and the Euxine , hoping to starve them into surrender. However, Fritigern forced him to retreat by inviting some of
5096-467: The danger from the new emperors with his own bid for power, emphasizing his connection to the revered Constantinian Dynasty : during his public appearances he was always accompanied by Constantia, the posthumous daughter of Constantius II, and her mother Faustina , the dowager empress. News of the revolt reached Valens at Caesarea in Cappadocia ( Kayseri ), after most of his troops had already crossed
5200-540: The defection of the Arsacid Armenian king, Arshak II (Arsaces II), whom he quickly arrested and incarcerated. The Armenian nobility responded by asking Valens to return Arshak's son, Pap . Valens agreed and sent Pap back to Armenia, but as these events took place during the war with the Goths he could not support him militarily. In response to the return of Pap, Shapur personally led an invasion force to seize control of Armenia. Pap and his followers took refuge in
5304-415: The dozen years of his reign. "An anxious regard to his personal safety was the ruling principle of the administration of Valens", writes Gibbon . To have died in so inglorious a battle has thus come to be regarded as the nadir of an unfortunate career. This is especially true because of the profound consequences of Valens's defeat. Adrianople spelled the beginning of the end for Roman territorial integrity in
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#17328444680185408-427: The dust of the earth", not unlike many other enormous Eastern armies of the time. The smaller Cappadocian , Graeco-Phoenician, and Nabataean armies were generally no match for the sheer number of soldiers, with the organized Roman army with its legions eventually posing a much greater challenge to the Armenians. Note that the numbers given by Israelite historians of the time were probably exaggerated, considering
5512-409: The east and moved west, reaching Constantinople by 30 May, 378. The imperial councillors, comes Richomeres, and the generals Frigeridus and Victor cautioned Valens to wait for the arrival of the western army, a course Gratian also recommended in his letters. The populace of Constantinople was impatient at the delay and its opinion of Valens became hostile: he was criticized for failing to control
5616-630: The east to campaign against the Goths. He asked for assistance from his nephew and co-emperor Gratian against the Goths in Thrace, and Gratian set out eastwards, though Valens did not wait for the western armies to arrive before taking the offensive. Valens's plans for an eastern campaign were never realized. A transfer of troops to the Western Empire in 374 had left gaps in Valens's mobile forces. In preparation for an eastern war, Valens initiated an ambitious recruitment program designed to fill those gaps. It
5720-413: The efforts of the apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus . After persecutions by kings Sanatruk , Axidares , Khosrov I , and Tiridates III , Christianity was adopted as the state religion by Tiridates III after he was converted by Gregory the Illuminator . Armenia's adoption of Christianity as the state religion (the first country to do so) distinguished it from Parthian and Mazdaen influence. Until
5824-420: The enemy. In 376, the Visigoths under their leader Fritigern advanced to the far shores of the lower Danube and sent an ambassador to Valens who had set up his capital in Antioch , and requested asylum. As Valens's advisers were quick to point out, these Goths could supply troops who would at once swell Valens's ranks and decrease his dependence on conscription from provinces—thereby increasing revenues from
5928-433: The exchange of troops for tribute. As mentioned before, among Valens's reasons for contracting a hasty and not entirely favorable peace in 369 was the deteriorating state of affairs in the East. Jovian had surrendered Rome's much disputed claim to control over Armenia in 363, and Shapur II was eager to make good on this new opportunity. The Persian emperor began enticing Armenian lords over to his camp and eventually forced
6032-461: The faces of both emperors "heavy features", rendered with "no animation, and little consistency". Toward the end of his Res Gestae (XXXI.14.7), Ammianus says that Valens was physically compact, dark-complected, and of average height, " knock-kneed , and somewhat pot-bellied ", and had a "dimmed" pupil in one eye (the translator John C. Rolfe suggests that this is a description of a cataract ). Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity) Armenia , also
6136-407: The fact that the Hasmonean Jews lost the war against Tigranes. Plutarch wrote that the Armenian archers could kill from 200 meters with their deadly-accurate arrows. The Romans admired and respected the bravery and the warrior spirit of the Armenian Cavalry – the core of Tigran's Army. The Roman historian Sallustius Crispus wrote that the Armenian [Ayrudzi – lit. horsemen] Cavalry was "remarkable by
6240-432: The farms and vineyards of the province. Valens, marching north after defeating Procopius, surrounded them with a superior force and forced them to surrender. Ermanaric protested, and when Valens, encouraged by Valentinian, refused to make atonement to the Goths for his conduct, war was declared. In spring 367, Valens crossed the Danube and attacked the Visigoths under Athanaric , Ermanaric's tributary. The Goths fled into
6344-551: The final defeat of Armenia's ally, Mithridates VI of Pontus by Pompey at the Battle of the Lycus . Mark Antony invaded and defeated the kingdom in 34 BC, but the Romans lost hegemony during the Final War of the Roman Republic in 32–30 BC. In 20 BC, Augustus negotiated a truce with the Parthians , making Armenia a buffer zone between the two major powers. Augustus installed Tigranes V as king of Armenia in AD 6, but ruled with Erato of Armenia . The Romans then installed Mithridates of Armenia as client king. Mithridates
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#17328444680186448-407: The first account, Ammianus states that Valens was "mortally wounded by an arrow, and presently breathed his last breath" (XXXI.12). His body was never found or given a proper burial. In the second account, Ammianus states the Roman infantry was abandoned, surrounded and cut to pieces. Valens was wounded and carried to a small wooden hut. He died when the Goths, evidently unaware of the prize within, set
6552-431: The hut on fire (XXXI.13.14–16). A third, apocryphal, account states that Valens was struck in the face by a Gothic dart and then perished while leading a charge. He wore no helmet, in order to encourage his men. This action turned the tide of the battle which resulted in a tactical victory but a strategic loss. The church historian Socrates likewise gives two accounts for the death of Valens. Some have asserted that he
6656-402: The ill-fated Persian campaign of the emperor Julianus Apostata in 363. "Legio Armeniaca" translates from Latin as "Armenian Legion " and "Secunda" as "Second". Like the First legion, the Armenian Second Legion was one of the later-period Roman imperial legions. This legion is also mentioned in the Notitia Dignitatum. The Armenian Second Legion was thought to have been created around the end of
6760-430: The kingdom lies in one of the satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia called Armenia ( Satrapy of Armenia ), which was formed from the territory of the Kingdom of Ararat (860 BC–590 BC) after it was conquered by the Median Empire in 590 BC. The satrapy became a kingdom in 321 BC during the reign of the Orontid dynasty after the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great , which was then incorporated as one of
6864-432: The last extremity. Meanwhile, the Romans failed to prevent the crossing of other barbarians who were not included in the treaty. In early 377, the Goths revolted after a commotion with the people of Marcianopolis , and defeated the corrupt Roman governor Lupicinus near the city at the Battle of Marcianople . After joining forces with the Ostrogoths under Alatheus and Saphrax who had crossed without Valens's consent,
6968-420: The late Parthian period, Armenia was a predominantly Zoroastrian-adhering land. With the advent of Christianity, both paganism and Zoroastrianism gradually started to diminish. The founder of the Arsacid branch in Armenia , Tiridates I , was a Zoroastrian priest or magus. A noted episode which illustrates the observance by the Armenian Arsacids is the famous journey of Tiridates I to Rome in A.D. 65–66. With
7072-408: The late Empire and this fact was recognized even by contemporaries. Ammianus understood that it was the worst defeat in Roman history since the Battle of Edessa , and Rufinus called it "the beginning of evils for the Roman empire then and thereafter." Valens is also credited with the commission of a short history of the Roman State. This work, produced by Valens's secretary Eutropius , and known by
7176-452: The later Greek historians Socrates Scholasticus and Sozomen , the forces of Valens eventually prevailed after eight months, defeating Procopius in battles at Thyatira and Nacoleia . On both occasions, Procopius was deserted by his own following in fear of their adversaries' formidable commanders. Put on trial by members of his own escort, Procopius was executed on 27 May 366. Ammianus Marcellinus relates that Procopius's relative Marcellus
7280-425: The medieval period. During times of war, the number of Armenian cavalry would rise, with estimates ranging from 10,000 to at least 20,000 horsemen. Besides heavy cavalry, there was also light cavalry, which primarily consisted of mounted archers. "Legio Armeniaca" translates from Latin as "Armenian Legion" and "prima" as "first". The Armenian First Legion was one of the later-period Roman imperial legions. This Legion
7384-705: The mountains while Artaxata , the Armenian capital, and the city of Artogerassa along with several strongholds and castles were destroyed. Shapur sent a second invasion force to Caucasian Iberia to drive out the pro-Roman king Sauromaces II , and put his own appointee, Sauromaces's uncle Aspacures II , on the throne. In the summer following his Gothic settlement, Valens sent his magister peditum (Master of Foot) Arinthaeus to support Pap. The following spring twelve legions were sent under Terentius to regain Iberia and to garrison Armenia near Mount Npat. When Shapur counterattacked into Armenia in 371, his forces were bested by Valens's generals Traianus and Vadomarius and
7488-486: The name Breviarium ab Urbe condita , tells the story of Rome from its founding. According to some historians, Valens was motivated by the necessity of learning Roman history, that he, the royal family, and their appointees might better mix with the Roman senatorial class. During his reign, Valens had to confront the theological diversity that was beginning to create division in the Empire. Julian (361–363), had tried to revive
7592-477: The number of 200,000 warriors and almost a million all told, crossed the Danube, Valens's mobile forces were tied down in the east, on the Persian frontier (Valens was attempting to withdraw from the harsh terms imposed by Shapur and was meeting some resistance on the latter's part). This meant that only limitanei units were present to oversee the Goths' settlement. The small number of imperial troops present prevented
7696-515: The opportunities for action on the eastern frontier were limited by these skirmishes closer to home. Valens became the senior augustus on 17 November 375, after his older brother Valentinian died suddenly at Brigetio ( Szőny ) while on campaign against the Quadi in Pannonia. In the west, Valentinian was succeeded by his elder son Gratian , co-emperor since 367, and his younger son Valentinian II , whom
7800-469: The oppressive burden of the taxes which had been instituted by Constantine and his sons, and was humbly deferential to Valentinian's edicts of reform, as with the institution of Defensors (a sort of substitute for the ancient Tribunes , guardians of the lower classes). His moderation and chastity in his private life were everywhere celebrated. At the same time, continuous proscriptions and executions, originating in his weak and fearful disposition, disgraced
7904-455: The pagan religions. His reactionary attempt took advantage of the dissensions among the different Christian factions, and a largely Pagan rank and file military . However, in spite of broad support, his actions were often viewed as excessive, and before he died in a campaign against the Persians, he was often treated with disdain. His death was considered a sign from the Christian God. Valens
8008-489: The primary source for the battle. Valens opened the campaign with arrangements aimed at building his troop strength and gaining a toehold in Thrace, then moved out to Adrianople, from whence he marched against the confederated barbarian army. Although negotiations were attempted, these broke down when a Roman unit sallied forth and carried both sides into battle. Valens had left a sizeable guard with his baggage and treasures, depleting his force. His right cavalry wing arrived at
8112-413: The prince and later had him executed inside Armenia. In his stead, Valens imposed another Arsacid, Varazdat , who ruled under the regency of the sparapet Mushegh Mamikonian, a friend of Rome. None of this sat well with the Persians, who began agitating again for compliance with the 363 treaty. As the eastern frontier heated up in 375, Valens began preparations for a major expedition. Meanwhile, trouble
8216-467: The purple sea, The travail held in the sea the small red reed. Through the hollow of the stalk came forth smoke, Through the hollow of the stalk came forth flame, And out of the flame a youth ran․ Fiery hair had he, Ay, too, he had flaming beard, And his eyes, they were as suns. Before the Armenian alphabet was created, Armenians used the Aramaic and Greek alphabets , the last of which had
8320-423: The recruitment tax. However, it would mean hiring them and paying in gold or silver for their services. Fritigern and Valens knew each other from an alliance in the 370s against Athanaric, who had persecuted Gothic Christians . Though a number of Gothic groups apparently requested entry, Valens granted admission only to Fritigern and his followers. Others would soon follow, however. When Fritigern and his Goths, to
8424-460: The remaining territories of the falling Seleucid Empire, effectively ending its existence and raising Armenia into an empire for a brief period, until it was itself conquered by Rome in 69 BC. The remaining Artaxiad kings ruled as clients of Rome until they were overthrown in 12 AD due to their possible allegiance to Rome's main rival in the region, Parthia . During the Roman–Parthian Wars ,
8528-456: The roles of guarding the King and other Armenian lords, as well as their families. Some part of the Armenian cavalry force was always patrolling Armenian borders, under the command of an Armenian general ( sparapet ). The group of Armenian cavalry whose main mission was the protection of the Armenian king and his family consisted of 6000 heavily armored horsemen in the ancient period, and 3000 horsemen in
8632-678: The summer of 365, the 365 Crete earthquake and ensuing tsunami caused destruction around the Eastern Mediterranean. The empire had recently retreated from most of its holdings in Mesopotamia and Armenia , because of a treaty that Jovian had made with Shapur II of the Sasanian Empire. Valens's first priority after the winter of 365 was to move east in hopes of shoring up the situation. Recent tax increases, and Valens's dismissal of Julian's popular minister Salutius , contributed to
8736-759: The two augusti travelled together through Adrianople and Naissus to Mediana , where they divided their territories. Valens obtained the eastern half of the Empire: Greece , the Balkans , Egypt , Anatolia and the Levant as far as the border with the Sasanian Empire . Valentinian took the western half, where the Alemannic wars required his immediate attention. The brothers began their consulships in their respective capitals, Constantinople and Mediolanum ( Milan ). In
8840-615: The usurper Procopius in 366, and campaigned against the Goths across the Danube in 367 and 369. In the following years, Valens focused on the eastern frontier, where he faced the perennial threat of Persia , particularly in Armenia , as well as additional conflicts with the Saracens and Isaurians . Domestically, he inaugurated the Aqueduct of Valens in Constantinople , which was longer than all
8944-490: The weakened state of the kingdom, conquered its remote regions. Strabo says that Artaxias I campaigned in the east and reunited Caspiane and Paytakaran , then campaigned in the north, defeated the Iberians , reuniting Gugark ( Strabo also notes that Iberia recognized themselves as vassals of the Kingdom of Armenia at this time), to the west, reuniting Karin , Ekeghik and Derjan and to the south, where, after many battles with
9048-432: The words of understanding. By the 2nd century BC, according to Strabo , the inhabitants of Greater Armenia spoke the Armenian language , implying that modern Armenians descended from that population. The Kingdom of Armenia was bordered by Caucasian Albania in the east, Iberia in the north, the Roman Empire in the west, and Parthia, later succeeded by Sassanian Empire, in the south. The border between Iberia and
9152-526: Was Roman emperor from 364 to 378. Following a largely unremarkable military career, he was named co-emperor by his elder brother Valentinian I , who gave him the eastern half of the Roman Empire to rule. In 378, Valens was defeated and killed at the Battle of Adrianople against the invading Goths , which astonished contemporaries and marked the beginning of barbarian encroachment into Roman territory. As emperor, Valens continually faced threats both internal and external. He defeated, after some dithering,
9256-405: Was a Nicene Christian and Valens was an Arian Christian (specifically a Homoean ). In adulthood, Valens served in the protectores domestici under the emperors Julian and Jovian . According to the 5th-century Greek historian Socrates Scholasticus , Valens refused pressure to offer pagan sacrifices during the reign of the polytheist emperor Julian. Julian was killed in battle against
9360-557: Was arrested by Caligula , but later restored by Claudius . Subsequently, Armenia was often a focus of contention between Rome and Parthia, with both major powers supporting opposing sovereigns and usurpers . The Parthians forced Armenia into submission in AD 37, but in AD 47 the Romans retook control of the kingdom. In AD 51 Armenia fell to an Iberian invasion sponsored by Parthia, led by Rhadamistus . Tigranes VI of Armenia ruled from AD 58, again installed by Roman support. The period of turmoil ends in AD 66, when Tiridates I of Armenia
9464-636: Was baptised by the Arian bishop of Constantinople before he set out on his first war against the Goths . While the Nicene Christian writers of his time identified Valens with the Arian faction and accused him of persecuting Nicene Christians, modern historians have described both Valens and Valentinian I as primarily interested in maintaining social order and have minimized their theological concerns. Although Athanasius
9568-513: Was brewing elsewhere. In Isauria , the mountainous region of western Cilicia , a major revolt had broken out in 375 which diverted troops formerly stationed in the East. Furthermore, by 377, the Saracens under Queen Mavia had broken into revolt and devastated a swath of territory stretching from Phoenicia and Palestine as far as the Sinai . Though Valens successfully brought both uprisings under control,
9672-489: Was burnt to death in a village whither he had retired, which the barbarians assaulted and set on fire. But others affirm that having put off his imperial robe he ran into the midst of the main body of infantry; and that when the cavalry revolted and refused to engage, the infantry were surrounded by the barbarians, and completely destroyed in a body. Among these it is said the Emperor fell, but could not be distinguished, in consequence of his not having on his imperial habit. When
9776-540: Was crowned king of Armenia by Nero . For the remaining duration of the Armenian kingdom, Rome still considered it a client kingdom de jure , but the ruling dynasty was of Parthian extraction, and contemporary Roman writers thought that Nero had de facto yielded Armenia to the Parthians. Under Nero , the Romans fought a campaign (55–63) against the Parthian Empire , which had invaded the Kingdom of Armenia, allied with
9880-599: Was impelled, under his reign, to briefly go into hiding, Valens maintained a close dependency on his brother Valentinian and treated St. Basil mildly, both of whom supported the Nicene position. Not long after Valens died the cause of Arianism in the Roman East was to come to an end. His successor Theodosius I made Nicene Christianity the state religion of Rome and suppressed the Arians. The coin portraits of Valentinian and Valens give
9984-475: Was mentioned in the late-antique text known as Notitia Dignitatum . It is most likely that the Armenian First Legion was formed in the 2nd or 3rd century AD, in the western part of the Kingdom, with the mission to protect the lands of Armenia from intrusion. It might first have been the garrison of Armenian lands which had been under the control of the Roman Empire . The Armenian First Legion took part in
10088-498: Was partitioned into Byzantine Armenia and Persian Armenia . The last Arsacid king of Armenia was deposed in 428, ending independent Armenian statehood until the emergence of Bagratid Armenia in the 9th century. Prior to the 9th century BC, the geographic region known as the Armenian Highlands was inhabited by Proto-Armenian and other tribes which did not yet constitute a unitary state or nation. The first state to rule over
10192-668: Was proclaimed emperor in his place, but according to Zosimus he was swiftly captured and executed. Valens could turn his attention back to external enemies, the Sasanian Empire and the Goths . During Procopius's insurrection, the Gothic king Ermanaric , who ruled a powerful kingdom north of the Danube from the Euxine to the Baltic Sea , had engaged to supply him with troops for the struggle against Valens. The Gothic army, reportedly numbering 30,000 men, arrived too late to help Procopius, but nevertheless invaded Thrace and began plundering
10296-519: Was reached at the Treaty of Rhandeia in 63, according to which members of the Parthian Arsacid dynasty would rule Armenia as client kings of Rome. Another campaign was led by Emperor Lucius Verus in 162–165, after Vologases IV of Parthia had invaded Armenia and installed his chief general on its throne. To counter the Parthian threat, Verus set out for the east. His army won significant victories and retook
10400-567: Was taken by the Persian army, and a terrible bloodbath ensued against the inhabitants and garrison. The legion seemed to have survived this battle, because it appears in Notitia Dignitatum, which was written in the 5th century. Later on, the Armenian Second legion became a part of the Byzantine army. The pre-Christian Armenian pantheon included: During the 1st century AD, Christianity spread through Armenia due to (according to legend)
10504-571: Was the general opinion that Valentinian needed help to handle the administration, civil and military, of the large and unwieldy empire, and, on 28 March, at the express demand of the soldiers for a second augustus , he selected Valens as co-emperor at the Hebdomon , before the Constantinian Walls . Both emperors were briefly ill, delaying them in Constantinople. As soon as they recovered,
10608-524: Was thus founded in the same year by Artaxias I alongside the Armenian kingdom of Sophene led by Zariadres . Artaxias seized Yervandashat , united the Armenian Highlands at the expense of neighboring tribes and founded the new royal capital of Artaxata near the Araxes River . According to Strabo and Plutarch , Hannibal received hospitality at the Armenian court of Artaxias I. The authors add an apocryphal story of how Hannibal planned and supervised
10712-536: Was thus not entirely unwelcome news when Valens heard of Ermanaric 's death and the disintegration of his kingdom before an invasion of hordes of barbaric Huns from the far east. After failing to hold the Dniester or the Prut rivers against the Huns, the Goths retreated southward in a massive emigration, seeking new settlements and shelter south of the Danube , i.e. Roman lands, which they may have thought could be held against
10816-401: Was utterly undistinguished, still only a protector , and possessed no military ability: he betrayed his consciousness of inferiority by his nervous suspicion of plots and savage punishment of alleged traitors," writes A. H. M. Jones . But Jones admits that "he was a conscientious administrator, careful of the interests of the humble. Like his brother, he was an earnest Christian." He diminished
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