Tezcatlipoca Classical Nahuatl : Tēzcatlipōca [/teːzcat͡ɬiːˈpoːcaʔ/] ) or Tezcatl Ipoca was a central deity in Aztec religion . He is associated with a variety of concepts, including the night sky , hurricanes , obsidian , and conflict. He was considered one of the four sons of Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl , the primordial dual deity. His main festival was Toxcatl , which, like most religious festivals of Aztec culture, involved human sacrifice .
127-526: Tezcatlipoca's nagual , his animal counterpart, was the jaguar . In the form of a jaguar he became the deity Tepeyollotl ("Mountainheart"). In one of the two main Aztec calendars (the Tonalpohualli ), Tezcatlipoca ruled the trecena 1 Ocelotl ("1 Jaguar"); he was also patron of the days with the name Acatl ("reed"). A strong connection with the calendar as a whole is suggested by his depiction in texts such as
254-468: A Nagual (from the Nahuatl word nāhualli ) refers to a human being who can access spiritual power through transformation or deep connection with their tonal counterpart. This ability is not merely about shapeshifting but also about guiding spiritual development and fostering personal transformation by bridging the physical and metaphysical realms. Nagualism involves the belief that each person possesses
381-508: A "threshold between art and science." The "golden age" of Mexican feather work lasted until the very beginning of the 17th-century, when it declined because the old masters disappeared. At this time, demand for the work declined as well, because the Spanish began to disdain indigenous handcrafts and oil painting became preferred for the production of religious images. In the 17th-century, imagery done in feather work became more varied, including
508-433: A close relationship developed between traders and feather workers. Certain areas were required to pay tribute in raw feathers and other in finished feather goods, but no area was required to provide both. Cuetzalan paid tribute to Moctezuma in the form of quetzal feathers. This demand was so great that it led to the local extinction of quetzals in that region, leaving only the name of a local tree, quetzalcuahuitl , where
635-520: A creative exchange with Europe. Featherwork pieces took on European motifs in Mexico. Feathers and feather works became prized in Europe. The "golden age" for this technique as an art form was from just before the Spanish conquest to about a century afterwards. At the beginning of the 17th century, it began a decline due to the death of the old masters, the disappearance of the birds that provide fine feathers and
762-410: A design. Many iconographic elements highlight Tezcatlipoca's role as a warrior, including his shield, his anahuatl breastplate, his arrow nose ring , and his spears, or arrows. Scholar Juan José Batalla Rosado has identified an iconographic element unique to depictions of Tezcatlipoca in codices from central Mexico, which both Rosado and Sahagún call the " ezpitzal ." The term is likely derived from
889-466: A dual aspect: the tonal , representing their everyday awareness and ego, and the nagual , representing their deeper, limitless self. The Nagual serves as a guide, helping individuals access hidden potential and spiritual insight by harmonizing these two aspects. In Mesoamerican folk religion , a nagual (pronounced [na'wal]) or nahual (both from the Nahuatl word nāhualli [naˈwaːlːi] )
1016-417: A fixed humidity, darkness and low temperature. However, this renders the piece unobservable. These objects can be exhibited in galleries, museums and private collections with minimal decay if temperature and humidity are controlled and light kept to a minimum. Perhaps the best known piece is the so-called Montezuma's headdress. Despite its name, research has proven that it was not worn by the Aztec emperor. It
1143-450: A list of the species used for fine feathers, many of which are now either threatened or locally extinct. These include the mountain trogon , lovely cotinga , roseate spoonbill , squirrel cuckoo , red-legged honeycreeper , emerald toucanet , agami heron , russet-crowned motmot , turquoise-browed motmot , blue grosbeak , golden eagle , great egret , military macaw , scarlet macaw , yellow-headed amazon , Montezuma oropendola and
1270-487: A result of Mexican influence, they did not appear until after the mid 16th-century. European engravings were used as a model for feather images created for miters which today can be still found in Milan, Florence and New York. However, these and other Christian images were not exact copies of the prints as elements from several prints were combined and even pre Hispanic motifs appeared in some. These miters served as an innovation in
1397-535: A snake. Although there are striking similarities between possible earlier imagery of Tezcatlipoca, archaeologists and art historians are split in the debate. It is possible that he is the same god that the Olmec and Maya term their "jaguar deity", or alternately that he is an Aztec expansion on foundations set by the Olmec and Maya, as the Aztecs routinely took deliberate inspiration from earlier Mesoamerican cultures. Tezcatlipoca
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#17328510815661524-405: A statue of the god for which copal incense was burned four times a day. The Codex Magliabechiano contains a passage relating Tezcatlipoca with the temascal , or sweatbath. The text states, "when any sick person went to the bath house, [they] offered incense, which they call copal , to the idol and covered the body in black in veneration of the idol they call Tezcatepocatl [Tezcatlipoca], who
1651-408: A tomato, or like a pebble, as if hewn of wood ... He who was thus, without flaw, who had no [bodily] defects, who had no blemishes, no moles, who had no lacerations or wrinkles on his body, they then looked well that he be taught to blow the flute ... For the duration of Toxcatl's preparation, the teixiptla lived as a god would, wearing expensive jewelry and having eight attendants. The young man also
1778-402: A warrior." He would then be wed to four young women, also chosen in advance and isolated for a full year and treated as goddesses. This marriage, occurring after a full year of abstinence, symbolized a period of fertility which followed the drought. The young man would spend his last week singing, feasting and dancing. During the feast where he was worshipped as the deity he personified, he climbed
1905-420: A wide variety of birds, generally worked on a paper base, made from cotton and paste, then itself backed with amate paper, but bases of other types of paper and directly on amate were done as well. These works were done in layers with "common" feathers, dyed feathers and precious feathers. First a model was made with lower quality feathers and the precious feathers found only on the top layer. The adhesive for
2032-593: Is "Sacras de Ambras" at the Kunsthistorisches Museum . Here, black feathers are pasted over a ribbon of small white feathers. One particularly notable area of colonial feather working was in Patzcauaro, Michoacán. These workers maintained many of the ancient privileges of pre Hispanic feather workers. Mesoamerican feather work inspired European works such as the Libro di piume (The Feather Book) by Dionisio Minaggio,
2159-531: Is Mesoamerican in origin. Nagualism is linked with pre-Columbian shamanistic practices through Pre-classic Olmec and Toltec depictions that are interpreted as human beings transforming themselves into animals. The system is linked with the Mesoamerican calendrical system , used for divination rituals. Birth dates often determine if a person can become a nagual. Mesoamerican belief in tonalism , wherein every person has an animal counterpart to which their life force
2286-402: Is a human being who has the power to shapeshift into their tonal animal counterpart. Nagualism is tied to the belief one can access power and spiritual insight by connecting with the tonal animal within. The word nagual derives from the Nahuatl word nāhualli [naˈwaːlːi] , an indigenous religious practitioner, identified by the Spanish as a 'magician'. In English, the word
2413-399: Is acquired at birth, along with other characteristics associated with a person's birth day. Each day is associated with an animal that has strong and weak aspects. A person born on "Dog Day" would have both strong and weak 'dog' aspects. In Nahuatl the word tonalli is used to refer both to a day and to the animal associated with that day. The nagual is considered different; where the tonal
2540-519: Is also recounted in the legends of Tollan , wherein Tezcatlipoca deceives Quetzalcoatl, ruler of the legendary city, and forces him into exile. Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca both collaborated in the different creations and that both were seen as instrumental in the creation of life. Karl Taube and Mary Miller, specialists in Mesoamerican studies, write that, "More than anything Tezcatlipoca appears to be
2667-465: Is also shown with two unaltered feet, but does possess the white sandals, armbands, and adorned ears and head of Tezcatlipoca. He also carries arrows and a spear, the typical weapons of the war god. Finally, perhaps coincidentally, the figure is bounded on the left side by the symbols for acatl (reed) and tecpatl (flint knife), both of which are associated with Tezcatlipoca. Depicting either Tezcatlipoca and Xiuhtecutli surrounded by calendrical symbols
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#17328510815662794-426: Is an overall consensus that it is a general holy place to worship the gods, specifically mentioned as "his [Tezcatlipoca's] viewing place". The priests of Tezcatlipoca often wore the ornaments of the god and wore specific garments for different rituals. Most frequently worn were white turkey feather headdresses, a paper loincloth, and a tzanatl stick with similar feathers and paper decorations. Another common practice
2921-525: Is attributed to painter Juan Correa . The clothing is done in feathers but the face and hands were done in oil. However, a number of important feather mosaic pieces remain in Mexico. San Pedro is a work from the 16th-century, found at the archbishopric of Puebla and shows Roman influence in the style. Another piece in Puebla is a portrait of Juan de Palafox y Mendoza , who protected the Indians in Puebla. La Piedad
3048-663: Is certain for some groups and communities, but for others, such as the Mixes, Chinantecos, Triquis, or Tacuates, those who can control their nahual or alterego are protectors of the people, natural resources and culture of the community, highly revered, but also feared. The nagual was popularized in shamanism books by author Carlos Castaneda . The practice of Nagualism was often accompanied by use of hallucinogens , including peyote , ololiuqui , and psylocibin mushrooms known as teonanácatl . Use of these medicinal herbs were said to unlock powers of perception and insight in those performing
3175-581: Is deeply tied to the energetic realms beyond the material world, known as the Tonal and Nagual. While the Tonal encompasses the rational, known aspects of reality, the Nagual represents the unknown and limitless potential of pure energy. The Nagual is not only a universal force but also a person who has achieved mastery over this force, guiding others through personal and spiritual evolution. The Nagual in its universal form
3302-550: Is equally logical in both cases, as Tezcatlipoca is represented in other codices in association with the calendar, and Xiuhtecutli was a god of the sun and passage of time. The page also features the ollin symbol, a trecena that additionally represented eras of time, including the five suns . These mythological eras were begun by Tezcatlipoca, but Aztec festivals which celebrated the completion of eras involved worship of Xiuhtecutli. The codex features additional, more standardized depictions of both deities in its later pages. Many of
3429-619: Is from the 17th century at the Franz Mayer Museum . It depicts Mary with Jesus dead on her lap. Another piece in this museum is the Virgen del Rosario, from the 17th century, with the imagery of the Rosary important to counter Islam and Protestantism. One important 16th-century image is Salvator Mundi at the Museum of Tepotzotlan . It shows influence from Byzantine iconography including Asian features. In
3556-700: Is in the creation of traditional dance costumes. These include the headdresses for dances such as the Quetzales in Puebla and the Concheros performed in various parts of central Mexico. In Oaxaca, there is the Dance of the Feather, which used dyed ostrich feathers and for the Dance of Calala, in Suchiapa , Chiapas, the main dancer uses a fan of turkey and rooster feathers. Ostrich feathers are
3683-565: Is known of this trade. Exotic feathers themselves were exported to Europe and used to adorn hats, horses and clothing. The importance of feather work and the impression it made on the Spanish is documented by Spaniards such as Hernán Cortés, Francisco de Aguilar , Bartolomé de las Casas , Bernal Díaz del Castillo , Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés , Francisco López de Gómara , Peter Martyr , Fray Bernardino de Sahagún and Andres de Tapia . Feathers add chromatic and luminous feathers difficult to create with paints, although oil painting at
3810-719: Is linked, is drawn upon by nagualism. However, modern scholars have struggled to grasp the ever-evolving and contentious meanings associated with Mesoamerican Nahua terms like nahualli and tonalli. This includes their derivatives, such as nahualismo and tonalismo. Hence, it's recommended to use clearer, descriptive language. For instance, instead of discussing nahualism, we can talk about the belief that certain individuals, often in influential social roles, possess specific spiritual abilities. These abilities allow them to transform into animals or even natural phenomena like lightning, wind, clouds, or fireballs, enabling them to perform remarkable feats while in these "disguises." The nagual trait
3937-546: Is not pre-Columbian , arguing that it was wholly imported from Europe, where he compared it to the medieval belief in werewolves . However, shapeshifting folklore is not limited to Europe, nor to the Middle Ages; for example, some of Earth's oldest literature, the Bronze Age Eastern Semitic Epic of Gilgamesh , and East Asia's Huli Jing (origin of this folklore is of unknown date, but eighteenth century at
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4064-429: Is often translated as "transforming witch," but translations without negative connotations include "transforming trickster ," " shape shifter ," "pure spirit ," or "pure being ." In the context of Toltec teachings, a Nagual (from the Nahuatl word "nāhualli") refers to both the unmanifested energy field of the universe and an individual with the ability to channel that energy for spiritual transformation. The concept
4191-562: Is often translated from the Nahuatl as "smoking mirror." It alludes to his connection to obsidian , the material from which mirrors were made in Mesoamerica . They were used for shamanic rituals and prophecy, and as such Tezcatlipoca is additionally associated with divination. Tezcatlipoca had many epithets which alluded to different aspects of his deity and also point to his centrality in Aztec worship. Bernardino de Sahagún , in Book VI of
4318-616: Is one of the first copies of the image. Another important 17th-century piece depicts the Assumption of Mary , now in the Museum of the Americas in Madrid . More modification of the technique occurred in the 18th century, perhaps because it was no longer done only by the indigenous. Feather work was supplemented with the use of oil paint to depict people (especially faces and hands), landscapes and animals and tiny strips of paper were dropped along with
4445-460: Is one of their major gods." Despite these references, Mary Miller states that the deity actually depicted in codex illustrations and the one more likely to be associated with the temascal is Tlazoteotl . Tezcatlipoca's main feast was Toxcatl, which occurred during the eponymous fifth month of the Aztec calendar . The preparations began a year in advance, when a young man was chosen by priests to become
4572-691: Is part of the Vatican's collection. Grandson Hans Matias Olay specializes in reproducing the birds and flowers that the Nahuas in Guerrero paint on amate paper. In 1990, the National Museum of Anthropology held an exhibit of works by Gabriel Olay Ramos and his sisters Gloria and Esperanza. Olay Ramos lives in Mexico City and mostly uses rooster and hen feathers dyed in different colors. The Olays try to maintain as much of
4699-603: Is the Misa de San Gregorio at the Museum of the Jacobins in Auch , France. It was commissioned by Diego de Huanitzin , a converted member of Moctezuma's family and Pedro de Gante . It was probably made by artisans from San Jose de Belen de los Naturales. It is dated 1539 and given as a gift to Pope Paul III by Antonio de Mendoza , according to the inscription, following the papal bull that declared
4826-406: Is the day spirit itself, the nagual is the familiar spirit of the day. It is probable that the tonal represents the daytime aspect and the nagual the nighttime aspect of the tonalli, 'the things of the day'. Practitioners of powerful magic were normally born on days related to animals with a strong or harmful aspect. They would have specific tonals such as the jaguar or puma . In Aztec mythology
4953-423: Is the energy field from which all creation arises. It is unbounded by time, space, or form, and exists as pure potentiality. Toltec spiritual seekers aim to access this vast, unknown realm to transcend the limits of the Tonal, expanding their awareness and spiritual capacities. In Toltec terms, this corresponds to a state of total freedom and unity with the universe. An individual Nagual is a person who can traverse
5080-501: Is the making of wedding huipils in the town of Zinacantán in Chiapas. Although research has shown this practice is descended from the Mesoamerican one, it is still different. The Mesoamerican feathered cloth was made with thread made of cotton fiber and feathers done on a backstrap loom, which the current wedding huipils incorporate feathers into commercially spun cotton thread. When the Spanish arrived to Mexico, they were impressed with
5207-545: The Florentine Codex , refers to Tezcatlipoca with 360 different forms. These include: Few representations of Tezcatlipoca survive into the present day, due in large part to a significant portion of codices being destroyed by Catholic priests. Simultaneously, some Aztec texts note that the darkness and omnipresence of Tezcatlipoca make him something akin to "invisible", thus direct representations of him are considered inadequate or even impossible. Still, multiple depictions of
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5334-656: The Academy of San Carlos with the goal of applying them to feather work. Her most valuable work in this medium includes several portraits, copied from photographs with precision. Her images are placed on a base of light-colored feathers with the images arranged using crepe paper cut outs and colored feathers. However, she, too, no longer works with this technique. Those who still continue to work with it include Elena Sanchez Garrido, who combines feather work and watercolors, and Tita Bilbaro who makes Aztec and modern style images using feathers, sand, fabric, leather, mirrors an sea shells. In
5461-515: The Codex Borgia and Codex Fejéváry-Mayer , where Tezcatlipoca is surrounded by day signs, implying a sort of mastery over them. A talisman related to Tezcatlipoca was a disc worn as a chest pectoral, called the anahuatl . This talisman was carved out of abalone shell and depicted on the chest of both Huitzilopochtli and Tezcatlipoca in codex illustrations. The origins of Tezcatlipoca can be traced to earlier Mesoamerican deities worshipped by
5588-583: The Codex Fejéváry-Mayer , one of the more well-known images from Aztec codices, features a god circumscribed in the 20 trecena , or day symbols, of the Tōnalpōhualli . The exact identity of this god is unclear, but is most likely either Tezcatlipoca or Xiuhtecutli . The figure has yellow and black face paint, as is characteristic of Tezcatlipoca. But as Olivier points out, "gods like Xiuhtecutli or Huitzilopoctli have similar facial painting." The figure
5715-498: The Conquest , some of which are part of the collection of the Museum of Ethnology in Vienna , such as Montezuma's headdress , the ceremonial coat of arms and the great fan or fly whisk. Other important examples such as shields are in museums in Mexico City. The Florentine Codex gives information about how feather works were created. The amantecas had two ways of creating their works. One
5842-468: The Florentine Codex how the teixiptla must possess certain physical qualities in order to be worthy of becoming Tezcatlipoca: For he who was chosen was of fair countenance, of good understanding and quick, clean body— slender like a reed; long and thin like a stout cane; well-built; not of overfed body, not corpulent, and neither very small nor exceedingly tall. [He was] like something smoothed, like
5969-592: The Mayas , with depictions of them on the murals at Bonampak . The Mayans also raised birds in part for feathers. Toltec groups were making feathered items from black and white feathers of local origin. The most developed use of feathers in Mesoamerica was among the Aztecs , Tlaxcaltecs and Purepecha . Feathers were used to make many types of objects from arrows, fly whisks, fans, complicated headdresses and fine clothing. By
6096-462: The Nagual and the Tonal is one of balance. While the Tonal represents all that is known—our identity, the world, the self—the Nagual is everything that remains beyond understanding, including the energy field from which the Tonal arises. Achieving personal mastery means integrating these two forces, realizing the limits of the Tonal, and embracing the vastness of the Nagual. In modern spirituality,
6223-554: The Nagual can be found across global traditions. In Buddhism , it can be likened to the concept of Shunyata (emptiness), or in Hinduism , to Brahman , the ultimate, unchanging reality. Both describe states of being or energy that transcend the known and manifest world, much like the Toltec Nagual does. The Nagual is central to personal transformation in Toltec teachings. By accessing
6350-579: The Nagual has parallels to concepts like the Higher Self or Universal Consciousness. Although rooted in Mesoamerican spirituality, it speaks to a universal human experience of accessing deeper layers of awareness. Through practices such as meditation, energy work, and heightened states of consciousness, individuals aim to tap into the Nagual as a source of transformation, much like other traditions that seek unity with universal energy. While unique to Toltec and Mesoamerican spirituality, similar archetypes to
6477-577: The Olmec and Maya . Similarities exist between Tezcatlipoca and the patron deity of the K'iche' Maya , Tohil , as described in the Popol Vuh . The name Tohil refers to obsidian and he was associated with sacrifice. The Classic Maya god of rulership and thunder, K'awiil (known to modern Mayanists as "God K", or the "Manikin Scepter"), was depicted with a smoking obsidian knife in his forehead and one leg replaced with
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#17328510815666604-524: The Templo Mayor . According to Diego Durán , it was "lofty and magnificently built. Eighty steps led to a landing twelve or fourteen feet wide. Beyond it stood a wide, long chamber the size of a great hall ...". There were several smaller temples dedicated to Tezcatlipoca in the city, among them the ones called "Tlacochcalco" and "Huitznahuatl". Tezcatlipoca was also worshipped in many other Nahua cities such as Texcoco , Tlaxcala and Chalco . Each temple had
6731-514: The Virgin of Guadalupe and those from European mythology , especially on fans for ladies. Techniques changed to include a profusion of paper strips on mosaics, replacing the earlier use of gold trimmings. One image of the Virgin of Guadalupe is completely of feathers. While she is clothed in the usual way, the image lacks many of the decorations and symbols that are now standard. This may indicate that this
6858-453: The 15th month. For Aztec nobility, this "patron deity" is fundamental in the social and natural phenomena justified by religion during this time. Extreme reverence and respect, characterized by ceremonial proceedings in which priests were "to pay homage" to Tezcatlipoca, or where "citizens waited expectantly" for ceremonial proceedings to start under the low hum of "shell trumpets," were commonplace, especially for this deity. Utter respect from
6985-657: The 16th to 18th century, with pieces reaching courts in Prague, Abras Castle, El Escorial and various other cities in Europe. Some even went as far as China, Japan and Mozambique . In addition to the images, feathers were used to adorn priests' clothing such as chasubles, rain capes and miters . They also made feather decorations for church altars and convents. Feathered miters and other vestments were sent and gifted to European bishops, especially in southern Europe and were used while conducting Mass. Although there are no written records to indicate that this use of feathered vestments were
7112-470: The 20th-century, feather work existed as a handcraft, rather than as art. One reason for this was that the disappearance of many bird species has led to a lack of fine feathers. In the first half of the century feather work images were almost exclusively of postcards or other informal forms, with images of cockfights or birds made with dyed chicken or turkey feathers. Manuel Gamio tried to revive feather work's artistic nature. In 1920 he designed and supervised
7239-418: The 21st century. One reason for this is the care needed to maintain the pieces. It is important to know the characteristics of each type of feather to use and preserve them correctly. The best feathers to use are those that have been molted, as they have less organic materials and less likely to deteriorate. A feather object can last indefinitely if it is preserved in a hermetically sealed case of inert gas, with
7366-460: The Aztec Empire. The feathers were obtained from wild birds as well as from domesticated turkeys and ducks, with the finest feathers coming from Chiapas, Guatemala and Honduras . These feathers were obtained through trade and tribute. Feathers functioned as a kind of currency along with cocoa beans, and were a popular trade item because of their value and ease of transport over long distances and
7493-623: The Aztecs: the culture hero , Quetzalcoatl . In one version of the Aztec creation account the myth of the Five Suns , the first creation, "The Sun of the Earth" was ruled by Tezcatlipoca but destroyed by Quetzalcoatl when he struck down Tezcatlipoca who then transformed into a jaguar. Quetzalcoatl became the ruler of the subsequent creation "Sun of Water", and Tezcatlipoca destroyed the third creation "The Sun of Wind" by striking down Quetzalcoatl. In later myths,
7620-505: The Conquest, the art of working with feathers survived, but on a lesser scale and its uses changed. pagan ritual use ended with Christian evangelization, with some surviving works conveying Christian religious themes. Featherwork's use in war also remained. One type of feather work to remains strong was the creation of mosaics, many of which were created and sent to Europe, Guatemala and Peru. They were even sent as far as Asia as gifts but little
7747-533: The Nagual, individuals can break free from limiting beliefs and patterns of the Tonal. This energetic process allows for deep spiritual growth, healing, and a greater alignment with the higher purpose. The ultimate aim of Toltec spiritual practice is to create a balance between the Tonal and Nagual, leading to a state of "totality" where one is fully connected with both the material and energetic aspects of existence. Naguals use their powers for good or evil according to their personality. The general concept of nagualism
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#17328510815667874-457: The Nahuatl words for "blood" ( eztli ) and "to become enflamed with anger" or "to rise with anger" ( pitza ). Alternate translations for pitza make reference to blowing or playing instruments like the flute, which appear during the Tozcatl fest and may then have some relation with Tezcatlipoca himself. The term ezpitzal has since been translated as "flow of blood", but Rosado additionally points out
8001-493: The Purépecha, feathers were used similarly, for ceremonial shields, bucklers, doublets for the cazonci or ruler and feather ceremonial garments for priests, warriors and generals. To declare war, the Purépecha showed enemies wood covered in feathers and send highly prized green feathers to allies and potential allies. Soldiers who died in war were buried with feathers. Feathers from local and faraway sources were used, especially in
8128-752: The Tlamachayatl at the Ethnographic and Historical Museum in Rome and the Paño Novohispano at the Museo Textil de Oaxaca. All have feathers or feather pieces either embroidered onto or twisted into cotton. The Paño is a remnant of a huipil with feathers woven into the cloth, and is of a very similar design to the Malinche huipil. Church vestments, especially miters can be found in various collections in Europe including
8255-474: The arrival of the conquistadors, destined for Europe as well as Asia. The first known Christian-inspired pictures in feather work were made for banners, on a cotton cloth with an imprimatur , on which the design was made. They had a backing of very fine palm or rush mats bound with twine or vegetable lianas . The Huejotzingo Codex depicts the making of a feather and gold banner, the first indication of feather work with Christian images. At first, feather work
8382-590: The bird species of the land and the use of feather, with Hernán Cortés receiving among his gifts feathers from Moctezuma. As early as 1519, Cortés sent feathered shields, head adornments, and fans to Spain. In 1524, Diego de Soto returned to Spain from the New World. Among the gifts for King Charles V was artwork, including that made with feathers, such as shields with scenes of sacrifice, serpents, butterflies, birds and crests. In 1527, Cortés sent thirty eight pieces of what are identified as feather work to Asia. After
8509-413: The birds used to hide to eat. The most important of feathers in central Mexico were the long green feathers of the resplendent quetzal which were reserved for deities and the emperor. One reason for their rarity was that quetzals could not be domesticated as they died in captivity. Instead wild birds were caught, plucked and released. Other tropical birds were used as well. Bernardino de Sahagún made
8636-587: The bloody steps of the pyramid with dignity and pride." "The sacrifice itself marked the end of the drought." Immediately after he died a new victim for the next year's ceremony was chosen. Tezcatlipoca was also honoured during the ceremony of the ninth month, when the Miccailhuitontli "Little Feast of the Dead" was celebrated to honour the dead, as well as during the Panquetzaliztli "Raising of Banners" ceremony in
8763-421: The boys dedicated to the making of feather objects. The amanteca were a privileged class of craftsmen. They did not pay tribute nor were required to perform public service. They had a fair amount of autonomy in how they ran their businesses. Feather work was so highly prized that even sons of nobility learned something of it during their education. The sophistication of this art can be seen in pieces created before
8890-555: The creation of two mural panels, one with an Aztec serpent and the other with a Mayan serpent, copied from archeological pieces. It was done on black silk with quetzal feathers, gold, silver and silk threads. However, the fate of these works is not known. Similarly, garments made with feathers have also almost completely disappeared. The only vestige of this is the wedding huipil made by the Tzotzils in Zinacatlan, Chiapas. However, these have
9017-403: The cyclical nature they observed every day and every year was portrayed not through science or philosophical debate, but utter reverence and respect for the spiritual beings they believed were the cause of these events. It was gods like Tezcatlipoca that solidified this notion, representing both the silent wind, and thunderous war. Nagual In Mesoamerican and Toltec spiritual traditions,
9144-402: The deity exist, and common trends and symbols can be identified. One of the most recognizable iconographic details of Tezcatlipoca is his face paint, called mixchictlapanticac. Most commonly, he is shown with horizontal bands of black and yellow, though codices may vary in which two colors are depicted. Mary Miller has posited that the combination of yellow and black might be a connection to
9271-412: The depreciation of indigenous handiwork. Feather work, especially the creation of "mosaics" or "paintings" principally of religious images remained noted by Europeans until the 19th century, but by the 20th century, the little that remained had become a handcraft, despite efforts to revive it. Today, the most common feather objects are those made for traditional dance costumes, although mosaics are made in
9398-444: The earth monster Cipactli . The obsidian mirror may also appear on his chest, as a breastplate, and often is shown emanating smoke — a literal representation of his name and role. In the majority of representations, Tezcatlipoca bears the mirror in one hand, where it is surrounded by feathers of various colors. Tezcatlipoca often wears a headdress of feathers , flowers, and/or flint knives. His head could be additionally ornamented with
9525-653: The embodiment of change through conflict." A large and detailed depiction of Tezcatlipoca appears in the Codex Borgia carrying the 20 day signs of the calendar ; in the Codex Cospi he is shown as a spirit of darkness, as well as in the Codex Laud and the Dresden Codex . His cult was associated with royalty, and was the subject of the most lengthy and reverent prayers in the rites of kingship, as well as being mentioned frequently in coronation speeches. The temple of Tezcatlipoca
9652-532: The family works on reproductions of pre Hispanic images. Son Gabriel Olay Olay has created a large body of work in the technique and lives in Tlalpujahua , Michoacan. Four of his pieces are part of the collection of the Morelia Cultural Center and others in various museums in the state of Michoacan. His image of the Virgin of Guadalupe was given by Mexican president Luis Echeverría to Pope John XXIII and
9779-416: The feathers added to commercially made cotton thread, anchored to it as decoration. Thread spun with feathers is no longer made. One other notable piece was a reproduction of the "Montezuma headdress" made for the Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City . In the latter 20th-century, a number of artists tried to bring back the technique as an art form. Painter and tapestry weaver Carmen Padin began researching
9906-505: The feathers in the Mesoamerican period was made from orchid bulbs. Sometimes feathers were dyed, and sometimes fine lines or dots were painted on the feathers themselves. In some of the most precious of Aztec art, feathers were combined with gold and precious stones. Feather art needs to be protected from light, which fades the colors and from insects that eat them. Preservatives were made with several kinds of plants, but today commercial insecticides are used. One other way to use feathers
10033-455: The four corners there are Cyrillic characters repeated that have not been deciphered. The inscription FILIUS appears on the right when it should be on the left. No examples of pre Conquest feather fabric survive, and only a few survive from the colonial period. Important cloths of this type include two mantles from San Miguel Zinacantepec , the Huipil of La Malinche at the Museum of Anthropology,
10160-627: The four gods who created the world, Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl, Huitzilopochtli and Xipe Totec were referred to respectively as the Black, the White, the Blue and the Red Tezcatlipoca. The four Tezcatlipocas were the sons of Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl, lady and lord of the duality, and were the creators of all the other gods, as well as the world and all humanity. The rivalry between Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca
10287-435: The full length of his arms, the majority of his legs, or any combination thereof can be depicted. Later scholarship has identified the black material with which the god was supposedly painted as tezcatlipoctli. He is often depicted with various symbolic objects in place of his right foot, such as an obsidian mirror , bone, or a serpent. This is an allusion to the creation myth, in which Tezcatlipoca loses his foot battling with
10414-522: The gardener to the governor of Milan, who learned the technique and created reproductions of birds in his regions, as well as portraits of the actors of the Commedia dell'arte. Other artists such as Tommaso Ghisi and Jacopo Ligozzi used the technique as well to create works for the collections of the Medicis, Aldrovandi, Settala and Rudolf II of Prague. Ulisse Aldrovandi described the creation of feather mosaics as
10541-438: The god Tezcatlipoca was the protector of nagualism, because his tonal was the jaguar and he governed the distribution of wealth. In modern rural Mexico, nagual is sometimes synonymous with brujo ("wizard"); one who is able to shapeshift into an animal at night (normally into a dog , owl , bat , wolf or turkey ), drink blood from human victims, steal property, cause disease, and the like. In some indigenous communities
10668-482: The gods. Most were sung to praise the highest deities, including Tezcatlipoca, who was often addressed as the "Giver of Life". In one hymn, he is mentioned as being both the creator and destroyer of the world, and both as a poet and a scribe. Everyone, including commoners, high priests, and the king, were involved in some aspect of the Toxcatl ceremonies. Tezcatlipoca was often described as a rival of another important god of
10795-441: The highest position of Aztec nobility, the king, shown through the figurative and literal nakedness of his presence in front of Tezcatlipoca. The king would stand "naked, emphasizing his utter unworthiness", speaking as nothing but a vessel for the god's will. The new king would claim his spiritual nakedness symbolically through words and physical vulnerability, praising Tezcatlipoca with lines such as: O master, O our lord, O lord of
10922-601: The indigenous to be endowed with reason and able to fully participate in Catholic rites. It is probably the piece never made it to the Pope and its interim fate is unknown. However, it was rediscovered in 1987, when a second-hand clothes dealer took it to auction in Paris. Another notable work is from the 19th-century called San Lucas pintando a la Virgen, located in the Musée de l'Homme in Paris. It
11049-417: The jaguar, with which Tezcatlipoca is associated. Black is the foremost color associated with Tezcatlipoca, not only because of his role as a god of nighttime and darkness, but to differentiate him from the other three so-called Tezcatlipocas (Quetzalcoatl, Huitzilopoctli, and Xipe-Totec) and their respective colors (white, blue, and red). Which parts of his body are painted black varies by site; half of his leg,
11176-431: The land from her body. After that, they created the people, and people had to offer sacrifices to comfort Cipactli for her sufferings. Because of this, Tezcatlipoca is depicted with a missing foot. Following this, Tezcatlipoca turned himself into the sun. As a result of his transformation, this and all subsequent ages of humanity were referred to as the five suns . Quetzalcoatl was furious, so he knocked Tezcatlipoca out of
11303-481: The late 1980s she exhibited her work in Mexico City and several places in northern Mexico. One notable family that continues the technique as a handcraft is the Olay family. This tradition began when Gabriel Olay traveled with a mule train and hunted birds during his wanderings. Then an indigenous person taught him the basics of feather working. He developed his craft then passed it onto his children and grandchildren. Most of
11430-476: The latest), contain shapeshifters. The werewolf ( lycanthropy ) is neither the only nor the earliest form of folklorical therianthropy (shapeshifting from human to animal, or vice versa). Kaplan concludes that, in Oaxaca, the belief in naguals as evil, shape shifting witches is common in both indigenous and Mestizo populations. According to Kaplan, the belief in animal spirit companions is exclusively indigenous. This
11557-424: The likeness of Tezcatlipoca. This individual was called the teixiptla or "deity impersonator" and was chosen to ceremonially represent the god to the Aztec people. The teixiptla was usually selected from among captive warriors, and the chosen individual was bathed and ceremoniously cleansed for the role that he was to undertake. Sometimes, slaves were purchased for the ceremony. Benardino de Sahagún describes in
11684-478: The mid-19th century, lithography was introduced in Mexico and some prints were used as bases for feather work, which were then backed with sheet metal. In Puebla, this was a popular technique for folk figures such as the China Poblana. The last innovation in the craft was the use of photographs. One such work used a photograph of Juan Arriaga de Yturbe done by Monico Guzman Alvarez of Patzcuaro, done in 1895. By
11811-512: The most common in traditional dance costumes, followed by rooster, turkey and hen feathers. Despite their bright color, peacock feathers are rarely used. In most cases, the symbolic meaning of the feathers has been forgotten. One notable exception is the Huichols , who have maintained much of their original cosmology. Despite its popularity from in the late Mesoamerican period into the early colonial period, few vestiges with this technique survive into
11938-460: The most intricate examples coming from what is now central Mexico . One reason for this was their symbolic and religious use. Much of this symbolism arose with the spread of the worship of the Toltec god/king Quetzalcoatl , depicted as a serpent covered in quetzal feathers. Quetzalcoatl was said to have discovered gold, silver and precious stones. When he fled Tula , he released all kind of birds he
12065-613: The nagual is integrated into the religious hierarchy. The community knows who is a nagual, tolerating, fearing and respecting them. Nagualli are hired to remove curses cast by other nagualli. In other communities the accusation of nagualism may result in violent attacks on the accused by the community. The Western study of nagualism was initiated by archaeologist, linguist, and ethnologist Daniel Garrison Brinton who published Nagualism: A Study in Native-American Folklore and History , which chronicled historical interpretations of
12192-406: The nagual rituals. Mexican featherwork Mexican featherwork , also called "plumería", was an important artistic and decorative technique in the pre-Hispanic and colonial periods in what is now Mexico . Although feathers have been prized and feather works created in other parts of the world, those done by the amanteca or feather work specialists impressed Spanish conquerors, leading to
12319-404: The near, of the night, O night, O wind ... Poor am I. In what manner shall I act for thy city? In what manner shall I act for the governed, for the vassals (macehualtin)? For I am blind, I am deaf, I am an imbecile, and in excrement, in filth hath my lifetime been ... Perhaps thou mistaketh me for another; perhaps thou seekest another in my stead For kings, lords, priests, and citizens alike,
12446-405: The new king fasted and meditated, "which included prayers in honor of Tezcatlipoca, the patron deity of the royal house". Tezcatlipoca's priests were offered into his service by their parents as children, often because they were sick. These children would then have their skin painted black and be adorned with quail feathers in the image of the god. Sacred hymns were also chanted at ceremonies to honor
12573-497: The outer borders. By the nineteenth century, the craft all but disappeared with only some limited activity in Michoacán. Many were done with cheap, dyed feathers, smaller works with little artistic value. They, however, still attracted attention from visitors to Mexico. In 1803, Alexander von Humboldt visited Pátzcuaro and both a feather image of Our Lady of Health, which is now in a German museum. Her hands and face are in oil but
12700-585: The over 53 species of hummingbird found in Mexico. In Aztec society, the class that created feather objects was called the amanteca, named after the Amantla neighborhood in Tenochtitlan where they lived and worked. The amanteca had their own god, Coyotlinahual , who had companions called Tizaua , Mamiocelotl and Mamiltochtli . They also honored the female deities Xiuhtlati and Xilo . Daughters of amanteca generally became embroiderers and feather dyers, with
12827-455: The pictorial language of the church as the vestments themselves added a kind of power through their magnificence. Monastery schools in Mexico, especially those run by the Franciscans and Augustinians, taught feather work, especially the creation of feather mosaics. The skills of these artists remained important initially, even able to reproduce Latin calligraphy. One important example of this
12954-401: The pre Hispanic technique as possible, avoiding peacock and pheasant feathers as they are not native to Mexico. They use Campeche wax to affix the feathers and amate paper as the backing. Other workers with feathers include Juan Carlos Ortiz of Puebla who also creates feather mosaics, Jorge Castillo of Taxco who combines silver and feathers. The most common use of feathers in modern Mexico
13081-458: The realms of both the Tonal and Nagual. These spiritual guides play a crucial role in the Toltec path, helping others reach higher states of awareness. They have mastered the energetic forces of the Nagual, using their understanding to influence change, heal, and bring forth transformation. In this role, they connect people to their own spiritual potential, guiding them on the journey toward greater consciousness and freedom. The relationship between
13208-468: The recommendations of the Council of Trent and often to the dominant style. Feathered religious items were sent to Europe, including to several popes in Rome. A number of these were re-gifted to other nobles and for this reason can be found in various museums in various parts of Europe. Feather work became a popular item in the collection of kings, emperors, nobles, clergy, intellectuals and naturalists from
13335-508: The reign of the Aztec ruler Ahuizotl , richer feathers from tropical areas came to the Aztec Empire with quetzal and the finest feathers used by Moctezuma's reign. Feathers were used for ceremonial shields, and the garments of Aztec eagle warriors were completely covered in feathers. Feather work dressed idols and priests as well. Moctezuma asked the Purépecha for help against the Spanish by sending gifts that included quetzal feathers. Among
13462-497: The rest is in hummingbird feathers. Count Beltrani traveled in Mexico in 1830 and mentioned Michoacan feather work in his journals, obtaining two mosaics. Frances Calderon de la Barca noted that the mosaics of saints and angels were crude in drawing but exquisite in coloring. The nuns at the Santa Rosa Convent in Puebla were noted for their feather work in the 19th century, with several notable works still in existence. In
13589-457: The sense of rage and violence the ezpitzal is meant to signify—an element which points to Tezcatlipoca's nature and his role as a god of conflict. The ezpitzal is one or more streams of blood shown emanating from Tezcatlipoca's head, sometimes accompanied by the symbol for a flint knife or a heart. In some cases, the idea of the ezpitzal was artistically transformed into a headband or garland, adorned with flowers or stones. The frontispiece of
13716-404: The service of Tezcatlipoca, one of them likely being the one Sahagún calls " huitznahuac teohua omacatl ". Others were the calmeca teteuctin who were allowed to eat the ritual food offered to Tezcatlipoca, still more accompanied the impersonator of Tezcatlipoca in the year prior to his execution. Honoring Tezcatlipoca was fundamental to both the priesthood and the nobility. "On his installation",
13843-402: The sky with a stone club. Angered, Tezcatlipoca turned into a jaguar and destroyed the world. Quetzalcoatl, then, replaced him as the sun and started the second age of the world, and it became populated again. Tezcatlipoca overthrew Quetzalcoatl, forcing him to send a great wind that devastated the world, and the people who survived were turned into monkeys. Tlaloc , the god of rain, then became
13970-400: The stairs to the top of the temple on his own where the priests seized him, a time in which he proceeded to symbolically crush "one by one the clay flutes on which he had played in his brief moment of glory", and then was sacrificed, his body being eaten later. The young man would approach this sacrifice willingly, as being sacrificed in this manner was a great honor. "Sacrificial victims mounted
14097-453: The state of Michoacán , and feather trimmed huipils are made in the state of Chiapas . The use of feather for decorative purposes has been documented in many parts of the world in the past. In the New World , it is known to have had ceremonial use and ranking purposes, especially in attire in what are now Brazil and Peru . In Mesoamerica , their use became highly developed with some of
14224-462: The sun. But he had his wife stolen away by Tezcatlipoca. Angered in turn, he would not make it rain for several years until, in a fit of rage, he made it rain fire. The few people who survived the assault turned into the birds. Chalchiuhtlicue the Water Goddess then became the sun. However, she was crushed by Tezcatlipoca's accusation that she only pretended to be kind. She cried for many years and
14351-469: The symbol for smoke. Heron feathers or balls of eagle down, like that from which Huitzilopochtli was born, often adorned his head, clothing, and shield. He variably wore earrings, necklaces, bracelets, and other jewelry, all rendered in precious materials like gold and jade . A motif of skulls and crossbones is recorded appearing in some pictures, but likely would have followed the European popularization of such
14478-467: The technique after hearing Fernando Gamboa lament its loss. From 1979 to 1981, she exhibited her work in various cities of Mexico which included robes, capes, shields and collages. However, she had to stop by the 1990s because of the difficulty of obtaining feathers. Josefina Ortega Salcedo became attracted to the technique after reading about it in the Artes de México magazine. She studied drawing and painting at
14605-572: The temples associated with Tezcatlipoca are built facing east–west, as Olivier quotes Felipe Solis: "the sacred building of the war god [Tezcatlipoca] was in direct relation with the movement of the sun, in the same manner of the Great Temple was, their façades being towards the West". There are also several references to momoztli . Although the exact definition of the momoztli is unknown, with definitions varying from "mound", "stone seat" and "temple", there
14732-523: The time had well developed techniques to play with light. Mexican expertise was valued as well. Even though there was feather art also made in Asia, it was not as valued in the 16th and 17th century as that from Mexico. Feather work and the conquest led to a creative exchange from the conquest to about 1800. Evangelism added Christian themes to feather work, including the making of ritual items. Amantecas were creating Christian religious images within months after
14859-886: The word and those who practiced nagualism in Mexico in 1894. He identified various beliefs associated with nagualism in modern Mexican communities such as the Mixe , the Nahua , the Zapotec and the Mixtec . Subsequently, many studies have described nagualism in different Mesoamerican cultures such as the Zoques and the Jakaltek , K'iche' , Q'eqchi' , and Tzeltal Maya . Among the Jacaltek, naguals reinforce indigenism by punishing those who collaborate with non-indigenous Ladinos . In 1955, Gustavo Correa suggested nagualism
14986-415: The world was destroyed by the resulting floods. Those who survived the deluge were turned into fish. According to Aztec belief, Tezcatlipoca had a great many associations: the night sky , night winds, hurricanes , the north, the earth, obsidian , hostility, discord, rulership, divination , temptation, jaguars , sorcery, beauty, war , and conflict. His main temple in Tenochtitlan was located south of
15113-410: The years, the feathers became smaller, the compositions more harmonious and the designs more subtle with the additions of gold leaf, gold foil and colored brushwork. The basic imagery was European but the edging shows traces of pre Hispanic designs. The iconography of feather art images focused on founders and patron saints, along with figures related to the various religious orders. These always followed
15240-578: Was breeding. The Aztec main god, Huitzilopochtli , is associated with the hummingbird . His origin is from ball of fine feathers that fell on his mother, Coatlicue , and impregnated her. He was born fully armed with an eagle feather shield, fine plumage in his head and on his left sandal. Feathers were valued similarly to jade and turquoise in Mesoamerica. They were considered to have magical properties as symbols of fertility, abundance, riches and power and those who used them were associated with divine powers. Evidence of use goes back at least as far as
15367-418: Was dressed in the likeness of the god and people on the streets would worship him as such when encountered. "For one year he lived a life of honor," the handsome young man "worshipped literally as the embodiment of the deity". During the last 20 days before being sacrificed, the teixiptla had their appearance transformed back to that of a warrior. "He had been a warrior who was captured, and he ended his life as
15494-466: Was in the Great Precinct of Tenochtitlan . In one of the Aztec accounts of creation, Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca joined forces to create the world. Before their act there was only the sea and the primordial, crocodilian earth monster called Cipactli . To attract her, Tezcatlipoca used his foot as bait for Cipactli, and she, in turn, ate it. The two gods then captured her, and distorted her to make
15621-552: Was most likely made for an image as it looks like the one for Quetzalcoatl depicted in the Codex Magliabechiano . The original is in the Museum of Ethnology in Vienna. A replica made with authentic techniques was made for the Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City. Because of the sending of many fine feather mosaics to Europe, a number of important pieces are located in museums and other collections on that continent. The oldest feather piece created by Christian indigenous workers
15748-986: Was suppressed by the Spanish as part of their efforts to eradicate the old religion. However, they soon changed tactics and employed the feather workers to create Christian images. These new works are called "feather mosaics" because of the small pieces of feathers used, and most are in the Baroque style then favored, as the artists copied images brought from Spain. After the Conquest, hummingbird feathers were used to adorn images of Christ in Michoacan, such as agave yarn sandals in hummingbird feathers made in Tzintzuntzan . Indian craftsmen made and offered crosses and candlesticks adorned with green feathers called quezalli. Small scale feather images and pendants serving as protective amulets were also made. The 16th-century mosaics were made with different sized feathers combined with paper strips. Over
15875-438: Was the creation of garments either decorated with feathers or with thread which was created by spinning cotton and feather shreds. The garments of eagle warriors were completely covered in feathers. Fabric made of the latter was favored by the nobility, both men and women which distinguished them from commoners. Little is known how feathers were incorporated into fabric in the Mesoamerican period. The only vestige of this practice
16002-465: Was to cover themselves in black soot or ground charcoal while they were involved in priestly activities at the temple or during rituals. They would also cover the sick and newly appointed king in a similar manner with a black ointment to encourage an association with the god. When the ritual called for it, priests would also dress up as Tezcatlipoca himself and accompany other similarly outfitted gods or goddesses. Several types of priests were dedicated to
16129-400: Was to secure the feathers in place using agave cord for three-dimensional objects such as fly whisks, fans, bracelets, headgear and other objects. The second and more difficult was a mosaic type technique, which the Spanish also called "feather painting." These were done principally on feather shields and cloaks for idols. Feather mosaics were arrangements of minute fragments of feathers from
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